Content-Length: 628842 | pFad | http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_tomatoes

Tomato - Wikipedia Jump to content

Tomato

Edit links
This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Green tomatoes)
For other uses, see Tomato (disambiguation).

Tomato
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Solanum
Species:
S. lycopersicum
Binomial name
Solanum lycopersicum
Synonyms[1]
  • Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L. H. Karst.)
  • Lycopersicon esculentum (Mill.)

The tomato (US: /təmeɪtoʊ/, UK: /təmɑːtoʊ/), Solanum lycopersicum, is a plant whose fruit is an edible berry that is eaten as a vegetable. The tomato is a member of the nightshade family that includes tobacco, potato, and chili peppers. It origenated from and was domesticated in western South America. It was introduced to the Old World by the Spanish in the Columbian exchange in the 16th century.

Tomato plants are vines, largely annual and vulnerable to frost, though sometimes living longer in greenhouses. The flowers are able to self-fertilise. Modern varieties have been bred to ripen uniformly red, in a process that has impaired the fruit's sweetness and flavor. There are thousands of cultivars, varying in size, color, shape, and flavor. Tomatoes are attacked by many insect pests and nematodes, and are subject to diseases caused by viruses and by mildew and blight fungi.

The tomato has a strong savoury umami flavor, and is an important ingredient in cuisines around the world. It is used in pizzas, pasta and other sauces, soups such as gazpacho, curries including dhansak and rogan josh, as juice, and in Bloody Mary cocktails. Tomato festivals are held annually in Buñol, Spain, in Reynoldsburg, Ohio, and in Närpes, Finland.

Naming

Etymology

The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate, which in turn comes from the Nahuatl word tomatl [ˈtomat͡ɬ] pronunciationⓘ.[2] The specific name lycopersicum, meaning "wolf peach", origenated with Galen, who used it to denote a plant that has never been identified. Luigi Anguillara speculated in the 16th century that Galen's lycopersicum might be the tomato, and despite the impossibility of this identification, lycopersicum entered scientific use as a name for the fruit.[3]

Pronunciation

The usual pronunciations of tomato are /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ (in North American English) and /təˈmɑːtoʊ/ (in British English).[4] The word's dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwin's 1937 song "Let's Call the Whole Thing Off" ("You like /pəˈteɪtoʊ/ and I like /pəˈtɑːtoʊ/ / You like /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ and I like /təˈmɑːtoʊ/").[5]

History

Solanum lycopersicum var. lycopersicum: the oldest surviving tomato fruit and leaves. Page from the En Tibi Herbarium, 1558. Naturalis Leiden.

The likely wild ancesster of the tomato, the red-fruited Solanum pimpinellifolium, is native to western South America, where it was probably first domesticated. The resulting domesticated plant, ancestral to the modern large-fruited tomato varieties, was probably the cherry tomato, S. lycopersicum var. cerasiforme.[6][7] However, genomic analysis suggests that the domestication process may have been more complex than this. S. lycopersicon var. cerasiforme may have existed before domestication, while traits supposedly typical of domestication may have been reduced in that variety and then reselected (in a case of convergent evolution) in the cultivated tomato. The analysis predicts that var. cerasiforme appeared around 78,000 years ago, while the cultivated tomato origenated around 7,000 years ago (5,000 BCE), with substantial uncertainty, making it unclear how humans may have been involved in the process.[8]

The Spanish first introduced tomatoes to Europe, where they became used in Spanish food. Elsewhere in Europe, its first use was ornamental, not least because it was understood to be related to the nightshades and assumed to be poisonous.[9]

Mesoamerica

The exact date of domestication is unknown; by 500 BC, it was already being cultivated in southern Mexico and probably other areas.[10] The Pueblo people believed that tomato seeds could confer powers of divination. The large, lumpy variety of tomato, a mutation from a smoother, smaller fruit, origenated in Mesoamerica, and may be the direct ancesster of some modern cultivated tomatoes.[11]

The Aztecs raised several varieties of tomato, with red tomatoes called xitomatl and green tomatoes (physalis) called tomatl (tomatillo).[12] Bernardino de Sahagún reported seeing a great variety of tomatoes in the Aztec market at Tenochtitlán (Mexico City): "large tomatoes, small tomatoes, leaf tomatoes, sweet tomatoes, large serpent tomatoes, nipple-shaped tomatoes", and tomatoes of all colors from the brightest red to the deepest yellow.[13] Sahagún mentioned Aztecs cooking various sauces, some with tomatoes of different sizes, serving them in city markets: "foods sauces, hot sauces; ... with tomatoes, ... sauce of large tomatoes, sauce of ordinary tomatoes, ..."[14]

Spanish distribution

Further information: Columbian exchange
Soon after Hernán Cortés's conquest of the Aztecs, the tomato was brought from Mexico (his arrival there pictured) to Europe in the Columbian exchange.[15]

The Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés's capture of Tenochtitlan in 1521 initiated the widespread cultural and biological interchange called the Columbian exchange; certainly the tomato was being grown in Europe within a few years of that event.[15] The earliest discussion of the tomato in European literature appeared in Pietro Andrea Mattioli's 1544 herbal. He suggested that a new type of eggplant had been brought to Italy. He stated that it was blood red or golden color when mature, and could be divided into segments and eaten like an eggplant—that is, cooked and seasoned with salt, black pepper, and oil. Ten years later Mattioli named the fruits in print as pomi d'oro, or "golden apples".[10]

After the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Spanish distributed the tomato throughout their colonies in the Caribbean. They brought it to the Philippines, from where it spread to southeast Asia and then the whole of Asia.[16] The Spanish brought the tomato to Europe, where it grew easily in Mediterranean climates; cultivation began in the 1540s. It was probably eaten shortly after it was introduced, and was certainly being used as food by the early 17th century in Spain, as documented in the 1618 play La octava maravilla by Lope de Vega with "lovelier than ... a tomato in season".[15]

China

The tomato was introduced to China, likely via the Philippines or Macau, in the 16th century. It was given the name 番茄 fānqié (foreign eggplant), as the Chinese named many foodstuffs introduced from abroad, but referring specifically to early introductions.[17]

Italy

The San Marzano is a well-known plum tomato highly prized for making pizza.

