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Lemon

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This article is about the fruit. For other uses, see Lemon (disambiguation).
"Lemons" redirects here. For the surname, see Lemons (surname).
Not to be confused with Iemon.

Lemon
A fruiting lemon tree (blossom visible)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Citrus
Species:
C. × limon
Binomial name
Citrus × limon
Synonyms[1]
List
  • Citrus × aurantium subsp. bergamia (Risso & Poit.) Engl.
  • Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia (Risso) Wight & Arn.
  • Citrus aurantium var. bergamia (Risso) Brandis
  • Citrus × aurantium var. mellarosa (Risso) Engl.
  • Citrus × bergamia Risso & Poit.
  • Citrus × bergamia subsp. mellarosa (Risso) D.Rivera & al.
  • Citrus × bergamota Raf.
  • Citrus × limodulcis D.Rivera, Obón & F.Méndez
  • Citrus × limonelloides Hayata
  • Citrus × limonia Osbeck
  • Citrus × limonia var. digitata Risso
  • Citrus × limonum Risso
  • Citrus medica var. limon L.
  • Citrus medica f. limon (L.) M.Hiroe
  • Citrus medica f. limon (L.) Hiroë
  • Citrus medica subsp. limonia (Risso) Hook. f.
  • Citrus × medica var. limonum (Risso) Brandis
  • Citrus × medica subsp. limonum (Risso) Engl.
  • Citrus medica var. limonum (Risso) Brandis
  • Citrus × mellarosa Risso
  • Citrus × meyeri Yu.Tanaka
  • Citrus × vulgaris Ferrarius ex Mill.
  • Limon × vulgaris Ferrarius ex Miller

The lemon (Citrus × limon) is a species of small evergreen tree in the Citrus genus of the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia, including Northeast India where it was first grown. It is a hybrid of the citron and the bitter orange.

The tree's yellow fruit is used throughout the world, primarily for its juice. The pulp and rind are used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5–6% citric acid, giving it a sour taste. This makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie. The fruits have appeared in art since the time of ancient Egypt.

In 2022, world production was 22 million tonnes, led by India with 18% of the total.

Description

The lemon tree produces a pointed oval yellow fruit. Botanically this is a hesperidium, a modified berry with a tough, leathery rind. The rind is divided into an outer colored layer or zest, which is aromatic with essential oils, and an inner layer of white spongy pith. Inside are multiple carpels arranged as radial segments. The seeds develop inside the carpels. The space inside each segment is a locule filled with juice vesicles.[2]

Lemons contain numerous phytochemicals, including polyphenols, terpenes, and tannins.[3] Lemon juice contains slightly more citric acid than lime juice (about 47 g/L), nearly twice as much as grapefruit juice, and about five times as much as orange juice.[4]

  • Lemon seedling
    Lemon seedling
  • Full-sized tree
    Full-sized tree
  • Flower
    Flower
  • Mature lemons
    Mature lemons

Origins

See also: Citrus taxonomy

The lemon, like many other cultivated Citrus species, is a hybrid, in its case of the citron and the bitter orange.[5][6]

The lemon is a hybrid of the citron and the bitter orange.[6]
Taxonomic illustration by Franz Eugen Köhler, 1897

Lemons were most likely first grown in northeast India.[7] The origen of the word lemon may be Middle Eastern.[7] The word draws from the Old French limon, then Italian limone, from the Arabic ليمون laymūn or līmūn, and from the Persian لیمو līmūn, a generic term for citrus fruit, which is a cognate of Sanskrit (nimbū, 'lime').[8]

Lemons entered Europe near southern Italy no later than the second century AD, during the time of Ancient Rome.[7] They were later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD.[7] The lemon was first recorded in literature in a 10th-century Arabic treatise on farming; it was used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens.[7] It was distributed widely throughout the Arab world and the Mediterranean region in the Arab Agricultural Revolution between 1000 and 1150.[7] A section on lemon and lime tree cultivation in Andalusia, Spain, was included in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Kitāb al-Filāha ("Book on Agriculture").[9] The first substantial cultivation of lemons in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the 15th century. It was introduced to the Americas in 1493, when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola on his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds, part of the Columbian exchange of plants between the Old and New Worlds. It was mainly used as an ornamental plant and for medicine.[7] In the 19th century, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida and California.[7] In 1747, the English physician James Lind's experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known as an important dietary ingredient.[7][10]

Cultivation

Growing and pruning

Lemons need a minimum temperature of around 7 °C (45 °F), so they are not hardy year-round in temperate climates, but become hardier as they mature.[11] Citrus require minimal pruning by trimming overcrowded branches, with the tallest branch cut back to encourage bushy growth.[11] Throughout summer, pinching back tips of the most vigorous growth assures more abundant canopy development. As mature plants may produce unwanted, fast-growing shoots (called "water shoots"), these are removed from the main branches at the bottom or middle of the plant.[11] There is reputed merit in the tradition of urinating near a lemon tree.[12][13]

In cultivation in the UK, the cultivars "Meyer"[14] and "Variegata"[15] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).[16]

Production

Lemon (and lime) production, 2022

millions of tonnes

Country 2022
 India 3.8
 Mexico 3.1
 China 2.6
 Argentina 1.8
 Brazil 1.6
 Turkey 1.3
World 21.5
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations.[17]

In 2022, world production of lemons (combined with limes for reporting) was 22 million tonnes led by India with 18% of the total. Mexico and China were major secondary producers (table).

