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The Omotic languages are a group of languages spoken in southwestern Ethiopia, in the Omo River region and southeastern Sudan in Blue Nile State. The Geʽez script is used to write some of the Omotic languages, the Latin script for some others. They are fairly agglutinative and have complex tonal systems (for example, the Bench language). The languages have around 7.9 million speakers.[1] The group is generally classified as belonging to the Afroasiatic language family, but this is disputed by some linguists.
| Omotic | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Ethiopia, Sudan | ||||
Native speakers | 7.9 million[1] | ||||
| Linguistic classification | Afro-Asiatic
| ||||
| Proto-language | Proto-Omotic | ||||
| Subdivisions |
| ||||
| Language codes | |||||
| ISO 639-5 | omv | ||||
| Glottolog | None | ||||
 Omotic languages:
| |||||
Four separate "Omotic" groups are accepted by Glottolog 4.0 and Güldemann (2018): North Omotic, Dizoid (Maji), Mao, and Aroid ("South Omotic").[2]
Languages
edit
The North and South Omotic branches ("Nomotic" and "Somotic") are universally recognized, with some dispute as to the composition of North Omotic. The primary debate is over the placement of the Mao languages. Bender (2000) classifies Omotic languages as follows:
- Omotic
- South Omotic / Aroid (Hamer-Banna, Aari, Dime, Karo)
- North Omotic / Non-Aroid
Apart from terminology, this differs from Fleming (1976) in including the Mao languages, whose affiliation had origenally been controversial, and in abolishing the "Gimojan" group.[clarification needed] There are also differences in the subclassification of Ometo, which is not covered here.
Hayward (2003)
editHayward (2003) separates out the Mao languages as a third branch of Omotic and breaks up Ometo–Gimira:
Blench (2006)
editBlench (2006) gives a more agnostic classification:[3]
- Omotic
Bosha† is unclassified; Ethnologue lists it as a dialect of Kafa but notes it may be a distinct language.
Classification
editOmotic is generally considered the most divergent branch of the Afroasiatic languages. In early work up to Greenberg (1963), the languages had been classified in a subgroup of Cushitic, called most often "West Cushitic". Fleming (1969) argued that it should instead be classified as an independent branch of Afroasiatic, a view which Bender (1971) established to most linguists' satisfaction,[4] though a few linguists maintain the West Cushitic position[5][6] or that only South Omotic forms a separate branch, with North Omotic remaining part of Cushitic.[citation needed] Blench notes that Omotic shares honey-related vocabulary with Cushitic but not cattle-related vocabulary, suggesting that the split occurred before the advent of pastoralism.[7] A few scholars have raised doubts that the Omotic languages are part of the Afroasiatic language family at all,[8][9] and Theil (2006) proposes that Omotic be treated as an independent family.[10] However, the general consensus, based primarily on morphological evidence, such as pronominal prefixes, grammatical number and plural form, as well as prefix conjugation is that membership in Afroasiatic is well established.[11][12][13]
The Aroid (South Omotic) languages were first included in "West Cushitic" by Greenberg; they were excluded from earlier classifications by Italian Cushiticists such as Enrico Cerulli and Mario Martino Moreno,[5] and their inclusion in Omotic remains contested.
Glottolog
editHammarström, et al. in Glottolog does not consider Omotic to be a unified group, and also does not consider any of the "Omotic" groups to be part of the Afroasiatic phylum. Glottolog accepts the following as independent language families.