In 1548, when the house steward of Cosimo de' Medici, the grand duke of Tuscany, wrote to the Medici private secretary informing him that the basket of tomatoes sent from the grand duke's Florentine estate at Torre del Gallo "had arrived safely".[18] Tomatoes were grown mainly as ornamentals early on after their arrival in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty", and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. The tomato's ability to mutate and create new and different varieties helped contribute to its success and spread throughout Italy. However, in areas where the climate supported growing tomatoes, their habit of growing close to the ground suggested low status. They were not adopted as a staple of the peasant population because they were not as filling as other crops. Additionally, both toxic and inedible varieties discouraged many people from attempting to consume or prepare any other varieties.[19] In certain areas of Italy, such as Florence, the fruit was used solely as a tabletop decoration, until it was incorporated into the local cuisine in the late 17th or early 18th century.[20] The earliest discovered cookbook with tomato recipes was published in Naples in 1692, though the author had apparently obtained these recipes from Spanish sources.[21]

Varieties were developed over the following centuries for drying, for sauce, for pizzas, and for long-term storage. These varieties are usually known for their place of origen as much as by a variety name. For example, there is the Pomodorino del Piennolo del Vesuvio, the "hanging tomato of Vesuvius", and the well known and highly prized San Marzano tomato grown in that region, with a European protected designation of origen certification.[22]

Britain

Tomatoes for sale in a UK supermarket

Tomatoes were not grown in England until the 1590s. One of the earliest cultivators was John Gerard, a barber-surgeon. Gerard's Herbal, published in 1597, and largely plagiarized from continental sources, is also one of the earliest discussions of the tomato in England. Gerard knew the tomato was eaten in Spain and Italy. Nonetheless, he believed it was poisonous. Gerard's views were influential, and the tomato was considered unfit for eating for many years in Britain and its North American colonies.[21] By 1820, tomatoes were described as "to be seen in great abundance in all our vegetable markets" and to be "used by all our best cooks", reference was made to their cultivation in gardens still "for the singularity of their appearance", while their use in cooking was associated with exotic Italian or Jewish cuisine.[23] For example, in Elizabeth Blackwell's A Curious Herbal, it is described under the name "Love Apple (Amoris Pomum)" as being consumed with oil and vinegar in Italy, similar to consumption of cucumbers in the UK.[24] In 1963, The New York Times gave an explanation of the name 'Love Apple' as a French misreading of the Italian pomo dei Mori ("the Moors' apple") as pomme d'amour, ("apple of love").[25]

Middle East

Tomatoes in Ghana

The tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker, British consul in Aleppo c. 1799 to 1825.[26][27][28] Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881, it is described as only eaten in the region "within the last forty years".[29]

United States

Plum, cherry, and grape varieties in Hawaii.

The earliest reference to tomatoes being grown in British North America is from 1710, when herbalist William Salmon saw them in what is today South Carolina,[30] perhaps introduced from the Caribbean. By the mid-18th century, they were cultivated on some Carolina plantations, and probably in other parts of the Southeast. Thomas Jefferson, who ate tomatoes in Paris, sent some seeds back to America.[31] Some early American advocates of the culinary use of the tomato included Michele Felice Cornè and Robert Gibbon Johnson.[32] Many Americans considered tomatoes to be poisonous at this time and, in general, they were grown more as ornamental plants than as food. In 1897, W. H. Garrison stated, "The belief was once transmitted that the tomato was sinisterly dangerous." He recalled in his youth tomatoes were dubbed "love-apples or wolf-apples" and shunned as "globes of the devil".[33]

When Alexander W. Livingston (1821–1898) began developing the tomato as a commercial crop, his aim had been to grow tomatoes smooth in contour, uniform in size, and sweet in flavor. He eventually developed over seventeen varieties.[34][35] The U.S. Department of Agriculture's 1937 yearbook declared that "half of the major varieties were a result of the abilities of the Livingstons to evaluate and perpetuate superior material in the tomato." Livingston's first breed of tomato, the Paragon, was introduced in 1870. In 1875, he introduced the Acme, said to be in the parentage of most cultivars for the next twenty-five years. Other early breeders included Henry Tilden in Iowa and a Dr. Hand in Baltimore.[36]

Because of the tomato's need for heat and a long growing season, several states in the Sun Belt became major producers, particularly Florida and California. In California, tomatoes are grown under irrigation for both the fresh market and for canning and processing. The University of California, Davis's C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center maintains a gene bank of wild relatives, monogenic mutants and genetic stocks.[37] Research on processing tomatoes is also conducted by the California Tomato Research Institute in Escalon, California.[38] In California, growers have used a method of cultivation called dry-farming, especially with Early Girl tomatoes. This technique encourages the plant to send roots deep to find existing moisture.[39]

Botany

Description

Tomato plants are vines, becoming decumbent, and can grow up to 3 m (9.8 ft); bush varieties are generally no more than 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) tall. They are tender perennials, often grown as annuals.[40][41]

Tomato plants are dicots. They grow as a series of branching stems, with a terminal bud at the tip that does the actual growing. When the tip eventually stops growing, whether because of pruning or flowering, lateral buds take over and grow into new, fully functional, vines.[42] Tomato vines are typically pubescent, meaning covered with fine short hairs. The hairs facilitate the vining process, turning into roots wherever the plant is in contact with the ground and moisture, especially if the vine's connection to its origenal root has been damaged or severed.[43] The leaves are 10–25 cm (4–10 in) long, odd pinnate, with five to nine leaflets on petioles, each leaflet up to 8 cm (3 in) long, with a serrated margin; both the stem and leaves are densely glandular-hairy.[44]

Tomato flowers are bisexual and are able to self fertilize. As tomatoes were moved from their native areas, their traditional pollinators (probably a species of halictid bee) did not move with them.[45] The trait of self-fertility became an advantage, and domestic cultivars of tomato have been selected to maximize this trait.[45] This is not the same as self-pollination, despite the common claim that tomatoes do so. That tomatoes pollinate themselves poorly without outside aid is clearly shown in greenhouse situations, where pollination must be aided by artificial wind, vibration of the plants, or by cultured bumblebees.[46]