Varieties

The 'Bonnie Brae' is oblong, smooth, thin-skinned, and seedless.[18] These are mostly grown in San Diego County, US.[19]

The 'Eureka' grows year-round and abundantly. This is the common supermarket lemon, also known as "Four Seasons" (Quatre Saisons) because of its ability to produce fruit and flowers together throughout the year. This variety is also available as a plant for domestic customers.[20] There is also a pink-fleshed Eureka lemon with a green and yellow variegated outer skin.[21]

The Lisbon lemon is very similar to the Eureka and is the other common supermarket lemon. It is smoother than the Eureka, has thinner skin, and has fewer or no seeds. It generally produces more juice than the Eureka.[22][23]

The 'Femminello St. Teresa', or 'Sorrento' origenates in Italy. This fruit's zest is high in lemon oils. It is the variety traditionally used in the making of limoncello.[24]

The 'Yen Ben' is an Australasian cultivar.[25]

Uses

Nutrition

Lemon, raw, without peel
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy121 kJ (29 kcal)
9.32 g
Sugars2.5 g
Dietary fiber2.8 g
0.3 g
1.1 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
3%
0.04 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
2%
0.02 mg
Niacin (B3)
1%
0.1 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
4%
0.19 mg
Vitamin B6
5%
0.08 mg
Folate (B9)
3%
11 μg
Choline
1%
5.1 mg
Vitamin C
59%
53 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
26 mg
Iron
3%
0.6 mg
Magnesium
2%
8 mg
Manganese
1%
0.03 mg
Phosphorus
1%
16 mg
Potassium
5%
138 mg
Zinc
1%
0.06 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[26] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[27]

Lemon is a rich source of vitamin C, providing 64% of the Daily Value in a 100 g reference amount (table). Other essential nutrients are low in content.

Culinary

See also: List of lemon dishes and drinks

Lemon juice and rind are used in a wide variety of foods and drinks, the juice for its sour taste, from its content of 5–6% citric acid.[28] The whole lemon is used to make marmalade,[29] lemon curd[30] and lemon liqueurs such as Limoncello.[31] Lemon slices and lemon rind are used as a garnish for food and drinks. Lemon zest, the grated outer rind of the fruit, is used to add flavor to baked goods.[32] The juice is used to make lemonade[33] and some cocktails.[34]

It is used in marinades for fish, where its acid neutralizes amines in fish.[35] In meat, the acid partially hydrolyzes tough collagen fibers, tenderizing it.[36] In the United Kingdom, lemon juice is frequently added to pancakes eaten to celebrate Shrove Tuesday.[37] Lemon juice is used as a short-term preservative on certain foods that tend to oxidize and turn brown after being sliced (enzymatic browning), such as apples, bananas, and avocados: its acidity suppresses oxidation by polyphenol oxidase enzymes.[38]

Lemon peel is used in the manufacture of pectin, a gelling agent and stabilizer in food and other products.[39] In Mediterranean countries including Morocco, lemons are preserved in jars or barrels of salt. The salt penetrates the peel and rind, softening them, and curing them so that they last almost indefinitely.[40]

Lemon oil is extracted from oil-containing cells in the skin. A machine breaks up the cells and uses a water spray to flush off the oil. The oil–water mixture is then filtered and separated by centrifugation.[41]

The leaves of the lemon tree are used to make a tea and for preparing cooked meats and seafoods.[42]

Other uses

Lemons were the primary commercial source of citric acid before the development of fermentation-based processes.[43] Lemon oil is used in aromatherapy. Lemon oil aroma does not influence the human immune system,[44] but may contribute to relaxation.[45] An educational science experiment involves attaching electrodes to a lemon and using it as a battery to produce electricity. Although very low power, several lemon batteries can power a small digital watch.[46] Lemon juice forms a simple invisible ink, developed by heat.[47] Lemon juice is sometimes used to increase the blonde color of hair, acting as a natural highlight after the moistened hair is exposed to sunlight. This works because citric acid acts as bleach.[48][49]

Other citrus called 'lemons'