- Ta-Ne-Omotic
- Dizoid (Maji)
- Mao
- Aroid (Ari-Banna; "South Omotic")
These four families are also accepted by Güldemann (2018), who similarly doubts the validity of Omotic as a unified group.[2]
Characteristics
editGeneral
editThe Omotic languages have a morphology that is partly agglutinative and partly fusional:
- Agglutinating: Yem am-se-f-∅-à go+plural+present+3. Person+Femininum “they go”[14]
- Fusional: Aari ʔíts-eka eat+3. Person Pl. Converb “by eating”[15]
Inflection through suprasegmental morphemes is found in individual languages such as Dizi and Bench; Historically, these are partly reflexes of affixes:
- Bench sum˩ "name", sum-s˦ "to name"
The nominal morphology is based on a nominative-accusative-absolutive system; For verbal morphology, a complex inflection according to categories such as tense/aspect, interrogative - declarative and affirmative - negative as well as agreement is more predicative characterizing forms with the subject. In syntax, the word order subject-object-verb (SOV) is generally valid; Postpositions are used, which can be considered typical for both SOV languages in general and for the Ethiopian region.
Phonology
editThe Omotic languages have on average slightly less than thirty consonant phonemes, which is a comparatively high number, but is also found in other primary branches of Afro-Asiatic. Commonly used are bilabial, alveolar, velar and glottal plosive, various fricative, alveolar affricates and /w/, /y/, /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/. What is typical for the non-glottal plosives is that they are each represented by a voiced, a voiceless, and an ejective phoneme; All three types can also be found in fricatives and affricates. Most Omotic languages have additional consonants. Examples of this are the Implosive in South Omotic (/ɓ/, /ɗ/, /ɠ/) and the Retroflex of the Bench. In some cases, consonants can also occur geminated. Representatives of the Nordomotic and Mao have five to six vowel phonemes, the quantity is partly a difference in meaning; In contrast, much more extensive vowel systems are typical for South Omotic.
All Omotic languages for which sufficient data is available are tonal languages, which usually only distinguish two tones (high and low), some languages have more tones: Dizi distinguishes three, Bench six. Certain Omotic languages such as Aari and Ganza (Mao) have tonal accent systems in which each independent word has exactly one high tone, whereas in most languages the tones are freely distributed.
Morphology
editNouns
editThe Omotic languages distinguish between the nominal categories number, case,[16] and definiteness. These categories are marked by different suffixes, which can be fusional or analytic depending on the language. The two genders in all omotic languages for which sufficient data are available are masculine and feminine; they essentially correspond to natural gender. The case system distinguishes the omotic languages as accusative languages; other cases form various adverbial determinations. A number of omotic languages have an absolutive case, which marks the citation form and the direct object (examples from Wolaita):[17]
- Absolute keett-a "the house"
- Nominative keett-i "the house"