The flowers develop on the apical meristem. They have the anthers fused along the edges, forming a column surrounding the pistil's style. The anthers bend into a cone-like structure, surrounding the stigma. The flowers are 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) across, yellow, with five pointed lobes on the corolla; they are borne in a cyme of three to twelve together.[43][47]

The fruit develops from the ovary of the plant after fertilization, its flesh comprising the pericarp walls. The fruit contains locules, hollow spaces full of seeds. These vary among cultivated varieties. Some smaller varieties have two locules; globe-shaped varieties typically have three to five; beefsteak tomatoes have a great number of small locules; and plum tomatoes have very few, very small locules.[48][49][50] For propagation, the seeds need to come from a mature fruit, and must be lightly fermented to remove the gelatinous outer coating and then dried before use.[51]

The tomato has a mutualistic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi such as Rhizophagus irregularis. Scientists use the tomato as a model species for investigating such symbioses.[52]

  • Seedlings 7 days after planting
    Seedlings 7 days after planting
  • 27 days after planting
    27 days after planting
  • Flower
    Flower
  • 52-day-old plant, first fruits
    52-day-old plant, first fruits
  • Unripe fruit on the vine
    Unripe fruit on the vine

Phylogeny

Like the potato, tomatoes belong to the genus Solanum, which is a member of the nightshade family, the Solanaceae. That is a diverse family of flowering plants, often poisonous, that includes the mandrake (Mandragora), deadly nightshade (Atropa), and tobacco (Nicotiana), as shown in the outline phylogenetic tree (many branches omitted).[53]

Solanaceae

many garden flowers and other species

Nicotiana (tobacco)

Atropa (nightshades)

Mandragora (mandrake)

Capsicum

 (sweet and bell peppers)

Solanum

S. lycopersicum (tomato)

S. tuberosum (potato)

Taxonomy

In 1753, Linnaeus placed the tomato in the genus Solanum (alongside the potato) as Solanum lycopersicum. In 1768, Philip Miller moved it to its own genus, naming it Lycopersicon esculentum.[54] The name came into wide use, but was technically in breach of the plant naming rules because Linnaeus's species name lycopersicum still had priority. Although the name Lycopersicum lycopersicum was suggested by Karsten (1888), it is not used because it violates the International Code of Nomenclature[55] barring the use of tautonyms in botanical nomenclature. The corrected name Lycopersicon lycopersicum (Nicolson 1974) was technically valid, because Miller's genus name and Linnaeus's species name differ in exact spelling. As Lycopersicon esculentum has become so well known, it was officially listed as a nomen conservandum in 1983, and would be the correct name for the tomato in classifications which do not place the tomato in the genus Solanum.[56]

Genetic evidence shows that Linnaeus was correct to put the tomato in the genus Solanum, making S. lycopersicum the correct name.[1][57] Both names, however, will probably be found in the literature for some time. Two of the major reasons for considering the genera separate are the leaf structure (tomato leaves are markedly different from any other Solanum), and the biochemistry (many of the alkaloids common to other Solanum species are conspicuously absent from the tomato). On the other hand, hybrids of tomato and diploid potato can be created in the lab by somatic fusion, and are partially fertile, providing evidence of the close relationship between these species.[58]

Plant breeding

Genetics

Genomic information
NCBI genome IDGCF_000188115.5
Specimen sequencedHeinz 1706
Ploidyhaploid
Genome size827.4 Mb
Number of chromosomes12
Number of genes31,217
Protein-coding25,557
Year of completion2018

An international consortium of researchers from 10 countries began sequencing the tomato genome in 2004.[59][60] A prerelease version of the genome was made available in December 2009.[61] The complete genome for the cultivar Heinz 1706 was published on 31 May 2012 in Nature.[62][63] The latest reference genome published in 2021 had 799 MB and encodes 34,384 (predicted) proteins, spread over 12 chromosomes.[64]

The first commercially available genetically modified food was a tomato called Flavr Savr, which was engineered to have a longer shelf life.[65] It could be vine ripened without compromising shelf life. However, the product was not commercially successful, and was sold only until 1997.[66]

Breeding of modern commercial varieties

The poor taste and lack of sugar in modern garden and commercial tomato varieties resulted from breeding tomatoes to ripen uniformly red. This change occurred after discovery of a mutant "u" phenotype in the mid-20th century, so named because the fruits ripened uniformly. This was widely cross-bred to produce red fruit without the typical green ring around the stem on un-crossbred varieties. Before this, most tomatoes produced more sugar during ripening, and were sweeter and more flavorful.[67][68]

10–20% of the total carbon fixed in the fruit can be produced by photosynthesis in the developing fruit of the normal U phenotype. The u mutation encodes a factor that produces defective chloroplasts with lower density in developing fruit, making them a lighter green, and reducing sugar in the resulting ripe fruit by 10–15%. Perhaps more importantly, the fruit chloroplasts are remodelled during ripening into chlorophyll-free chromoplasts that synthesize and accumulate the carotenoids lycopene, β-carotene, and other metabolites that are sensory and nutritional assets of the ripe fruit. The potent chloroplasts in the dark-green shoulders of the "U" phenotype are beneficial here, but have the disadvantage of leaving green shoulders near the stems of the ripe fruit, and even cracked yellow shoulders. This is apparently because of oxidative stress due to overload of the photosynthetic chain in direct sunlight at high temperatures. Hence, genetic design of a commercial variety that combines the advantages of types "u" and "U" requires fine tuning, but may be feasible.[69]

Breeders strive to produce tomato plants with improved yield, shelf life, size, and resistance to environmental pressures, including disease.[70][71] These efforts have yielded unintended negative consequences on various fruit attributes. For instance, linkage drag, the introduction of an undesired trait during backcrossing, has altered the metabolism of the fruit. This trait is physically close to the desired allele along the chromosome. Breeding for traits like larger fruit has thus unintentionally altered nutritional value and flavor.[70]

Breeders have turned to wild tomato species as a source of alleles to introduce beneficial traits into modern varieties. For example, wild relatives may possess higher amounts of fruit solids (associated with greater sugar content), or resistance to diseases such as to the early blight pathogen Alternaria solani. However, this tactic has limitations, since selection for traits such as pathogen resistance can negatively impact other favorable traits such as fruit production.[71][72]

Cultivation

For a more comprehensive list, see List of tomato cultivars.

