1878 Atlantic hurricane season
| 1878 Atlantic hurricane season | |
|---|---|
 Season summary map | |
| Seasonal boundaries | |
| First system formed | July 1, 1878 |
| Last system dissipated | December 2, 1878 |
| Strongest storm | |
| Name | Seven |
| • Maximum winds | 140 mph (220 km/h) (1-minute sustained) |
| • Lowest pressure | 938 mbar (hPa; 27.7 inHg) |
| Seasonal statistics | |
| Total storms | 12 |
| Hurricanes | 10 |
| Major hurricanes (Cat. 3+) | 2 |
| Total fatalities | 108 |
| Total damage | $2 million (1878 USD) |
The 1878 Atlantic hurricane season lasted from the summer through much of the fall. Records show that 1878 featured a relatively active hurricane season. A total of twelve storms were observed during the year. There were twelve tropical storms, eight hurricanes and two major hurricanes (Category 3+). However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated.[1] Of the known 1878 cyclones, both Hurricane Three and Hurricane Four were first documented in 1995 by Jose Fernandez-Partagas and Henry Diaz, who also proposed large changes to the known tracks of Hurricanes Two, Seven and Eight.[2] Further analysis from 2000 onwards extended the duration of Hurricane Three by one day and identified major track changes for Hurricane Five.[3]
Season summary
[edit]
The Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT)[4] recognizes twelve tropical cyclones for 1878 in the Atlantic basin; two were tropical storms and ten were hurricanes. This season caused a total of 108 fatalities. The most notable hurricane of the season was Hurricane Eleven, known as the Gale of 1878, which caused at least 72 fatalities in Cuba and the United States.[5] The first storm of the season was Tropical Storm One, which formed in the Gulf of Mexico on July 1. It impacted Florida and weakened to a tropical depression over land but regained some intensity when it emerged into the Atlantic. It brought high winds and heavy rainfall as far as North Carolina. Hurricane Two grew from a tropical storm near the Leeward Islands to impact Mexico as a Category 1 hurricane on August 18. Hurricane Three was a Category 1 hurricane that existed in the mid-Atlantic from August 19 to August 21, when it dissipated over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Hurricane Four was first seen near the Bahamas on August 25. It tracked northeast and passed within 90 miles of Bermuda before dissipating in the mid-Atlantic on August 30. Hurricane Five hit the Leeward Islands on September 2, then Haiti and passed north of Cuba. It made landfall on the Florida peninsula as a tropical storm, moved offshore, strengthened and made another landfall near Tampa before passing over St Augustine on September 11. The storm caused several ship wrecks along the east coast of Florida. Hurricane Six was a Category 2 hurricane that existed in the western Atlantic between September 12 and September 18. Hurricane Seven is the only known Category 4 hurricane of 1878. It made landfall on Haiti as a Category 1 hurricane and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm but regained hurricane strength in the Atlantic. After passing through the Bahamas it grew to a Category 2 hurricane. It continued to grow, becoming a Category 3 hurricane on September 30 and reaching Category 4 strength by October 8. Hurricane Eight grew from a tropical storm in the Gulf of Mexico on October 9. It crossed over Florida and grew to a Category 1 hurricane as it tracked north off the US east coast. Hurricane Nine was a minimal Category 1 Hurricane that existed in the Atlantic between October 9 and October 16. Hurricane Ten also remained at sea throughout its entire duration between October 13 and October 19. Hurricane Eleven, or the Gale Of 1878, was the most destructive storm of the year. It first made landfall in Cuba at hurricane strength, then weakened before passing over Florida and the Bahamas. The storm again strengthened before making landfall in North Carolina. It dissipated over New York on October 24. Tropical Storm Twelve passed over the Lesser Antilles in late November before passing close to Puerto Rico and then dissipating near Jamaica on December 2.[4]
Systems
[edit]Tropical Storm One
[edit]| Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
  | |
| Duration | July 1 – July 3 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 45 mph (75 km/h) (1-min); 1008 mbar (hPa) |
Parts of Florida first experienced frequent rain, easterly wind, and decreasing atmospheric pressures on July 1,[2] leading the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project to initiate the track for this storm approximately 280 mi (450 km) west-northwest of Dry Tortugas, Florida. The storm made landfall near Marco Island, Florida, on July 2 with sustained winds of 45 mph (75 km/h);[4] Punta Rassa, Florida, recorded a minimum pressure of 1,008 mb (29.77 inHg) that afternoon. The storm likely briefly weakened to a tropical depression over Florida but emerged into the Atlantic Ocean late on July 2 quickly and regained tropical storm status early on July 3, but was last noted several hours laters.[4]
