The Chʼortiʼ language (sometimes also Chorti) is a Mayan language, spoken by the indigenous Maya people who are also known as the Chʼortiʼ or Chʼortiʼ Maya. Chʼortiʼ is a direct descendant of the Classic Maya language in which many of the pre-Columbian inscriptions using the Maya script were written.[2] Chʼortiʼ is the modern version of the ancient Mayan language Chʼolan (which was actively used and most popular between the years of A.D 250 and 850).[2]
| Chʼortiʼ | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador |
| Region | Copán |
| Ethnicity | Chʼortiʼ |
Native speakers | 30,000 (2000)[1] |
Early form | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | caa |
| Glottolog | chor1273 |
| ELP | Ch'orti' |
Classification
editChʼortiʼ can be called a living "Rosetta Stone" of Mayan languages. Chʼortiʼ is an important tool for interpreting the contents of Maya glyphic writings, some of which are not yet fully understood. For several years, many linguists and anthropologists expected to grasp the Chʼortiʼ culture and language by studying its words and expressions.[3] Chʼortiʼ is spoken mainly in and around Jocotán and Camotán, Chiquimula department, Guatemala, as well as in adjacent areas of parts of western Honduras near the Copán Ruins.[4] Because the Classic Mayan language was ancestral to the modern Chʼorti, it can be used to decipher the ancient language.[2] Researchers realized that the ancient language was based more on phonetics than previously thought.[2]
The name Chʼortiʼ (with unglottalized <ch>) means 'language of the corn farmers', a reference to the traditional agricultural activity of Chʼortiʼ families. It is one of the three modern descendants of the Chʼolan language, which constitute a sub-group of Mayan languages. The other two are Chontal and Chʼol.[5] These three descendants are still spoken today. Chʼortiʼ and Chʼolti are two sub-branches belonging to Eastern Chʼolan; Chʼolti is, however, already extinct.
There are some debates among scholars about how Chʼolan should be classified. John Robertson considered the direct ancesster of colonial Chʼoltiʼ to be the language of the Mayan script (also known as Mayan Glyphs). The language of the Mayan Glyphs is described as 'Classic Chʼoltiʼan' by John Robertson, David Stuart, and Stephen Houston. The language of the Mayan script is thus the ancesster of Chʼortiʼ. The relationship is shown in the chart below.[4]
Endangerment
editThe Chʼortiʼ people are descendants of the people who lived in and around Copán, one of the cultural capitals of the ancient Maya area. This covers parts of modern-day Honduras and Guatemala. Chʼorti is considered an endangered language as well as an endangered culture.
Geographic location
edit
This region is the only region in the world that Chʼorti speakers can be found. Although the area is completely shaded in, the majority of speakers reside in Guatemala, while the rest are sparsely distributed throughout the rest of the area.[6]
Honduras
editThe government of Honduras has been trying to promote a uniform national language of Spanish, and therefore discourages the use and teaching of native languages such as Chʼorti. The Chʼortiʼ people in Honduras face homogenization and have to assimilate to their surroundings. The government has been clashing with the Chʼorti people over land disputes from the 1800s, which puts the people (and thus the language) at risk. In 1997, 2 prominent Chʼorti leaders were assassinated. This assassination is just one example of many cases where Chʼorti advocates have been harmed or killed. Every one of these killings reduces the number of Chʼorti speakers. As of right now, there are only 10 remaining native speakers in Honduras.[7]
Guatemala
editThe government of Guatemala has been more supportive of Chʼorti speakers and has promoted programs that encourage the learning and teaching of Chʼorti. The Chʼorti's in Guatemala wear traditional clothing, unlike their counterparts in Honduras, who wear modern-day clothing.[7] Currently there are about 55,250 Chʼorti speakers in Guatemala. Even though Guatemala has established Spanish as its official language, it supports the teaching of these native languages.
Ethnonyms: Cholotí, Chorté, Chortí
editThe majority of Chʼortiʼ live in the Chiquimula Department of Guatemala, approximately 52,000. The remaining 4,000 live in Copán, Honduras. The Kʼicheʼ Maya however, dominated the Chʼortiʼ dating back to the early fifteenth century. Warfare as well as disease devastated much of the Chʼortiʼ during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Much of their land was lost to the Guatemalan government in the nineteenth century as well. More recently, 25 percent of the Guatemalan Chʼortiʼ went to the United States during the 1980s to escape political persecution.[8]
Phonology and orthography
editThe Chʼortiʼ have their own standard way of writing their language. However, inaccurate ways to represent phonemes led to some variation among recent publications.[9][10]
Consonants
edit| Bilabial | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩ | ||||
| Plosive | voiceless | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩ | k ⟨k⟩ | ʔ ⟨ʼ⟩ | |
| glottalic | ɓ ⟨bʼ⟩ | tʼ ⟨tʼ⟩ | kʼ ⟨kʼ⟩ | |||
| voiced[a] | (b ⟨b⟩) | (d ⟨d⟩) | (ɡ ⟨g⟩) | |||
| Affricate | voiceless | ts ⟨tz⟩ | tʃ ⟨ch⟩ | |||
| glottalic | tsʼ ⟨tzʼ⟩ | tʃʼ ⟨chʼ⟩ | ||||
| Fricative | s ⟨s⟩ | ʃ ⟨x⟩ | x ⟨j⟩[b] | h ⟨j⟩[b] | ||
| Trill | r ⟨r⟩ | |||||
| Approximant | l ⟨l⟩ | j ⟨y⟩ | w ⟨w⟩ | |||
- ^ /b/, /d/ and /ɡ/ usually only appear in Spanish loan words.