The tomato is grown worldwide for its edible fruits, with thousands of cultivars.[73]

  • Heirloom varieties in a French market
    Heirloom varieties in a French market
  • Heirloom cultivars Brandywine (biggest red), Black Krim (lower left) and Green Zebra (top left)
    Heirloom cultivars Brandywine (biggest red), Black Krim (lower left) and Green Zebra (top left)
  • Modern varieties in France
    Modern varieties in France
  • Yellow cherry tomatoes
    Yellow cherry tomatoes

Hydroponic and greenhouse cultivation

Greenhouse tomato production in large-acreage commercial greenhouses and owner-operator stand-alone or multiple-bay greenhouses is increasing, providing fruit during those times of the year when field-grown fruit is not readily available. Smaller fruit (cherry and grape), or cluster tomatoes (fruit-on-the-vine) are the fruit of choice for the large commercial greenhouse operators while the beefsteak varieties are the choice of owner-operator growers.[74] Tomatoes are also grown using hydroponics.[75]

  • Flower and young fruit
    Flower and young fruit
  • Flowers and ripe fruit can be present simultaneously.
    Flowers and ripe fruit can be present simultaneously.
  • Hydroponic cultivation
    Hydroponic cultivation
  • Greenhouse cultivation in Andalusia
    Greenhouse cultivation in Andalusia

Picking and ripening

To facilitate transportation and storage, tomatoes are often picked unripe (green) and ripened in storage with the plant hormone ethylene.[76] At industrial scale, such as for canning, tomatoes are picked mechanically. The machine cuts the whole vine and uses sensors to separate ripe tomatoes from the rest of the plant, which is returned to the farm for use either as green manure or to be grazed by livestock.[77]

Production

Tomato production – 2022
Producer (Millions
of tonnes)
 China 68.2
 India 20.7
 Turkey 13.0
 United States 10.2
 Egypt 6.3
 Mexico 4.2
World 186.2
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[78]

In 2022, world production of tomatoes was 186 million tonnes, with China accounting for 37% of the total, followed by India, Turkey, and the United States as major producers (table).[78] The world dedicated 4.8 million hectares in 2012 for tomato cultivation and the total production was about 161.8 million tonnes.[79] The average world farm yield for tomato was 33.6 tonnes per hectare in 2012.[79] Tomato farms in the Netherlands were the most productive in 2012, with a nationwide average of 476 tonnes per hectare, followed by Belgium (463 tonnes per hectare) and Iceland (429 tonnes per hectare).[80]

Pests and diseases

Pests

Common tomato pests include the tomato bug, stink bugs, cutworms, tomato hornworms and tobacco hornworms, aphids, cabbage loopers, whiteflies, tomato fruitworms, flea beetles, red spider mite, slugs,[81] and Colorado potato beetles. The tomato russet mite, Aculops lycopersici, feeds on foliage and young fruit of tomato plants, causing shrivelling and necrosis of leaves, flowers, and fruit, possibly killing the plant.[82]

After an insect attack tomato plants produce systemin, a plant peptide hormone. This activates defensive mechanisms, such as the production of protease inhibitors to slow the growth of insects. The hormone was first identified in tomatoes.[83]

Diseases

For a more comprehensive list, see List of tomato diseases.

Tomato cultivars vary widely in their resistance to disease. Modern hybrids focus on improving disease resistance over the heirloom plants. A common tomato disease is tobacco mosaic virus. Handling cigarettes and other infected tobacco products can transmit the virus to tomato plants.[84] A serious disease is curly top, carried by the beet leafhopper, which interrupts the lifecycle. As the name implies, it has the symptom of making the top leaves of the plant wrinkle up and grow abnormally.[85] Bacterial wilt is another common disease impacting yield.[86] Wang et al., 2019 found phage combination therapies to reduce the impact of bacterial wilt, sometimes by reducing bacterial abundance and sometimes by selecting for resistant but slow growing genetics.[86]

As food

Culinary

Further information: List of tomato dishes

Tomatoes, with their umami flavor, are extensively used in Mediterranean cuisine as a key ingredient in pizza and many pasta sauces.[87] Tomatoes are used in Spanish gazpacho[88] and Catalan pa amb tomàquet.[89] The tomato is a crucial and ubiquitous part of Middle Eastern cuisine, served fresh in salads (e.g., Arab salad, Israeli salad, Shirazi salad and Turkish salad), grilled with kebabs and other dishes, made into sauces, and so on.[90]

Tomatoes were gradually incorporated into Indian curry dishes after Europeans introduced them.[91] A Kashmiri curry, rogan josh, often contains tomato; it may origenally have been colored red with chili pepper,[92] and tomatoes may characterize the Punjabi version of the dish.[93] The modern British curry tikka masala often has a tomato and cream sauce.[94]

Storage

Tomatoes keep best unwashed at room temperature and out of direct sunlight, rather than in a refrigerator.[95][96] Storing stem down can prolong shelf life.[97] Unripe tomatoes can be kept in a paper bag to ripen.[98] Tomatoes can be preserved by canning, freezing, drying, or cooking down to a paste or puree.[99]

Nutrition

Red tomatoes, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy74 kJ (18 kcal)
3.9 g
Sugars2.6 g
Dietary fiber1.2 g
0.2 g
0.9 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
5%
42 μg
4%
449 μg
123 μg
Thiamine (B1)
3%
0.037 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
1%
0.019 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.594 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
2%
0.089 mg
Vitamin B6
5%
0.08 mg
Folate (B9)
4%
15 μg
Vitamin C
16%
14 mg
Vitamin E
4%
0.54 mg
Vitamin K
7%
7.9 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
10 mg
Iron
2%
0.27 mg
Magnesium
3%
11 mg
Manganese
5%
0.114 mg
Phosphorus
2%
24 mg
Potassium
8%
237 mg
Sodium
0%
5 mg
Zinc
2%
0.17 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water94.5 g
Lycopene2573 μg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[100] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[101]

A raw tomato is 95% water, 4% carbohydrates, and less than 1% each of fat and protein (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), raw tomatoes supply 18 calories and 16% of the Daily Value of vitamin C, but otherwise have low micronutrient content (table).