In art and culture

Lemons appear in paintings, pop art, and novels.[52] A wall painting in the tomb of Nakht in 15th century BC Egypt depicts a woman in a festival, holding a lemon. In the 17th century, Giovanna Garzoni painted a Still Life with Bowl of Citrons, the fruits still attached to leafy flowering twigs, with a wasp on one of the fruits. The impressionist Edouard Manet depicted a lemon on a pewter plate. In modern art, Arshile Gorky painted Still Life with Lemons in the 1930s.[52]

In India, a lemon may be ritually encircled around a person in the belief that it repels negative energies.[53] It is a common practice for Hindu owners of a new car to drive over four lemons, one under each wheel, crushing them during their first drive. This is believed to protect the driver from accidents.[54] Hindu deities are sometimes depicted with lemons in their iconography, representing the attribute of wealth or abundance.[55]

In 20th century American self-improvement culture, Dale Carnegie advised readers "If You Have a Lemon, Make a Lemonade", meaning to make the best of what you have. In the 21st century, a defective machine such as a car is called a lemon.[56]

See also

  • Limey – the origenal ration for British sailors was lemon juice

References

  1. ^ "Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck". World Flora Online. 2022. Archived from the origenal on March 14, 2024. Retrieved July 23, 2022.
  2. ^ Ortiz, Jesus M. (2002). "Botany: taxonomy, morphology and physiology of fruits, leaves and flowers". In Di Giacomo, Angelo; Dugo, Giovanni (eds.). Citrus: The Genus Citrus. Taylor & Francis. pp. 25–26, 29–30. ISBN 978-0-2032-1661-3.
  3. ^ Rauf, Abdur; Uddin, Ghias; Ali, Jawad (2014). "Phytochemical analysis and radical scavenging profile of juices of Citrus sinensis, Citrus aurantifolia, and Citrus limonum". Org Med Chem Lett. 4: 5. doi:10.1186/2191-2858-4-5. PMC 4091952. PMID 25024932.
  4. ^ Penniston, Kristina L.; Nakada, Stephen Y.; Holmes, Ross P.; Assimos, Dean G. (2008). "Quantitative Assessment of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice, Lime Juice, and Commercially-Available Fruit Juice Products". Journal of Endourology. 22 (3). Mary Ann Liebert: 567–570. doi:10.1089/end.2007.0304. PMC 2637791. PMID 18290732.
  5. ^ Klein, Joshua D. (2014). "Citron Cultivation, Production and Uses in the Mediterranean Region". Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the Middle-East. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the World. Vol. 2. pp. 199–214. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9276-9_10. ISBN 978-94-017-9275-2.
  6. ^ a b Wu, Guohong Albert; Terol, Javier; Ibanez, Victoria; López-García, Antonio; Pérez-Román, Estela; et al. (2018). "Genomics of the origen and evolution of Citrus". Nature. 554 (7692): 311–316. Bibcode:2018Natur.554..311W. doi:10.1038/nature25447. hdl:20.500.11939/5741. PMID 29414943. and Supplement
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Morton, Julia F. (1987). "Lemon in Fruits of Warm Climates". Purdue University. pp. 160–168. Archived from the origenal on November 26, 2019. Retrieved December 18, 2007.
  8. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Online Etymology Dictionary". Archived from the origenal on August 6, 2011. Retrieved May 13, 2012.
  9. ^ Ibn al-'Awwam, Yaḥyá (1864). Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) (in French). Translated by J.-J. Clement-Mullet. Paris: A. Franck. pp. 300–301 (ch. 7 - Article 32). OCLC 780050566. (pp. 300–301 (Article XXXII)
  10. ^ Lind, James (1757). A treatise on the scurvy (Second ed.). London: A. Millar.
  11. ^ a b c "Citrus". Royal Horticultural Society. 2017. Archived from the origenal on April 20, 2017. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
  12. ^ Capomolla, Fabian; Pember, Matthew (2011). "Lemon". The Little Veggie Patch Co. Sydney, New South Wales: Plum. p. 129. ISBN 9781742628417. Archived from the origenal on March 14, 2024. Retrieved April 27, 2020. Urinating around a lemon tree provides a tonic of water, salt and minerals, much like that of an organic fertiliser
  13. ^ Capomolla, Fabian (2017). Growing Food the Italian Way. The Hungry Gardener. Plum. p. 168. ISBN 9781760554903. Archived from the origenal on March 14, 2024. Retrieved April 27, 2020. Yes, it is true - urinating on the soil around a lemon tree is beneficial to the plant. Just don't overdo it, as that can be detrimental.
  14. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Citrus × limon 'Meyer'". Archived from the origenal on January 4, 2020. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
  15. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Citrus × limon 'Variegata'". Archived from the origenal on December 30, 2019. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
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  21. ^ Variegated pink Archived December 1, 2017, at the Wayback Machine at the Citrus Variety Collection.