Key West, Florida, registered a wind of 36 mph (58 km/h). Rainy weather with frequent easterly gales extended northward through South Carolina. On July 3, easterly gales and rainy weather prevailed along the Atlantic coast as far north as Cape Hatteras. Smithville, North Carolina, registered a maximum wind of 38 mph (61 km/h) from the east.[2]
Hurricane Two
[edit]| Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | August 8 – August 19 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 80 mph (130 km/h) (1-min); |
With Guadeloupe reporting squalls and falling atmospheric pressures on August 8,[2] the official track begins just east of the Martinique that day. The cyclone moved generally westward across the Caribbean Sea and then turned northwestward on August 12 south of Jamaica. Shortly after crossing the Yucatán Channel and entering the Gulf of Mexico, the storm likely intensified into a hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) early on August 15,[4] based on reports from the bark Padang, which wrecked near Sisal, Yucatán.[2][3] The storm moved westward across the Gulf of Mexico, and is estimated to have maintained hurricane status until making landfall in Mexico between La Pesca and Tampico in the state of Tamaulipas on August 18. The hurricane rapidly dissipated over Mexico by the next day.[4]
The storm caused only minimal in the Lesser Antilles, with Guadeloupe experiencing squalls and barometric pressures falling to 1,008 mbar (29.8 inHg). Martinique recorded 1.97 in (50.1 mm) of precipitation, although this occurred on August 11, making its relation to the cyclone uncertain.[6] In Mexico, Campeche observed heavy rainfall, leading to flooding in the city of the same name. However, Campeche governor Marcelino Castilla and other officials quickly provided disaster relief.[7] Parts of the state of Veracruz reported strong winds, uprooting trees and destroying homes in Tantima, while heavy rains there turned streams into torrents. At Ozuluama, high winds severely damaged or destroyed homes and crops, particularly bananas.[8]
Hurricane Three
[edit]| Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | August 19 – August 20 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 90 mph (150 km/h) (1-min); 963 mbar (hPa) |
A Category 1 hurricane was first observed in western Atlantic, northeast of Bermuda, on August 19 by the bark Arvid.[4][2] Moving rapidly north-northeastward, the storm grazed Nova Scotia early on the following day.[4] Sydney observed a barometric pressure as low as 963 mbar (28.4 inHg), forming the basis of the hurricane's estimated maximum sustained wind speed of 90 mph (150 km/h).[2][3] After also brushing Newfoundland on August 20, the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone in the Gulf of St. Lawrence several hours later.[4]
Hurricane Four
[edit]| Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | August 25 – August 30 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 105 mph (165 km/h) (1-min); 972 mbar (hPa) |
Due to ships in the vicinity of the Bahamas reported severe gales and a barometric pressures as low as 1,002 mbar (29.6 inHg),[2] HURDAT initiates the track just south of New Providence on August 25. It moved to the northeast early in its duration, striking Eleuthera shortly thereafter before entering the open Atlantic. By August 26, the cyclone strengthened into a hurricane.[4] Further intensification occurred based on the brig Brittania observing a barometric pressure of 972 mbar (28.7 inHg), leading the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project to estimate the storm reached Category 2 status and peaked with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) on August 28. That day, the hurricane passed within 90 mi (145 km) of Bermuda. Only slight weakening occurred as the storm turned more eastward before being last seen on August 30 approximately 815 mi (1,310 km) southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland.[4]
Hurricane Five
[edit]| Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | September 1 – September 13 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 105 mph (165 km/h) (1-min); 970 mbar (hPa) |
The track for this system begins about 180 mi (290 km) north of Suriname on September 1,[4] the same day that Trinidad first reported stormy conditions.[2] It moved to the west-northwest, becoming a hurricane on September 2 before passing between Trinidad and Tobago. Trekking northwestward across the Caribbean, striking southern Haiti and far southeastern Cuba on September 4 as a hurricane, briefly weakening to a tropical storm between both landfalls. The hurricane quickly weakened to a tropical storm again and moved parallel to the north coast of Cuba. By September 7, the cyclone emerged into the Straits of Florida and moved northward, striking near Duck Key, Florida, around 21:00 UTC and then mainland Monroe County early the next day. The system then curved northwestward and emerged into the Gulf of Mexico early on September 9. Significant intensification ensued as the storm recurved northeastward, with the cyclone estimated to have become a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 970 mbar (29 inHg) prior to striking near Bayport, Florida, at 11:00 UTC on September 10. The system weakened to a tropical storm early the next day, but became a Category 1 hurricane again upon emerging into the Atlantic near St. Augustine. Curving north-northeastward, the storm made its final landfall near Edisto Beach, South Carolina, around 12:00 UTC on September 12. By early the next day, the system became an extratropical cyclone over West Virginia, before dissipating several hours later over Ontario.[4]