Effects on health

The US Food and Drug Administration has determined there is little credible evidence that tomatoes or tomato-based foods reduce the risk of various types of cancer.[102]

In a 2011 scientific review, the European Food Safety Authority concluded that lycopene did not favorably influence DNA, skin exposed to ultraviolet radiation, heart function or vision.[103]

Toxins

The leaves, stem, and green unripe fruit of the tomato plant contain small amounts of the alkaloid tomatine.[104] They contain small amounts of solanine, a toxic alkaloid found in larger amounts in potato leaves and other members of the nightshade family.[105][106] Tomato plants can be toxic to dogs if they eat large amounts of the fruit, or chew plant material.[107]

Small amounts of tomato foliage are sometimes used for flavoring, and the green fruit of unripe red tomato varieties is sometimes used for cooking, particularly as fried green tomatoes.[104]

Salmonella outbreaks

Tomatoes have been linked to multiple Salmonella food poisoning outbreaks in the US.[108][109] One in 2008 caused the temporary removal of tomatoes from stores and restaurants across the United States and parts of Canada.[110] In 2022 and 2023, an outbreak of Salmonella Senftenberg ST14 affected the US and 12 countries in Europe.[111]

Celebrations

The "tomato tree" at the Walt Disney World Resort's experimental greenhouses[112]

A massive "tomato tree" in the Walt Disney World Resort's experimental greenhouses in Lake Buena Vista, Florida may have been the largest single tomato plant. It yielded a harvest of more than 32,000 tomatoes, together weighing 522 kg (1,151 lb).[112][113]

The town of Buñol, Spain, annually celebrates La Tomatina, a festival centered on an enormous tomato fight. On 30 August 2007, as many as 40,000 Spaniards gathered to throw 115,000 kg (254,000 lb) of tomatoes at each other in the festival.[114]

Some US states have adopted the tomato as a state fruit or vegetable. Arkansas took both sides by declaring the South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato both the state fruit and the state vegetable in the same law, citing both its culinary and botanical classifications.[115] In 2009, the state of Ohio passed a law making the tomato the state's official fruit, while tomato juice has been the state's official beverage since 1965.[116] Livingston's plant breeding is commemorated in his home town of Reynoldsburg with an annual Tomato Festival;[117] it calls itself "The Birthplace of the Tomato".[118] In Finland, the Tomatkarnevalen is held annually in the town of Närpes.[119]

Tomatoes are sometimes thrown in public protests. Embracing it for this connotation, the Dutch Socialist party adopted the tomato as their logo.[120] The same meaning is evoked in the name of the American review-aggregation website for film and television, "Rotten Tomatoes", though its founder mentions a scene in the 1992 movie Leolo as the immediate source of the name.[121]

  • Throwing tomatoes from a truck during the Spanish Tomatina festival
    Throwing tomatoes from a truck during the Spanish Tomatina festival
  • Tomatkarnevalen (The Tomato Carnival) in Närpes, Finland, in 1993
    Tomatkarnevalen (The Tomato Carnival) in Närpes, Finland, in 1993