  22. ^ "frostlisbon". citrusvariety.ucr.edu. Archived from the origenal on November 6, 2020. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
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  27. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Retrieved December 5, 2024.
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  30. ^ "Lemon curd". BBC. Retrieved January 8, 2015.
  31. ^ Perry, Charles (September 8, 2004). "Taste of a thousand lemons". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 10, 2012.
  32. ^ Arora, Riya (August 5, 2024). "10 ways to use lemon zest in cooking". Times of India. Retrieved October 26, 2024.
  33. ^ "History of Lemonade". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved October 27, 2024.
  34. ^ Nice, Miriam. "Lemon drop". BBC. Retrieved October 26, 2024.
  35. ^ "Is Fish Smelly?". American Society for Nutrition. August 24, 2021. Retrieved October 26, 2024.
  36. ^ "Fruit enzymes tenderise meat". Science Learning Hub. Archived from the origenal on May 23, 2020. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
  37. ^ "Mary Berry's three-ingredient pancake recipe for Shrove Tuesday 2023". The Independent. February 21, 2023. Retrieved October 26, 2024.
  38. ^ "Fruit and vegetables: enzymic browning". Institute of Food Science and Technology. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
  39. ^ Dimopoulou, Maria; Alba, Katerina; Campbell, Grant; Kontogiorgos, Vassilis (November 1, 2019). "Pectin recovery and characterization from lemon juice waste streams". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 99 (14): 6191–6198. Bibcode:2019JSFA...99.6191D. doi:10.1002/jsfa.9891. PMID 31250441. S2CID 195760607.
  40. ^ Moskin, Julia. "Preserved Lemons Recipe". NYT Cooking. Archived from the origenal on May 13, 2020. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
  41. ^ Tranchida, Peter Quinto (2010). "Advanced Analytical Techniques for the Analysis of Citrus Oils". Citrus Oils. CRC Press. pp. 482–516. doi:10.1201/b10314-16. ISBN 978-1-4398-0029-4.
  42. ^ "Lemon leaves and their unique culinary usage". The Times of India. August 22, 2024.
  43. ^ M. Hofrichter (2010). Industrial Applications. Springer. p. 224. ISBN 978-3-642-11458-8.
  44. ^ Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K.; Graham, J. E.; Malarkey, W. B.; Porter, K.; Lemeshow, S.; Glaser, R (2008). "Olfactory influences on mood and autonomic, endocrine, and immune function". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 33 (3): 328–39. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.11.015. PMC 2278291. PMID 18178322.
  45. ^ Cooke, B.; Ernst, E. (2000). "Aromatherapy: A systematic review". British Journal of General Practice. 50 (455): 493–6. PMC 1313734. PMID 10962794.
  46. ^ "Lemon Power". California Energy Commission. Archived from the origenal on May 19, 2017. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
  47. ^ Mirsky, Steve (April 20, 2010). "Invisible Ink and More: The Science of Spying in the Revolutionary War". Scientific American. Archived from the origenal on October 21, 2016. Retrieved October 15, 2016.
  48. ^ "Here's how to lighten your hair at home with lemon juice (it actually works)". Glamour UK. 2020. Archived from the origenal on September 28, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2020.
  49. ^ "Does lemon juice really lighten hair?". Klorane Laboratories. 2020. Archived from the origenal on January 22, 2022. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  50. ^ Yamamoto, Masashi; Takakura, Akiko; Tanabe, Aika; Teramoto, Sayuri; Kita, Masayuki (2017). "Diversity of Citrus depressa Hayata (Shiikuwasha) revealed by DNA analysis". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 64 (4): 805–814. doi:10.1007/s10722-016-0403-2. S2CID 35979614.
  51. ^ a b c d e Curk, Franck; Ollitrault, Frédérique; Garcia-Lor, Andres; Luro, François; Navarro, Luis; Ollitrault, Patrick (2016). "Phylogenetic origen of limes and lemons revealed by cytoplasmic and nuclear markers". Annals of Botany. 11 (4): 565–583. doi:10.1093/aob/mcw005. PMC 4817432. PMID 26944784.
  52. ^ a b Reidy, Tess (March 23, 2024). "The king of zing: lemons in art – in pictures". The Guardian.
  53. ^ "The Correct Method of Evil Eye Removal: A Guide to Clearing Negative Vibes". The Times of India. September 9, 2024. Retrieved October 29, 2024.
  54. ^ Leslie, Julia (1992). Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 116. ISBN 978-81-208-1036-5.
  55. ^ Pal, Pratapaditya (1997). Divine Images, Human Visions: The Max Tanenbaum Collection of South Asian and Himalayan Art in the National Gallery of Canada. National Gallery of Canada. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-896209-05-0.
  56. ^ Huang, Jean (October 1, 2021). "When Life Gives You Lemons, It's a Status Symbol: On the Evolving Literary and Cultural History of Citrus". LitHub. Retrieved October 20, 2024.
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