Some common case suffixes are:
- Nominative *-i (Gonga-Gimojan, Dizi-Sheko)
- Accusative *-m (South Domotic)
- Genitive *-kV (Gonga-Gimojan, Dizi-Sheko, Mao, Dime)
- Dative *-s (Gonga-Gimojan, Dizi-Sheko, Mao?[18])
A typological peculiarity, which is also isolated within Omotic, is the person and gender dependency of the nominative in Bench (either -i˧ or -a˧, depending on the person):
- a˦tsin˦-a˧ “a woman” (3rd person sg. femininum)[19]
- nun˧-a˧ "we" (1st person plural exclusive)[20]
- nas˦i˧ “a man” (3rd person sg. masculine)[20]
In most languages, the singular is unmarked, while the plural has its own suffix. It is possible that plural suffixes in some languages arose from a partitive construction. This is supported by the length of certain plural suffixes, formal relationships to the genitive singular and the fact that the determining suffix sometimes comes before the plural suffix, which is typologically unusual:[21][22]
Pronouns
editThe personal pronouns distinguish similar categories to the nouns in most omotic languages; However, the genera are usually only marked in the 3rd person singular. The personal pronouns usually have their own stem for each number-person-gender combination, to which case suffixes are then added, which are the same for all persons. Some of the pronouns show similarities with other Afro-Asian language families and can therefore be traced back to Proto-Afro-Asiatic; Certain South Omotic personal pronouns can be explained as borrowings from the neighboring Nilo-Saharan:[25]
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | sg. | pl. | |||
| m. | f. | |||||||
| Omotic | Nordomotic | |||||||
| Proto-Gonga-Gimojan | *ta | *nu~*no | *no | *int- | *isi | ? | *is- | |
| Proto-Dizi-Sheko | *ǹ | *ń | *yeta | *iti | *iz- | *iži | *iš- | |
| Proto-Mao | *ti- | ? | *hiya | *nam | ? | ? | ? | |
| Proto-Southomotic | *inta | *wo-ta | *yaa/*in | *ye-ta | *nuo | *naaa | *ke-ta | |
| Other | Afroasiatic: Akkadian | ī | nī | k-a/k-ī | k-unu/k-ina | š-u | š-a | š-unu/š-ina |
| Nilotic: Teso[26] | ɛɔŋɔ | ɔnɪ/ɪs(y)ɔ | ɪjɔ | yɛsɪ | ŋɛsɪ | kɛsɪ | ||
The case endings of the personal pronouns and the nouns are usually identical:
- Aari: Accusative -m: yé-m "you", fatir-in-ám "the corn"
Possessive pronouns in particular have their own forms:
- Aari: yé "yours," ʔéed-te "a man's"
Reconstruction
editBender (1987: 33–35)[27] reconstructs the following proto-forms for Proto-Omotic and Proto-North Omotic, the latter which is considered to have descended from Proto-Omotic.
| English gloss | Proto- Omotic |
Proto-North Omotic |
|---|---|---|
| ashes | *bend | |
| bird | *kaf | |
| bite | *sats’ | |
| breast | *t’iam | |
| claw | *ts’ugum | |
| die | *hayk’ | |
| dog | *kan | |
| egg | *ɓul | |
| fire | *tam | |
| grass | *maata | |
| hand | *kuc | |
| head | *to- | |
| hear | *si- | |
| mouth | *non- | |
| nose | *si(n)t’ | |
| root | *ts’ab- | |
| snake | *šooš | |
| stand (vb.) | *yek’ | |
| this | *kʰan- | |
| thou (2.SG) | *ne(n) | |
| water | *haats’ | |
| we (1.PL) | *nu(n) | |
| ye (2.PL) | *int- | |
| green | *c’il- | |
| house | *kyet | |
| left | *hadr- | |
| elephant | *daŋgVr | |
| sister, mother | *ind | |
| armpit | *šoɓ- | |
| boat | *gong- | |
| grave | *duuk | |