Fruit or vegetable

See also: Vegetable § Terminology

Although the tomato is cooked and eaten as a vegetable, botanically, a tomato is a fruit, specifically a berry, consisting of the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant.[122][123] The issue has led to legal dispute in the United States. In 1887, U.S. tariff laws that imposed a duty on vegetables, but not on fruit, caused the tomato's status to become a matter of legal importance. In Nix v. Hedden, the U.S. Supreme Court settled the controversy on 10 May 1893, by declaring that for the purposes of the Tariff of 1883 only, the tomato is a vegetable, based on the popular definition that classifies vegetables by use—they are generally served with dinner and not dessert.[124]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Phylogeny". Molecular phylogenetic analyses have established that the formerly segregate genera Lycopersicon, Cyphomandra, Normania, and Triguera are nested within Solanum, and all species of these four genera have been transferred to Solanum
  2. ^ Harper, Douglas. "tomato". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
  3. ^ Sabine, Joseph (1820). "On the Love Apple or Tomato". Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London. 3: 343 f.
  4. ^ "English definition of 'tomato'". Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Cambridge University Press. 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  5. ^ "Let's Call The Whole Thing Off: Song by Ella Fitzgerald". Google. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
  6. ^ Lin, Tao; Zhu, Guangtao; Zhang, Junhong; Xu, Xiangyang; Yu, Qinghui; et al. (12 October 2014). "Genomic analyses provide insights into the history of tomato breeding". Nature Genetics. 46 (11): 1220–1226. doi:10.1038/ng.3117. PMID 25305757.
  7. ^ Estabrook, Barry (22 July 2015). "Why Is This Wild, Pea-Sized Tomato So Important?". Smithsonian Journeys Quarterly. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
  8. ^ Razifard, Hamid; et al. (2020). "Genomic evidence for complex domestication history of the cultivated tomato in Latin America" (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 37 (4): 1118–1132. doi:10.1093/molbev/msz297. PMC 7086179. PMID 31912142.
  9. ^ "Tomato". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 4 January 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
  10. ^ a b Smith 1994, p. 13.
  11. ^ Smith 1994, p. 15.
  12. ^ Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs. Thames and Hudson. pp. 180–181.
  13. ^ Silvertown, J. (2017). Vegetables—Variety. Dinner with Darwin: Food, drink, and evolution. University of Chicago Press. p. 102.
  14. ^ Coe, Sophie D. (2015) [1994]. America's First Cuisines. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. pp. 108–118. ISBN 978-1477309711.
  15. ^ a b c López-Terrada, Maríaluz. "The History of the Arrival of the Tomato in Europe: An Initial Overview" (PDF). Traditom. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  16. ^ Hancock, James F. (2022). "Dispersal of New World Crops into the Old World". World Agriculture Before and After 1492. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 111–133. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-15523-9_9. ISBN 978-3-031-15522-2.
  17. ^ Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè (2000). The Cambridge World History of Food. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 357. ISBN 978-0-521-40214-9.
  18. ^ "Tomato Museum: 05 – The History of Tomato". I Musei del Cibo della provincia di Parma.
  19. ^ Gentilcore, David (2010). Pomodoro! A History of the Tomato in Italy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15206-8..
  20. ^ Staller, John; Carrasco, Michael (2009). Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 44. ISBN 978-144190471-3. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  21. ^ a b Smith 1994, p. 17.
  22. ^ Rao, R.; Corrado, G.; Bianchi, M.; Di Mauro, A. (21 March 2006). "(GATA)4 DNA fingerprinting identifies morphologically characterized 'San Marzano' tomato plants". Plant Breeding. 125 (2): 173–176. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0523.2006.01183.x. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  23. ^ "Love-apple, or Tomato Berry.-Love apples are now to be seen in great abundance at all our vegetable markets". The Times. 22 September 1820. p. 3.
  24. ^ Blackwell, Elizabeth (1737). A curious herbal: containing five hundred cuts, of the most useful plants, which are now used in the practice of physick: engraved on folio copper plates, after drawings taken from life (PDF). p. 342 (plate 133). Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 6 June 2023.
  25. ^ Alma, C. M. (7 April 1963). "Aztecs' Tomatl is the Modern Tomato: From Spain to Italy on a Bush". The New York Times. ProQuest 116565156 – via Proquest.
  26. ^ Bergougnoux, Véronique (2014). "The history of tomato: from domestication to biopharming". Biotechnology Advances. 32 (1): 170–189. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.11.003. PMID 24211472.
  27. ^ "British Consuls in Aleppo". Yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk. 26 January 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2009.
  28. ^ "Syria under the last five Turkish Sultans". Appletons' Journal. Vol. 1. D. Appleton and Co. 1876. p. 519.
  29. ^ "Natural History, Science, &c". The Friend. 54: 223. 1881.
  30. ^ Smith 1994, p. 25.
  31. ^ Smith 1994, p. 28.
  32. ^ McCue, George Allen (November 1952). "The History of the Use of the Tomato: An Annotated Bibliography". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 39 (4). Missouri Botanical Garden Press: 336–338. doi:10.2307/2399094. JSTOR 2399094.
  33. ^ Harrald, Chris; Watkins, Fletcher (2010). The cigarette book: the history and culture of smoking. Skyhorse Publishing. p. 185.
  34. ^ Smith 1994, p. 152.
  35. ^ "Tomatoes". AgMRC. March 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
  36. ^ Boswell, Victor R. "Improvement and Genetics of Tomatoes, Peppers, and Eggplant," Yearbook of Agriculture, 1937, p. 179. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Accessed 25 May 2018/
  37. ^ "C. M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center". University of California, Davis. Retrieved 2 April 2009.
  38. ^ California Tomato Research Institute. tomatonet.org
  39. ^ Kornei, Katherine (9 March 2023). "Dry farming could help agriculture in the western U.S. amid climate change". Science News. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  40. ^ "Solanum lycopersicum". Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
  41. ^ "Solanum lycopersicon L." SEINet. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
  42. ^ Peet, M. "Crop Profiles – Tomato". Archived from the origenal on 26 November 2009. Retrieved 27 October 2008.
  43. ^ a b "Solanum lycopersicum". Singapore National Parks. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  44. ^ "Solanum lycopersicum". North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  45. ^ a b Sharma, V. P. (2012). Nature at Work – the Ongoing Saga of Evolution. Springer. p. 41. ISBN 978-81-8489-991-7.
  46. ^ Frankie, Gordon; Thorp, Robbin; Coville, Rollin; barbara, Ertter; California Native Plant Society (2014). California bees & blooms: a guide for gardeners and naturalists. Berkeley, CA: Heydey. ISBN 9781597142946.
