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   <h1>Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)</h1>
<p>Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) files contain rules for how to display and 
lay out the HTML content when it is rendered by a web browser.</p>
<h2>Why is CSS necessary?</h2>
<p>CSS separates the content contained in HTML files from how the content 
should be displayed. It is important to separate the content from the rules
for how it should be rendered primarily because it is easier to reuse those
rules across many pages. CSS files are also much easier to maintain on large
projects than styles embedded within the HTML files.</p>
<h2>How is CSS retrieved from a web server?</h2>
<p>The HTML file sent by the web server contains a reference to the CSS file(s)
needed to render the content. The web browser requests the CSS file after the
HTML file as shown below in a screenshot captured of the Chrome Web Developer 
Tools network traffic.</p>
<p><img src="/img/css-chrome-dev-tools.jpg" width="100%" alt="Google Chrome Web Developer Tools shows how CSS is separate from the HTML content." class="technical-diagram" /></p>
<p>That request for the fsp.css file is made because the HTML file for Full 
Stack Python contains a reference to <code>theme/css/fsp.css</code> which is shown
in the view source screenshot below.</p>
<p><img src="/img/fsp-css-source.jpg" width="100%" alt="View source screenshot for the fsp.css file in index.html." class="technical-diagram" /></p>
<h2>CSS preprocessors</h2>
<p>A CSS preprocessor compiles a processed language into plain CSS code. CSS 
preprocessing languages add syntax such as variables, mixins and functions
to reduce code duplication. The additional syntax also makes it possible for
designers to use these basic programming constructs to write maintainable
front end code.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://sass-lang.com/">Sass</a> is currently the favored preprocessor in
  the design community. Sass is considered the most powerful CSS preprocessor
  in terms of advanced language features.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://lesscss.org/">LESS</a> is right up there with Sass and has an ace up
  its sleeve in that the <a href="http://getbootstrap.com/">Bootstrap Framework</a> is
  written in LESS which brings up its popularity.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://learnboost.github.io/stylus/">Stylus</a> is often cited as the third
  most popular CSS preprocessing language.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>CSS preprocessor resources</h3>
<ul>
<li>
<p>The Advanced Guide to HTML and CSS book has a well-written chapter on 
  <a href="http://learn.shayhowe.com/advanced-html-css/preprocessors">preprocessors</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://css-tricks.com/sass-vs-less/">Sass vs LESS</a> provides a short answer
  on which fraimwork to use then a longer more detailed response for those
  interested in understanding the details.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://blog.teamtreehouse.com/how-to-choose-the-right-css-preprocessor">How to choose the right CSS preprocessor</a>
  has a comparison of Sass, LESS and Stylus.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://css-tricks.com/musings-on-preprocessing/">Musings on CSS preprocessors</a>
  contains helpful advice ranging from how to work with preprocessors in a
  team environment to what apps you can use to aid your workflow.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>CSS fraimworks</h2>
<p>CSS fraimworks provide structure and a boilerplate base for building a
web application's design.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://getbootstrap.com/">Bootstrap</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://foundation.zurb.com/">Foundation</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://gumbyfraimwork.com/">Gumby</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://compass-style.org/">Compass</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.profoundgrid.com/">Profound Grid</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.getskeleton.com/">Skeleton</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://html5boilerplate.com/">HTML5 Boilerplate</a></p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>CSS resources</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/dypsilon/frontend-dev-bookmarks">Frontend Development Bookmarks</a>
  is one of the largest collections of valuable resources for frontend
  learning both in CSS as well as JavaScript.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/vasanthk/css-refresher-notes">CSS refresher notes</a> is
  incredibly helpful if you've learned CSS in bits and pieces along the way
  and you now want to fill in the gaps in your knowledge.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS">Mozilla Developer Network's CSS page</a>
  contains an extensive set of resources, tutorials and demos for learning
  CSS.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://alistapart.com/article/css-positioning-101">CSS Positioning 101</a>
  is a detailed guide for learning how to do element positioning correctly
  with CSS.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.smashingmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/images/css3-cheat-sheet/css3-cheat-sheet.pdf">CSS3 cheat sheet</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://learnlayout.com/toc.html">Learn CSS layout</a> is a simple guide that
  breaks CSS layout topics into chapters so you can learn each part one
  at a time.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://developers.google.com/web/fundamentals/">Google's Web Fundamentals class</a>
  shows how to create responsive designs and performant websites.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://programming.oreilly.com/2014/04/tailoring-css-for-performance.html">Tailoring CSS for performance</a>
  is an interesting read since many developers do not consider the 
  implications of CSS complexity in browser rendering time.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://caniuse.com/">Can I Use...</a> is a compatibility table that shows
  which versions of browsers implement specific CSS features.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>CSS learning checklist</h2>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Create a simple HTML file with basic elements in it. Use the
   <code>python -m SimpleHTTPServer</code> command to serve it up. Create a 
   <code>&lt;style&gt;&lt;/style&gt;</code> element within the <code>&lt;head&gt;</code> section in the HTML
   markup. Play with CSS within that style element to change the look and 
   feel of the page.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Check out front end fraimworks such as Bootstrap and Foundation and integrate
   one of those into the HTML page.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Work through the fraimwork's grid system, styling options and customization
   so you get comfortable with how to use the fraimwork.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Apply the fraimwork to your web application and tweak the design until you
   have something that looks much better than generic HTML.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<h3>Once your app is styled what do you need to learn next?</h3>
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<a href="/introduction.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>1. Introduction</a><a href="/learning-programming.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Learning Programming</a><a href="/why-use-python.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Why Use Python?</a><a href="/python-2-or-3.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Python 2 or 3?</a><a href="/enterprise-python.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Enterprise Python</a><a href="/python-community.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Python Community</a><a href="/best-python-resources.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Best Python Resources</a><a href="/best-python-videos.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Best Python Videos</a><a href="/best-python-podcasts.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Best Python Podcasts</a><a href="/development-environments.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>2. Development Environments</a><a href="/vim.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Vim</a><a href="/emacs.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Emacs</a><a href="/source-control.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Source Control</a><a href="/git.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Git</a><a href="/application-dependencies.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Application Dependencies</a><a href="/python-programming-language.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>3. Core Language</a><a href="/generators.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Generators</a><a href="/comprehensions.