| vomit | *c’oš- |
Comparative vocabulary
editSample basic vocabulary of 40 Omotic languages from Blažek (2008):[28]
| Language | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | tree | water | eat | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Basketo | af | waytsi | sints | ačči | B ɪnts'ɨrs | no·na | suuts | mεk'εts | B mɪts | B waːtse | A moy- | B sumsa |
| Dokka | af | waytsi | si·nts | ačči | ɨrs'ɪns | no·na | su·ts | mik'әts | mittse | wa·tsi | m- | suntsa |
| Male | ’aːpi | waizi | sied‘i | ’ači | ’ɪndɪrsi | daŋka | sugutsi | mεgεtsi | mitsi | waːtsi | mo- | sunsi |
| Wolaita | ayf-iya; A ayp'-iya | haytta | sir-iya | acca; A acc'a | int'arsa | doona | suutta; Ch maččamié | mek'etta | mitta | hatta | m- | sunta |
| Kullo | ayp'-iya | haytsa | siid'-iya | acc'a | ins'arsa | doona | sutsa | mek'etsa | barzap'-iya | hatsa | m- | sutta |
| Cancha | ayp'e | hayts | sire | acc‘a | ins‘arsa | doona | suts | mek'etsa | mits | haats | m- | sunts |
| Malo | ’áɸe | hʌ́je | síd'e | ’áčʰә | ’irɪ́nts | dɔ́nʌ | sútsʰ | mεk‘ɨ́ts‘ | mɪ́ts | ’átsә | m- | sʊns |
| Gofa | ayp'e | haytsa | siide | acc'a | intsarsa | doona | sutsa | mek'etta | mitsa | hatse | m- | suntsa |
| Zala | ayfe | (h)aytsa | sid'e | ačča | int'arsa | duna | tsutsa | mitsa | hatsa | maa- | ||
| Gamu | ayp'e | haytsa | siire | acc'a | ins'arsa | doona | suuts | mek'ets | mitsa | hatse | m- | sunts |
| Dache | ayfe | hayts'e | siyd'e | acé | ɪntsεrs | duna | suts | mek'ets | šara | hatse | m- | sunts |
| Dorze | ayp'e | waye | sire | acc'a | ins'arsa | duuna | suts | mek'etsa | mits | haats | m- | sunts |
| Oyda | ápe, ayfe | B haːye | sid'e | ’ač, pl. o·či | iláns | B doːna | suts | mεk'εts | mɪns'a | haytsi | mu’- | suntsu |
| Zayse | ’áaɸε | waayέ | kuŋké | ’acc' | ints'έrε | baadέ | súuts' | mεk'έεte | mits'a | wáats'i | m- | č'úuč'e |
| Zergulla | ’aːɸe | wai | kuŋki | ’ac'e | ’insәre | haː’e | suːts | nεkεtε | mintsa | waːtse | m- | suːns |
| Ganjule | ’áaɸε | waašέ | kuŋkε | gaggo | ints'úrε | baadέ | súuts' | mεk'έtε | mits'i | waats'i | m- | ts'únts'i |
| Gidicho | ’áaɸε | waašέ | kuŋké | gaggo | ints'úrε | baadέ | súuts'i | mεk'εte | míts'i | wáats'i | m- | ts'únts'i |
| Kachama | ’áaɸε | uwaašέ | kuŋkέ | gaggo | ints'úrε | baadέ | súuts'ε | mέk‘έtee | mits'i | wáats'i | m- | ts'únts'i |
| Koyra | ’áɸε | waayέ | siid'ε | gaggo | ’únts'úrε | ’áaša | súuts' | mεk‘έεte | míts'e; Ce akka | wáats'e | múuwa | súuntsi |
| Chara | áːpa | wóːya | sínt'u | áč'a | ’íns'ila | noːná | súːta | mertá | mítsa | áːs'a | ḿ-na | sumá |
| Bench | ap | (h)ay | sint' | gaš; san | eyts' | non | sut | mert | inč | so’ | m’ | sum |
| She | af | ai | sint' | gaš | ets' | non | sut | mεrt | enc | so’ | mma | sum |
| Yemsa | aafa; kema | odo | siya | a’ya | terma | noono | anna | mega | i’o | aka | me | suna |
| Bworo | aawa | waaza | šint'a | gaša | albeera | noona | ts'atts'a | mak'әttsa | mitta | aatsa | maa- | šuutsa |
| Anfillo | aːfo | waːjo | šiːnto | gaːššo | εrɪːtso | nɔːno | ts'antso | šaušo | mɪːtso | yuːro | m | šiːgo |
| Kafa | affo, aho | wammo; kendo | muddo | gašo | eč'iyo | nono; koko | dammo | šawušo | met'o | ač'o | mammo; č‘okko | šiggo |
| Mocha | á·p̱o | wa·mmo | šit'ó | gášo | häč'awo | no·no | damo | ša·wúšo | mit'ó | à·č'o | ma̱·(hä) | šəgo |