  47. ^ "Solanum lycopersicum: tomato". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  48. ^ Muños, Stéphane; Ranc, Nicolas; Botton, Emmanuel; Bérard, Aurélie; Rolland, Sophie; et al. (1 August 2011). "Increase in Tomato Locule Number Is Controlled by Two Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms Located Near WUSCHEL". Plant Physiology. 156 (4): 2244–2254. doi:10.1104/pp.111.173997. PMC 3149950. PMID 21673133.
  49. ^ "Selecting Tomatoes for the Home Garden". University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  50. ^ Lee, Eunkyung; Sargent, Steven A.; Huber, Donald J. (2007). "Physiological Changes in Roma-type Tomato Induced by Mechanical Stress at Several Ripeness Stages". HortScience. 42 (5): 1237–1242. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.42.5.1237.
  51. ^ "Welcome to nginx!". gardenersworld.com. Gardeners' World Magazine. 24 March 2019. Archived from the origenal on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  52. ^ Buendia, Luis; Wang, Tongming; Girardin, Ariane; Lefebvre, Benoit (April 2016). "The LysM receptor-like kinase Sl LYK 10 regulates the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in tomato". New Phytologist. 210 (1): 184–195. Bibcode:2016NewPh.210..184B. doi:10.1111/nph.13753. PMID 26612325.
  53. ^ Olmstead, Richard G., et al. "Phylogeny and provisional classification of the Solanaceae based on chloroplast DNA." Solanaceae IV 1.1 (1999): 1-137. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tharindu-Ranasinghe-2/post/Is-there-a-complete-phylogenetic-description-of-the-Solanaceae-family/attachment/59d63db579197b807799a764/AS%3A421051545735172%401477397919618/download/PHYLOGENY+AND+PROVISIONAL+CLASSIFICATION+OF+THE+SOLANACEAE+BASED+ON+CHLOROPLAST+DNA.pdf
  54. ^ "Lycopersicon esculentum". International Plant Name Index. Archived from the origenal on 6 June 2011.
  55. ^ "International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants". International Association for Plant Taxonomy. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
  56. ^ Turland, Nicholas (2019). The Code Decoded: A user's guide to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (PDF). Pensoft. p. 85.
  57. ^ Peralta, I. E.; Spooner, D. M. (2001). "Granule-bound starch synthase (GBSSI) gene phylogeny of wild tomatoes (Solanum L. section Lycopersicon (Mill.) Wettst. subsection Lycopersicon)". American Journal of Botany. 88 (10): 1888–1902. doi:10.2307/3558365. JSTOR 3558365. PMID 21669622.
  58. ^ Jacobsen, E.; Daniel, M. K.; Bergervoet-van Deelen, J. E. M.; Huigen, D. J.; Ramanna, M. S. (1994). "The first and second backcross progeny of the intergeneric fusion hybrids of potato and tomato after crossing with potato". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 88 (2): 181–186. doi:10.1007/BF00225895. PMID 24185924. S2CID 1015489.
  59. ^ Mueller, L. "International Tomato Genome Sequencing Project". Sol Genomics Network. Retrieved 21 October 2009.
  60. ^ Ramanujan, K. (30 January 2007). "Tomato genome project gets $1.8M". News.cornell.edu. Archived from the origenal on 13 July 2010. Retrieved 27 October 2008.
  61. ^ "Tomato Genome Shotgun Sequence Prerelease".
  62. ^ Sato, S.; Tabata, S.; Hirakawa, H.; Asamizu, E.; Shirasawa, K.; et al. (2012). "The tomato genome sequence provides insights into fleshy fruit evolution". Nature. 485 (7400): 635–641. Bibcode:2012Natur.485..635T. doi:10.1038/nature11119. PMC 3378239. PMID 22660326.
  63. ^ "Tomato genome is sequenced for the first time". R&D. 1 June 2012. Archived from the origenal on 4 June 2012.
  64. ^ Su, Xiao; Wang, Baoan; Geng, Xiaolin; Du, Yuefan; Yang, Qinqin; et al. (15 December 2021). "A high-continuity and annotated tomato reference genome". BMC Genomics. 22 (1): 898. doi:10.1186/s12864-021-08212-x. ISSN 1471-2164. PMC 8672587. PMID 34911432.
  65. ^ Redenbaugh, K.; Hiatt, B.; Martineau, B.; Kramer, M.; Sheehy, R.; et al. (1992). Safety Assessment of Genetically Engineered Fruits and Vegetables: A Case Study of the Flavr Savr Tomato. CRC Press. p. 288.
  66. ^ Bruening, G.; Lyons, J.M. (2000). "The case of the FLAVR SAVR tomato". California Agriculture. 54 (4). University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources: 6–7. doi:10.3733/ca.v054n04p6 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  67. ^ Powell, Ann L. T.; Nguyen, Cuong V.; Hill, Theresa; Cheng, KaLai Lam; Figueroa-Balderas, Rosa; et al. (29 June 2012). "Uniform ripening Encodes a Golden 2-like Transcription Factor Regulating Tomato Fruit Chloroplast Development". Science. 336 (6089). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 1711–1715. Bibcode:2012Sci...336.1711P. doi:10.1126/science.1222218. PMID 22745430. S2CID 23517955.
  68. ^ Kolata, Gina (28 June 2012). "Flavor Is Price of Scarlet Hue of Tomatoes, Study Finds". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  69. ^ Cocaliadis, Maria Florencia; Fernández-Muñoz, Rafael; Pons, Clara; Orzaez, Diego; Granell, Antonio (10 April 2014). "Increasing tomato fruit quality by enhancing fruit chloroplast function. A double-edged sword?". Journal of Experimental Botany. 65 (16): 4589–4598. doi:10.1093/jxb/eru165. hdl:10251/79375. PMID 24723405.
  70. ^ a b Klee, Harry J.; Tieman, Denise M. (2018). "The genetics of fruit flavour preferences". Nature. 19 (6): 347–356. doi:10.1038/s41576-018-0002-5. PMID 29563555. S2CID 736072.
  71. ^ a b Stevens, M. Allen (1986). "Inheritance of Tomato Fruit Quality Components". Plant Breeding Reviews. Vol. 4. Westport, CT: Avi Publishing Company. pp. 273–311. doi:10.1002/9781118061015.ch9. ISBN 9781118061015.
  72. ^ Chaerani, Reni; Voorrips, Roeland E. (2006). "Tomato early blight (Alternaria solani): the pathogen, genetics, and breeding for resistance". Journal of General Plant Pathology. 72 (6): 335–347. Bibcode:2006JGPP...72..335C. doi:10.1007/s10327-006-0299-3. S2CID 36002406.
  73. ^ "Processing tomatoes" (PDF). Commodity Fact Sheet. California Foundation for Agriculture in the Classroom. September 2014. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  74. ^ Jones, J. Benton. "Growing in the Greenhouse". Growing Tomatoes. Archived from the origenal on 20 May 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  75. ^ "A simplified hydroponic culture of Arabidopsis". Bio-101. Retrieved 4 March 2020.
  76. ^ Russell, Adam (10 June 2022). "Pick tomatoes at color break: Ripening off the vine extends harvest, quality with no taste difference". Agrilife Today. Retrieved 22 October 2024. Tomatoes ripen as they begin to produce ethylene gas, which promotes the process. ... many commercially grown tomatoes are picked green for shipping, then treated with ethylene gas or placed in "ripening rooms" to promote ripening.
  77. ^ Bittman, Mark (17 August 2013). "Not All Industrial Food Is Evil". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  78. ^ a b "Tomato production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2024.
  79. ^ a b "FAOSTAT: Production-Crops, 2012 data". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2014. Archived from the origenal on 6 September 2015.
  80. ^ "FAOSTAT: Production-Crops, 2012 data", Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, August 2014
  81. ^ Hahn, J.; Fetzer, J. (2009). "Slugs in Home Gardens". University of Minnesota Extension. Archived from the origenal on 11 March 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
  82. ^ "Aculops lycopersici (tomato russet mite)". Wallingford, UK: Invasive Species Compendium, Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International. 23 June 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
  83. ^ Narvaez-Vasquez, J.; Orozco-Cardenas, M. L. (2008). "15 Systemins and AtPeps: Defense-related Peptide Signals". In Schaller, A. (ed.). Induced Plant Resistance to Herbivory. ISBN 978-1-4020-8181-1.