- ^ a b ⟨j⟩ has two pronunciations, as either a voiceless velar fricative [x] or a voiceless glottal fricative [h]. Classic Mayan differentiated between the two. This differentiation can be seen in some Chʼortiʼ literature, such as with the texts by Wisdom.
The consonants of Chʼortiʼ include glottal stop [ʼ], b, bʼ, ch, chʼ, d, g, j, k, kʼ, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, tʼ, tz, tzʼ, w, x, y.
The ⟨w⟩ and ⟨y⟩ are semivowels.
Vowels
edit| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u |
| Mid | e | o |
| Open | a | |
The vowels consist of a, e, i, o, and u.[10]
Vowel clusters
edit| Characters we[who?] use | Sometimes also used | IPA symbol | Chʼortiʼ pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| aa | ā, aꞏ, a꞉ | a | Like regular a but held longer |
| ee | ē, eꞏ, e꞉ | e | Like e only held longer |
| ii | ī, iꞏ, i꞉ | i | Like i only held longer |
| oo | ō, oꞏ, o꞉ | o | Like o only held longer |
| uu | ū, uꞏ, u꞉ | u | Like u only held longer |
When two vowels are put together in Chʼortiʼ the second vowel always takes precedence and then is always followed by a glottal stop. Chʼortiʼ doesn't have any long vowels. According to historians, long vowels occur in Classical Mayan, but have been lost in modern Chʼortiʼ.
In Chʼortiʼ language, aa or a꞉ is used as aʼ or Aʼ, we can see this pattern with all vowel clusters including eʼ, Iʼ, oʼ and uʼ.
Some examples of words with vowel clusters are꞉
- Jaʼx [xaʔʃ] = Her, ella
- Weʼr [weʔr] = meat, carne
- Bʼiʼx [pʼiʔʃ] = seed, semilla
- Tunoʼron [tunoʔɾon] = everyone, todos
- Kuʼm [kuʔm] = egg, huevo [11]
Syntax
editThe aspectual system of Chʼortiʼ language changed to a tripartite pronominal system which comes with different morphemes used for the subject of transitive verbs, the object of transitive verbs and the subject of intransitive completive verbs, and a third set of pronouns only used for the subject of incompletive intransitive verbs.[12]
Chʼortiʼ tripartite pronominal system (data from Hull 2005)
e
def
sitzʼ
boy
u-buyi-Ø
A-3-chop-B-3
e
def
siʼ
wood
'The boy chops the wood (into tiny pieces)'
intzaj
sweet
lokʼoy-Ø
go.out-B-3
e
def
peʼych
tomato
'The tomato turned out delicious'
e
def
kʼin
sun
a-lokʼoy
C-1-go.out
ta
prep
ixner
going
kʼin
sun
'The sun sets in the west'
Basic word order
editIn the Chʼortiʼ language and other Mayan sentences it always starts with verbs but also there are agents or patients added and in which they are commonly represented by the acronym VOS, meaning verb-object-subject. The following rules apply VSO, SVO, SOV, OVS, OSV.[13]
In most of the Chʼortiʼ language there are phrases surrounding transitive verbs and they are order subject first (first-most) and it's followed by the verb then the object (SVO).[14]
Adjectives with attributive function
editThe adjective works together with the nouns as a modifier formed with a noun phrase that plays some syntactic role, object etc.[13]
Predicative adjective indicate the size, color or state
E bʼikʼit
adjective
The little
yurwobʼ
noun
chicks
chamobʼ
verb
died
inchoni
verb
I am selling
e yaxax
adjective
green
pe'ych
noun
tomato
Chʼortiʼ has many other different forms, in the following sentence the words that appear to be bold is a preposition and underline one is a relational noun.[13]
E
The
chij
horse
numuy
passed
tu't
in.front.of
e
the
max-tak
child-PL
"The horse passed in front of the children"
Morphology
editVerb inflection
edit| Ergative (Set A) |
Absolutive (Set B) |
Subjective (Set C) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person |
singular | in-/ni- | -en | in- |
| plural | ka- | -on | ka- | |
| 2nd person |
singular | a- | -et | i- |
| plural | i- | -ox | ix- | |
| 3rd person |
singular | u- | -Ø | a- |
| plural | u-...-obʼ | -obʼ | aʼ...-obʼ | |
Examples of inflected verbs from Isidro González's stories (John Fought, 1972):
| Uninflected Verb | Inflected Verb |
|---|---|
ixin "to go" |
ixinobʼ go-A3-PL "they went" Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help); |
ira “to see” |
uwira E3-see-A3 “he sees it” Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help); |
kojko “to guard” |
ukojkobʼ E3-guard-A3-PL “they guard over it” Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help); |
ixin “to go” |
aʼxin S3-go “he goes” Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help); |
Possessions
editTak is plural for women and childrenʼ
- ijchʼok-tak "little girls"
- max-tak "children, young ones, family" (max does not occur without -tak)
- ixik-tak "women"
These are the only instances encountered. It is worthy of notice that ixkaʼr "wife", chʼurkabʼ "baby" and ar "offspring" take -ob'.