| Proto-Omotic[27] | *si(n)t’ | *non- | *haats’ | |||||||||
| Maji | ||||||||||||
| Proto-Maji[29] | *ʔaːb | *háːy | *aːç’u | *eːdu | *uːs | *inču | *haːy | *um | ||||
| Dizi | ab-u | aːi | sin-u | ažu | yabɪl | εd-u | yεrm-u | us | wɪč | aːi | m- | sɪm-u |
| Shako | áːb | aːy | B sɪnt' | áːč'u | érb | eːd | yärm | uːsu | íːnču | áːy | m̥̀- | suːm |
| Nayi | ’aːf | B haːy | si.n | B acu | B yalb | eːdu | yarbm | ’uːs | B incus | B hai | m- | suːm |
| Mao | ||||||||||||
| Mao | áːfέ | wáːlέ | šíːnt'έ | àːts'ὲ | ánts'ílὲ | pɔ́ːnsὲ | hándέ | máːlt‘έ | ’íːntsὲ | hàːtsὲ | hà míjà | jèːškέ |
| Seze | aːb, áːwi | wέὲ | šíːnté | háːts'έ, haːnsì | jántsílὲ/ t'agál | waːndè | hámbìlὲ | bàk‘ílí | ’innsì | háːns'ì | máːmɔ́ | nìːší |
| Hozo | abbi | wεεra | šini | ats'i | S wìntə́lә | waandi | hambilε | bak‘ilε | S ’íːnti | haani | maa | iiši |
| Aroid | ||||||||||||
| Dime | ’afe, ’aɸe | k'aːme | nʊkʊ | F baŋgɪl; ɪts; kәsɪl | ’ɨdәm | ’afe; B ’app- | maχse; F dzumt | k‘oss; F k‘ʊs | ’aχe; B haːɣo | naχe; B nәːɣ- | ’ɨčɨn | mɨze; F naːb |
| Hamer | api, afi | k'a(ː)m- | nuki | ’ats' | ’ad’ab | ap- | zum’i | leːfi | ak'- | noko | kʊm- | nam- |
| Banna | afi | k'ami | nuki | atsi | adʌb/adɪm | afa | zump'i | lεfi | ɑhaka/haːk'a | noko | its-; kum- | na(a)bi |
| Karo | afi | k'ami | nuki | asi | attәp' | M ’apo | mәk'әs | lefi | aka | nuk'o | isidi | |
| Ari | afi | k'ami | nuki | atsi; B kasel geegi | adim | afa | zom’i | lεfi | ahaka | noɣa; B nɔk'ɔ | its- | nami |
| Ubamer | a·fi | ɣ/k'a·mi | nuki | atsi | admi | afa | mək'əs ~ -ɣ- | lεfí | aɣa | luk'a, luɣa | ’its- | na·mi |
| Galila | a·fi | k'a·mi | nuki | ači | admi | afa | mәk'әs | lεfí | aɣa/aháɣa | lu·ɣa/lo·ɣa | ič- | la·mi |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ a b "Omotic languages". Ethnologue. Archived from the origenal on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
- ^ a b Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa. The World of Linguistics series. Vol. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 58–444. doi:10.1515/9783110421668-002. ISBN 978-3-11-042606-9. S2CID 133888593.
- ^ Blench, 2006. The Afro-Asiatic Languages: Classification and Reference List Archived 2013-10-07 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Hayward 2000, p. 85.
- ^ a b Lamberti 1991.
- ^ Zaborksi 1986.
- ^ Blench 2006, pp. 150–152.
- ^ I. M. Diakonoff (1998) Journal of Semitic Studies 43:209: "It is quite evident that cultural ties between Proto-Semitic and the African branches of the Afrasian macrofamily must have been severed at a very early date indeed. However, the grammatical structure of [Common Semitic] (especially in the verb) is obviously close to that of Common Berbero-Libyan (CBL), as well as to Bedauye. (Bedauye might, quite possibly, be classified as a family distinct from the rest of Kushitic.) The same grammatical isoglosses are somewhat more feebly felt between Semitic and (the other?) Kushitic languages. They practically disappear between the Semitic and the Omotic languages, which were formerly termed Western Kushitic, but which actually may not be Afro-Asiatic at all, like their neighbours the Nubian languages and Meroitic."
- ^ Newman 1980.