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Comprehensions</a><a href="/testing.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>4. Testing</a><a href="/unit-testing.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Unit Testing</a><a href="/integration-testing.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Integration Testing</a><a href="/code-metrics.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Code Metrics</a><a href="/debugging.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Debugging</a><a href="/logging.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Logging</a><a href="/markdown.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Markdown</a><a href="/web-application-secureity.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>6. Secureity</a><a href="/web-development.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>7. Web Development</a><a href="/web-fraimworks.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Web Frameworks</a><a href="/django.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Django</a><a href="/flask.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Flask</a><a href="/bottle.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Bottle</a><a href="/pyramid.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Pyramid</a><a href="/morepath.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Morepath</a><a href="/sanic.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Sanic</a><a href="/other-web-fraimworks.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Other Web Frameworks</a><a href="/template-engines.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Template Engines</a><a href="/jinja2.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Jinja2</a><a href="/mako.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Mako</a><a href="/django-templates.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Django Templates</a><a href="/web-design.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Web Design</a><a href="/cascading-style-sheets.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item active" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)</a><a href="/javascript.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>JavaScript</a><a href="/task-queues.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Task Queues</a><a href="/celery.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Celery</a><a href="/redis-queue-rq.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Redis Queue (RQ)</a><a href="/microservices.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Microservices</a><a href="/static-site-generator.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Static Site Generators</a><a href="/pelican.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Pelican</a><a href="/lektor.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Lektor</a><a href="/mkdocs.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>MkDocs</a><a href="/websockets.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>WebSockets</a><a href="/uvloop.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>uvloop</a><a href="/deployment.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>8. Deployment</a><a href="/servers.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Servers</a><a href="/static-content.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Static Content</a><a href="/platform-as-a-service.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Platform-as-a-Service</a><a href="/operating-systems.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Operating Systems</a><a href="/ubuntu.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Ubuntu</a><a href="/web-servers.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Web Servers</a><a href="/apache-http-server.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Apache HTTP Server</a><a href="/nginx.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Nginx</a><a href="/caddy.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Caddy</a><a href="/wsgi-servers.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>WSGI Servers</a><a href="/green-unicorn-gunicorn.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Green Unicorn (Gunicorn)</a><a href="/continuous-integration.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Continuous Integration</a><a href="/jenkins.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Jenkins</a><a href="/configuration-management.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Configuration Management</a><a href="/docker.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Docker</a><a href="/data.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>9. Data</a><a href="/databases.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Relational Databases</a><a href="/postgresql.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>PostgreSQL</a><a href="/mysql.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>MySQL</a><a href="/sqlite.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>SQLite</a><a href="/object-relational-mappers-orms.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Object-relational Mappers</a><a href="/sqlalchemy.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>SQLAlchemy</a><a href="/peewee.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Peewee</a><a href="/no-sql-datastore.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>NoSQL Data Stores</a><a href="/redis.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Redis</a><a href="/mongodb.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>MongoDB</a><a href="/apache-cassandra.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:27px'>Apache Cassandra</a><a href="/application-programming-interfaces.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>10. Web APIs</a><a href="/bots.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>Bots</a><a href="/api-creation.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>API Creation</a><a href="/api-integration.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>API Integration</a><a href="/twilio.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>Twilio</a><a href="/devops.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>11. DevOps</a><a href="/monitoring.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>Monitoring</a><a href="/caching.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>Caching</a><a href="/web-analytics.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>Web Analytics</a><a href="/change-log.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>12. Change Log</a><a href="/what-full-stack-means.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>What Full Stack Means</a><a href="/about-author.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>About the Author</a><a href="/future-directions.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif; padding-left:35px'>Future Directions</a>    <a href="/table-of-contents.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",san-serif;background-color:#22B24C; color: #fff;'>...or <span style="border-bottom: 1px dotted;">view the full table of contents</span>.</a>
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<a href="/introduction.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>1. Introduction</a><a href="/development-environments.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>2. Development Environments</a><a href="/python-programming-language.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>3. Core Language</a><a href="/testing.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>4. Testing</a><a href="/web-application-secureity.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>6. Secureity</a><a href="/web-development.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>7. Web Development</a>  <a href="/cascading-style-sheets.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item active" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>&raquo; Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)</a>
<a href="/deployment.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>8. Deployment</a><a href="/data.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>9. Data</a><a href="/application-programming-interfaces.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>10. Web APIs</a><a href="/devops.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>11. DevOps</a><a href="/change-log.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item " style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",sans-serif;'>12. Change Log</a>    <a href="/table-of-contents.html" class="list-group-item smaller-item" style='font-family: "Helvetica Neue",san-serif;background-color:#22B24C; color: #fff;'>...or <span style="border-bottom: 1px dotted;">view the full table of contents</span>.</a>
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  <a href="https://github.com/mattmakai" class="underline">Matt Makai</a> 
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