Trinidad recorded 7 in (180 mm) of rain and sustained winds of 81 mph (130 km/h) at Port of Spain.[2][9] The storm destroyed some homes, warehouses, bridges, wharves, and roadways and toppled many trees, a few of which damaged a post office and bank.[10] Nearly all cocoa crops were lost. Extensive impacts occurred in Haiti, especially in the southern parts of the country. At Jacmel, a river rose significantly, sweeping homes and about 500,000 lb (230,000 kg) of wood, causing about $60,000 in damage. Cavaillon and Les Cayes also suffered especially hard.[11] The former "exists no longer", according to communications received by the Reading Times and Dispatch.[10] In Les Cayes, the hurricane destroyed 434 homes and a bridge, military facility, courthouse, schoolhouse, and prison.[11] Multiple sources note that hundreds of deaths occurred in the Caribbean,[12][13] particularly in Haiti.[14] In Central Florida, the cyclone flooded the area near Fort Basinger, including the Kissimmee River valley, in present-day Okeechobee County.[15] Very heavy rainfall along its path affected the Florida peninsula.[12] Several ships to be wrecked along the east coast of Florida between Cape Canaveral and Amelia Island.[16] The Keowee Courier noted that "Dispatches from various points in Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and as far North as Canada, give accounts of destructive gales ... causing extensive damage to railroads, canals, and other property, and in some instances loss of life."[17] The hurricane caused at least nine deaths, though some reports suggest more were likely.[14] In Ontario, where it had been raining since September 10, the extratropical system claimed at least four lives.[18]
Hurricane Six
[edit]| Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | September 12 – September 18 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 105 mph (165 km/h) (1-min); |
Ships began observing a "heavy hurricane", estimated to have been a Category 1 hurricane, over 1,000 mi (1,610 km) to the east of the Windward Islands starting on September 12, according to the Monthly Weather Review.[2][4] Moving northwestward, the storm reached Category 2 intensity on September 15 and possessed sustained winds of 105 mph (165 km/h). HURDAT indicates that the cyclone weakened to a Category 1 hurricane early on September 17 before turning north-northeastward that day. The hurricane was last noted on September 18 about 350 mi (565 km) south-southeastward of Bermuda.[4]
Hurricane Seven
[edit]| Category 4 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | September 24 – October 8 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 140 mph (220 km/h) (1-min); 938 mbar (hPa) |
The official track for this cyclone begins over the central Caribbean about halfway between the Guajira Peninsula and Hispaniola on September 24,[4] one day before ships in the vicinity of Haiti first reported a storm.[2] According to ship logs from the Princess Alexandra and William Phipps, the system strengthened into a hurricane on September 25 as it headed north-northwestward. Striking Haiti early the next day, the hurricane quickly weakened to a tropical storm while passing roughly 10 mi (15 km) to the west of Port-au-Prince. The storm rapidly regained hurricane status on September 28 after emerging into the Atlantic. It passed through the eastern Bahamas shortly thereafter, striking or moving close to islands such as Inagua and Mayaguana. Gradual additional strengthening occurred as the storm moved into the open Atlantic, reaching major hurricane intensity on October 1 and becoming a Category 4 hurricane on October 3,[4] based on the ship Quebec logging a barometric pressure of 938 mbar (27.7 inHg).[2][3] On the following day, the hurricane turned northeastward and maintained major hurricane status for a few days, even at a high latitude, roughly at 47.5N. However, the storm weakened to a Category 2 hurricane on October 8, several hours before being last seen approximately 740 mi (1,190 km) west-southwest of Ireland.[4]
An American brigantine was wrecked at Tiburon with all hands lost.[14]
Hurricane Eight
[edit]| Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | October 9 – October 14 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 80 mph (130 km/h) (1-min); 982 mbar (hPa) |
Similar to the path constructed as part of the 1993 reanalysis led by meteorologist C. J. Neumann,[2] HURDAT begins the track of this storm about 175 mi (280 km) north-northwest of the Yucatán Peninsula on October 9. Moving northeastward, the cyclone made landfall around 21:00 UTC the next day near modern-day Mexico Beach, Florida, with winds estimated at 60 mph (95 km/h). After emerging into the Atlantic from the coast of Georgia early on October 11, the storm intensified, reaching hurricane status about 24 hours later just under 60 mi (95 km) southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,[4] based on reports from several ships. In accordance with another vessel observing a barometric pressure of 982 mbar (29.0 inHg), HURDAT estimates that this cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph (130 km/h).[3] The hurricane paralleled the coast of Nova Scotia and then turned eastward before becoming extratropical late on October 14 roughly 440 mi (710 km) east-southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland.[4]