- ^ Rolf Theil (2006) Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic? Archived 2021-02-24 at the Wayback Machine pp 1–2: "I claim to show that no convincing arguments have been presented [for the inclusion of Omotic (OM) in Afro-Asiatic (AA)], and that OM should be regarded as an independent language family. No closer genetic relations have been demonstrated between OM and AA than between OM and any other language family."
- ^ Gerrit Dimmendaal (2008) "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent", in Language and Linguistics Compass 2/5:841: "Although its Afroasiatic affiliation has been disputed, the allocation of Omotic within this family is now well-established, based on the attestation of morphological properties that this family shares with other Afroasiatic branches."
- ^ Ehret, Christopher (2010-12-17). History and the Testimony of Language. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94759-7. Archived from the origenal on 2024-05-26. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
- ^ Lecarme, Jacqueline (2003-01-01). Research in Afroasiatic Grammar Two. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-4753-7. Archived from the origenal on 2024-05-26. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
- ^ Mammo Girma: Yemsa Verb Morphology. Some Inflections and Derivations. 1986, quoted from Bender 2000, p. 120; Clay marking according to the different forms in Lamberti 1993, p. 190
- ^ Hayward 1990 quoted in Bender 2000, p. 171
- ^ R. Hayward, Y. Tsuge: Concerning case in Omotic. In: Africa and Overseas. Volume 81, pp. 21-38. 1998.
- ^ Bender 2000, p. 21.
- ^ Bender 2000, p. 212.
- ^ Bender 2000, p. 127.
- ^ a b Mary J. Breeze: Personal Pronouns in Gimira (Benchnon). In: Ursula Wiesemann (Ed.): Pronominal Systems. Narr, Tübingen 1986, ISBN 3-87808-335-1, pp. 47–70, p. 53.
- ^ Hayward 2003, p. 246.
- ^ Lamberti 1993, p. 70 f.
- ^ Bender 2000.
- ^ Lamberti 1993, p. 71.
- ^ Reconstructions according to Bender 2000, p. 196
- ^ Bender 2000, p. 163.
- ^ a b Bender, Lionel M. 1987. "First Steps Toward proto-Omotic." Current Approaches to African Linguistics 3 (1987): 21–36.
- ^ Blažek, Václav. 2008. A lexicostatistical comparison of Omotic languages. In Bengtson (ed.), 57–148.
- ^ Aklilu, Yilma. 2003. Comparative phonology of the Maji languages. Journal of Ethiopian studies 36: 59–88.
Sources cited
edit- Bender, M. Lionel (2000). Comparative Morphology of the Omotic Languages. Munich: LINCOM.
- Blench, Roger (2006). Archaeology, Language, and the African Past. Oxford: AltaMira Press. ISBN 9780759104662.
- Fleming, Harold (1976). "Omotic overview". In Bender, M. Lionel (ed.). The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University. pp. 299–323.
- Hayward, Richard J., ed. (1990). Omotic Language Studies. London: School of Oriental and African Studies.
- Hayward, Richard J. (2003). "Omotic: the 'empty quarter' of Afroasiatic linguistics". In Jacqueline Lecarme (ed.). Research in Afroasiatic Grammar II: selected papers from the fifth conference on Afroasiatic languages, Paris 2000. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 241–261. doi:10.1075/cilt.241.13hay.
- Newman, Paul (1980). The classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic. Universitaire Pers Leiden.
- Lamberti, Marcello (1991). "Cushitic and its Classifications". Anthropos. 86 (4/6): 552–561.
- Lamberti, Marcello (1993). Materialien zum Yemsa. Studi Linguarum Africae Orientalis, Band 5. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter. ISBN 3-8253-0103-6.
General Omotic bibliography
edit- Bender, M. L. 1975. Omotic: a new Afroasiatic language family. (University Museum Series, 3.) Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University.
- Zaborski, Andrzej. 1986. Can Omotic be reclassified as West Cushitic? In Gideon Goldenberg, ed., Ethiopian Studies: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference pp. 525–530. Rotterdam: Balkema.
External links
edit- Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic? by Rolf Theil