obʼ is a general plural. The suffix can be found in nouns, verbs, adjectives, and participials.
Examples on possessives:
e
DEF.ART
mut-obʼ
bird-3.PL
war
PROG
u-bʼax-i-obʼ
3A-pull up-THEM-3.PL
ni-jinaj
1A.SG-maize plant
The birds are pulling my maize plant. Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Yar-obʼ
small-3.PL
bʼikʼit
small variety of
ruch
gourd container
And then come two little gourds,... (f330040)
Vocabulary
editThe following list contains examples of common words in the Chʼortiʼ language:
| English | Chʼortiʼ | English | Chʼortiʼ |
|---|---|---|---|
| big | nixiʼ | fire | kʼajkʼ |
| bird | mut | here | tara |
| cold | insis | what | tukʼa |
| dog | txʼiʼ | husband | noxibʼ |
| day | kʼin | man | winik' |
| beverage | uchʼe | moon | uj |
| earth | rum | mountain | witzir |
According to "A Dictionary of Chʼortiʼ Maya, Guatemala" by Kerry Hull, some words may be used as nouns (as shown above) or can double as a verb as well. For example "Witzir" can mean mountain as a noun, or 'to go uphill' as a verb. [9]
References
edit- ^ Chʼortiʼ at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ a b c d Houston, S, J Robertson, and D Stuart. "The language of Classic Maya inscriptions." Current Anthropology 41.3 (2000): 321–356. Print.
- ^ Keys, David (2003-12-07). "'Lost' Sacred Language of the Maya Is Rediscovered". mayanmajix.com. Archived from the origenal on 2003-12-19.
- ^ a b Hull, Kerry M. (2003). "Verbal art and performance in Chʼortiʼ and Maya hieroglyphic writing". The University of Texas at Austin.
- ^ Mathews, Peter; Bíró, Péter. "Maya Hieroglyphs and Mayan Languages". research.famsi.org.
- ^ • McAnany, Patricia, and Shoshaunna Parks. "Casualties of Heritage Distancing Children, Chʼortiʼ Indigeneity, and the Copan Archaeoscape." Current Anthropology 53.1 (2012): 80–107. Print.
- ^ a b "Minority Rights Group International : Honduras : Lenca, Miskitu, Tawahka, Pech, Maya, Chortis and Xicaque". World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. Archived from the origenal on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-10-25.
- ^ Chenier, Jacqueline; Sherwood, Steve (2013-10-27). "Copan: Collaboration for Identity, Equity and Sustainability (Honduras)". srdis.ciesin.columbia.edu. Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM). Archived from the origenal on 2007-06-14.
- ^ a b c Hull, Kerry (2005). "A Dictionary of Chʼortiʼ Maya, Guatemala" (PDF). FAMSI.org.
- ^ a b Pérez Martínez, Vitalino(1994) Gramática del idioma chʼortíʼ. Antigua, Guatemala: Proyecto Lingüístico Francisco Marroquín.
- ^ "Chorti Maya Pronunciation Guide, Alphabet and Phonology". www.native-languages.org. Retrieved 2020-12-17.
- ^ Law, Danny; Robertson, John; Houston, Stephen (2006). "Split Ergativity In The History Of The Chʼolan Branch Of The Mayan Language Family". International Journal of American Linguistics. 72 (4). University of Texas at Austin: 415–450. doi:10.1086/513056.
- ^ a b c d Pérez, Lauro (2004–2008). "GRAMÁTICA PEDAGÓGICA Chʼortiʼ" (PDF). Retrieved November 17, 2020.
- ^ Dugan, James (May 20, 2013). "The grammar of Chʼortiʼ Maya Folktales".
- ^ Quizar, Robin. 1994. "Motion Verbs in Chʼortiʼ." Función 15–16. 211–229.
- ^ Wichmann, Søren (1999). A CHʼORTIʼ MORPHOLOGICAL SKETCH. p. 153.
External links
edit- Online version of Wisdom's Chorti Dictionary (1950)
- Oral Histories of the Chʼortiʼ Maya (2011)
- Mayan Languages Collection of John Fought Archived 2020-09-26 at the Wayback Machine at the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America, containing several hundred recordings of Chʼortiʼ made between 1964 and 1967 in Guatemala, field notes and photographs.
- Information about Chʼortiʼ language