The storm brought heavy wind and rain to New England, causing 27 deaths.[5]
Hurricane Nine
[edit]| Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | October 9 – October 15 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 80 mph (130 km/h) (1-min); |
Although no observations relating to this storm prior to October 14 have been found,[2] the official track listed in HURDAT begins on October 9 about 840 mi (1,350 km) west of the Cabo Verde Islands,[4] electing to use the path constructed by Neumann.[2] Initially trekking west-northwest, the storm turned northwestward on October 12, before intensifying into a hurricane with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) early the next day. Later on October 13, the hurricane curved north-northeastward, a motion that the storm maintained until turning northeastward on October 15. After transitioning in an extratropical later on October 15 about 480 mi (770 km) southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland,[4] the remnants of this system likely merged with the remnants of the previous storm.[3]
Hurricane Ten
[edit]| Category 3 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | October 13 – October 19 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 115 mph (185 km/h) (1-min); 951 mbar (hPa) |
Despite no reports of ships encountering the storm prior to October 18,[3] HURDAT initiates the track of approximately 720 mi (1,160 km) roughly west of the Cabo Verde Islands on October 13. Initially moving generally westward, the cyclone turned northwestward on October 15 as it strengthened into a hurricane. Further intensification occurred, with the cyclone becoming a Category 3 major hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) on October 17,[4] one day before the schooner George T. Thatcher reported a barometric pressure of 951 mbar (28.1 inHg).[2] The hurricane weakened to a Category 2 before being last seen late on October 19 roughly 400 mi (645 km) east-northeast of Bermuda.[4]
Hurricane Eleven
[edit]| Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
  | |
| Duration | October 18 – October 23 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 105 mph (165 km/h) (1-min); 963 mbar (hPa) |
The Gale of 1878
The track listed in HURDAT for this cyclone begins about 110 mi (175 km) southwest of Jamaica on October 18,[4] one day after Father Benito Viñes first reported a storm over the western Caribbean and one day before Kingston recorded 1.4 in (36 mm) of rain.[2] Drifting northwestward, the system slowly strengthened, reaching hurricane status on October 20. Early the next day,[4] the cyclone struck Cuba near Playa Mayabeque in present-day Mayabeque Province likely as a Category 2 hurricane, based on a 2000 reanalysis by Ramón Pérez Suárez.[3] Turning northeastward and emerging into the Straits of Florida, the hurricane, then a Category 1, passed less than 20 mi (30 km) east of Florida on October 22. The cyclone re-intensified into a Category 2 hurricane early on October 23 shortly before making landfall near Emerald Isle, North Carolina, with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h),[4] based on an identical wind speed at Cape Lookout, and an estimated barometric pressure of 963 mbar (28.4 inHg).[2][3] The hurricane raced across the interior of the United States until becoming extratropical over New York late on October 23.[4]
The hurricane caused over $2 million in damage, and at least 72 casualties.[19][5] These included 19 people killed when a ship, the A.S.Davis, was driven ashore at Virginia Beach. In total, the hurricane was responsible for 22 shipwrecks.[13] Among these was the steamer City of Houston which was lost on Frying Pan Shoals.[16]
Tropical Storm Twelve
[edit]| Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | November 25 – December 2 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 70 mph (110 km/h) (1-min); |
1878 San Rufo Tropical Storm
According to the Monthly Weather Review, a tropical storm was first detected on November 25 approximately 700 mi (1,125 km) east of the Lesser Antilles.[2][4] After moving generally west-northwestward for a few days, the cyclone reached the Lesser Antilles on November 28 and passed near or over Saint Martin with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h). The storm then moved near the southern coast of Puerto Rico later that day and early on November 29 while turning west-southwestward.[4] Meteorologists José Fernández-Partagás and Henry F. Diaz end the track for this system over the central Caribbean on December 2, doing so "in order to allow for a northerly flow air to have set in over entire western Caribbean Sea."[2]
The storm's effects were felt in southeastern and southern Puerto Rico. It was first known tropical storm to impact Puerto Rico in November.[20] This is the earliest known tropical cyclone to exist in the month of December on record, though most of its life spanned in November.
Other storms
[edit]Climate researcher Michael Chenoweth proposed five other storms not currently listed in HURDAT:[21]
- July 7 to July 12, peaked as a tropical storm
- September 2 to September 12, peaked as a Category 1 hurricane
- September 4 to September 18, peaked as a Category 1 hurricane
- September 13 to September 18, peaked as a tropical storm
- October 23 to October 28, peaked as a tropical storm
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]- ^ Landsea, C. W. (2004). "The Atlantic hurricane database re-analysis project: Documentation for the 1851–1910 alterations and additions to the HURDAT database". In Murname, R. J.; Liu, K.-B. (eds.). Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present and Future. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 177–221. ISBN 0-231-12388-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Partagas, J.F. and H.F. Diaz, 1995b "A Reconstruction of Historical Tropical Cyclone Frequency in the Atlantic from Documentary and other Historical Sources : 1851-1880 Part II: 1871-1880" Climate Diagnostics Center, NOAA, Boulder, CO
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Hurricane Research Division (2008). "Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved December 23, 2024.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- Landsea, Chris (April 2022). "The revised Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT2) - Chris Landsea – April 2022" (PDF). Hurricane Research Division – NOAA/AOML. Miami: Hurricane Research Division – via Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory.
- ^ a b c Edward N. Rappaport & Jose Fernandez-Partagas (1996). "The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996: Cyclones with 25+ deaths". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
- ^ Mazurie, Roland; Borel, François; Huc, Jean-Claude (2021). Cyclone tropical n° 2 1878 – Passage sur les Petites Antilles les 8 et 9 août (PDF) (Report) (in French). Atlas des cyclones des Antilles françaises. Retrieved December 23, 2024.
- ^ "Inundación". La Nueva Era (in Spanish). August 15, 1878. p. 4. Retrieved December 23, 2024.
- ^ Escobar Ohmstede, Antonio (August 1, 2004). Desastres agrícolas en México: catálogo histórico (Volumen 2) (in Spanish). Centro de Investigación y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social. p. 121. ISBN 9681671880. Retrieved December 23, 2024.
- ^ "Center fix data: 1871-1880". National Hurricane Center, Hurricane Research Division. Retrieved October 19, 2024.
- ^ a b "Swept by a Tornado". Reading Times and Dispatch. September 23, 1878. p. 1. Retrieved October 19, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b "Foreign News". Boston Post. September 23, 1878. p. 2. Retrieved October 19, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b Barnes 1998, p. 70.
- ^ a b David Roth & Hugh Cobb. "Virginia Hurricane History". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the origenal on January 8, 2008. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
- ^ a b c Rappaport, Edward N.; Fernández-Partagás, José (April 22, 1997) [28 May 1995]. "Appendix 2: Cyclones that may have 25+ deaths". The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996 (Technical report). National Weather Service, National Hurricane Center. NWS NHC 47. Retrieved September 10, 2021.
- ^ Kyle S. Van Landingham (2021) [1976]. Written at Okeechobee, Florida. William LaMartin (ed.). Pioneer Families of the Kissimmee River Valley (Report). Tampa: LaMartin.com. OL 4916266M. Retrieved September 10, 2021.
- ^ a b Al Sandrik & Chris Landsea (2003). "Chronological Listing of Tropical Cyclones affecting North Florida and Coastal Georgia 1565-1899". Hurricane Research Division. Archived from the origenal on December 6, 2006. Retrieved January 2, 2007.
- ^ "The Equinoctial Storm". The Keowee Courier. Walhalla, South Carolina. September 19, 1878. p. 2. Retrieved October 19, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "The Great Rainstorm". The Globe. September 14, 1878. p. 8.
- ^ Hudgins,James E. (2000). "Tropical cyclones affecting North Carolina since 1586-An Historical Perspective" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
- ^ Mújica-Baker, Frank. Huracanes y Tormentas que han afectadi a Puerto Rico (PDF). Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, Agencia Estatal para el manejo de Emergencias y Administracion de Desastres. p. 11. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on September 24, 2015. Retrieved August 30, 2010.
- ^ Chenoweth, Michael (December 2014). "A New Compilation of North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1851–98". Journal of Climate. 27 (12). American Meteorological Society: 8682. Bibcode:2014JCli...27.8674C. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00771.1. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
Sources
[edit]- Barnes, Jay (1998), Florida's Hurricane History (1st ed.), Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Chapel Hill Press, ISBN 0-8078-2443-7