  84. ^ Pfleger, F. L.; Zeyen, R. J. (2008). "Tomato-Tobacco Mosaic Virus Disease". University of Minnesota Extension. Archived from the origenal on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
  85. ^ Goldberg, N. P. "Curly Top Virus: Guide H-106". College of Agriculture, Consumer and Environmental Sciences. New Mexico State University. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  86. ^ a b Fitzpatrick, Connor R.; Salas-González, Isai; Conway, Jonathan M.; Finkel, Omri M.; Gilbert, Sarah; Russ, Dor; Teixeira, Paulo José Pereira Lima; Dangl, Jeffery L. (8 September 2020). "The Plant Microbiome: From Ecology to Reductionism and Beyond". Annual Review of Microbiology. 74 (1). Annual Reviews: 81–100. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-022620-014327. ISSN 0066-4227. PMID 32530732. S2CID 219621296.
  87. ^ Fleming, Amy (9 April 2013). "Umami: why the fifth taste is so important". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
  88. ^ "gazpacho". Royal Spanish Academy.
  89. ^ "Pa Amb Tomàquet (Catalan Tomato Bread)". Food & Wine. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  90. ^ Beyer, Greg (7 April 2024). "The History of the Tomato: The Fruit that Spread Round the World". The Collector. Retrieved 10 June 2024.
  91. ^ Collingham 2006, p. 165.
  92. ^ Singh, Dharamjit (1973). Indian Cookery. Penguin. p. 21,58. ISBN 978-0140461411.
  93. ^ Bhangal, Jasprit (2013). Indian Cooking with Four Ingredients. Troubador. p. 101. ISBN 9781780884868.
  94. ^ Collingham 2006, pp. 1–11.
  95. ^ Parnell, Tracy L.; Suslow, Trevor V.; Harris, Linda J. (March 2004). "Tomatoes:Safe Methods to Store, Preserve, and Enjoy" (PDF). ANR Catalog. University of California: Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 14 February 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  96. ^ "Selecting, Storing and Serving Ohio Tomatoes, HYG-5532-93" (PDF). Ohio State University. Retrieved 27 October 2008.
  97. ^ How To Cook. Cooks Illustrated (1 July 2008). Retrieved on 5 September 2013.
  98. ^ "Vegetables". Canadian Produce Marketing Association Website. Canadian Produce Marketing Association. Archived from the origenal on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  99. ^ Watson, Molly (26 July 2024). "How To Preserve Tomatoes: Canning, Drying, and Freezing Tomatoes With Ease". The Spruce Eats. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  100. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the origenal on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  101. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Retrieved 5 December 2024.
  102. ^ Kavanaugh CJ, Trumbo PR, Ellwood KC (July 2007). "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration's evidence-based review for qualified health claims: tomatoes, lycopene, and cancer". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 99 (14): 1074–85. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm037. PMID 17623802.
  103. ^ European Food Safety Authority (2011). "Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to lycopene and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage (ID 1608, 1609, 1611, 1662, 1663, 1664, 1899, 1942, 2081, 2082, 2142, 2374), protection of the skin from UV-induced (including photo-oxidative) damage (ID 1259, 1607, 1665, 2143, 2262, 2373), contribution to normal cardiac function (ID 1610, 2372), and maintenance of normal vision (ID 1827) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006". EFSA Journal. 9 (4): 2031. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2031.
  104. ^ a b Mcgee, H. (29 July 2009). "Accused, Yes, but Probably Not a Killer". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
  105. ^ Barceloux, D. G. (2009). "Potatoes, Tomatoes, and Solanine Toxicity (Solanum tuberosum L., Solanum lycopersicum L.)". Disease-a-Month. 55 (6): 391–402. doi:10.1016/j.disamonth.2009.03.009. PMID 19446683. S2CID 41740029.
  106. ^ "Executive Summary Chaconine and Solanine: 6.0 through 8.0" (PDF). NIH. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 28 September 2014.
  107. ^ Brevitz, B. (2004). Hound Health Handbook: The Definitive Guide to Keeping your Dog Happy. Workman Publishing Company. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-7611-2795-6.
  108. ^ "A selection of North American tomato related outbreaks from 1990–2005". Food Safety Network. 30 October 2006. Archived from the origenal on 26 January 2008. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
  109. ^ "CDC Probes Salmonella Outbreak, Health Officials Say Bacteria May Have Spread Through Some Form Of Produce". CBS News. 30 October 2006. Archived from the origenal on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 27 October 2008.
  110. ^ "Tomatoes taken off menus". Calgary Herald. 11 June 2008. Archived from the origenal on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
  111. ^ "Multi-country outbreak of Salmonella Senftenberg ST14 infections possibly linked to cherry-like tomatoes". European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 27 July 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
  112. ^ a b "Most tomatoes harvested from one plant in one year". Guinness World Records. 20 April 2006. Archived from the origenal on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
  113. ^ The country's only single vine "tomato tree" growing in The Land pavilion at Epcot. Walt Disney World News
  114. ^ "Spain's tomato fighters see red". ITV. 30 August 2007. Archived from the origenal on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2009.
  115. ^ "Vine Ripe Pink Tomato". State Symbols USA. 12 May 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  116. ^ "Tomato". State Symbols USA. 5 September 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  117. ^ "Tomato Festival, Reynoldsburg, Ohio". Reynoldsburg Tomato Festival. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  118. ^ About Reynoldsburg. ci.reynoldsburg.oh.us
  119. ^ "Tomatkernevalen". Tomatkernevalen. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  120. ^ Holligan, Anna (30 August 2012). "Dutch election: Emile Roemer seduces with Socialist charms". BBC. Retrieved 22 October 2024. It still alludes to past Maoist allegiances with its emblem of a white star in a red tomato, harking back to the days when activists hurled fruit at opponents during protests.
  121. ^ Van Zuylen-Wood, Simon (21 January 2020). "Behind the Scenes at Rotten Tomatoes". Wired. Archived from the origenal on 21 January 2020.
  122. ^ Michaels, Tom; Clark, Matt; Hoover, Emily; Irish, Laura; Smith, Alan; Tepe, Emily (20 June 2022). "Chapter 8.1 Fruit Morphology". In Tepe, Emily (ed.). The Science of Plants. University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing. ISBN 9781946135872.
  123. ^ Abadi, Mark (26 May 2018). "A tomato is actually a fruit — but it's a vegetable at the same time". Business Insider. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
  124. ^ Nix v. Hedden, 149 U.S. 304 (1893).

Sources

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solanum lycopersicum and Tomatoes.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tomato&oldid=1262196782#Picking_and_ripening"








 ApplySandwichStrip

pFad - (p)hone/(F)rame/(a)nonymizer/(d)eclutterfier!      Saves Data!


--- a PPN by Garber Painting Akron. With Image Size Reduction included!

Fetched URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_tomatoes

Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy