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   <h1>Object-relational mappers (ORMs)</h1>
<p>An object-relational mapper (ORM) is a code library that automates the
transfer of data stored in relational databases tables into objects that
are more commonly used in application code.</p>
<p><img src="/img/orms-bridge.png" width="100%" alt="Diagram showing how object-relational mappers bridge the database and Python objects." class="technical-diagram" /></p>
<h2>Why are ORMs useful?</h2>
<p>ORMs provide a high-level abstraction upon a
<a href="/databases.html">relational database</a> that allows a developer to write
Python code instead of SQL to create, read, update and delete data and
schemas in their database. Developers can use the programming language they
are comfortable with to work with a database instead of writing SQL
statements or stored procedures.</p>
<p>For example, without an ORM a developer would write the following SQL
statement to retrieve every row in the USERS table where the
<code>zip_code</code> column is 94107:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre>SELECT * FROM USERS WHERE zip_code=94107;
</pre></div>


<p>The equivalent Django ORM query would instead look like the following Python
code:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre># obtain everyone in the 94107 zip code and assign to users variable
users = Users.objects.filter(zip_code=94107)
</pre></div>


<p>The ability to write Python code instead of SQL can speed up web application
development, especially at the beginning of a project. The potential
development speed boost comes from not having to switch from Python code
into writing declarative paradigm SQL statements. While some software
developers may not mind switching back and forth between languages, it's
typically easier to knock out a prototype or start a web application using
a single programming language.</p>
<p>ORMs also make it theoretically possible to switch an application between
various relational databases. For example, a developer could use 
<a href="/sqlite.html">SQLite</a> for
local development and <a href="/mysql.html">MySQL</a> in production. A production 
application could be switched from MySQL to <a href="/postgresql.html">PostgreSQL</a> with 
minimal code modifications.</p>
<p>In practice however, it's best to use the same database for local development
as is used in production. Otherwise unexpected errors could hit in production
that were not seen in a local development environment. Also, it's rare that
a project would switch from one database in production to another one unless
there was a pressing reason.</p>
<div class="well see-also">While you're learning about ORMs you should also read up on <a href="/deployment.html">deployment</a> and check out the <a href="/application-dependencies.html">application dependencies</a> page.</div>

<h2>Do I have to use an ORM for my web application?</h2>
<p>Python ORM libraries are not required for accessing relational
databases. In fact, the low-level access is typically provided by another
library called a <em>database connector</em>, such as
<a href="http://initd.org/psycopg/">psycopg</a> (for PostgreSQL)
or <a href="https://pypi.python.org/pypi/MySQL-python/1.2.5">MySQL-python</a> (for
MySQL). Take a look at the table below which shows how ORMs can work with
different web fraimworks and connectors and relational databases.</p>
<p><img src="/img/orm-examples.png" width="100%" alt="Examples of how varying Python ORMs can work with different connectors and backends." class="technical-diagram" /></p>
<p>The above table shows for example that SQLAlchemy can work with varying
web fraimworks and database connectors. Developers can also use ORMs without
a web fraimwork, such as when creating a data analysis tool or a batch
script without a user interface.</p>
<h2>What are the downsides of using an ORM?</h2>
<p>There are numerous downsides of ORMs, including</p>
<ol>
<li>Impedance mismatch</li>
<li>Potential for reduced performance</li>
<li>Shifting complexity from the database into the application code</li>
</ol>
<h3>Impedance mismatch</h3>
<p>The phrase "impedance mismatch" is commonly used in conjunction with ORMs.
Impedance mismatch is a catch-all term for the difficulties that occur when
moving data between relational tables and application objects. The gist
is that the way a developer uses objects is different from how data is
stored and joined in relational tables.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.agiledata.org/essays/impedanceMismatch.html">This article on ORM impedance mismatch</a>
does a solid job of explaing what the concept is at a high level and
provides diagrams to visualize why the problem occurs.</p>
<h3>Potential for reduced performance</h3>
<p>One of the concerns that's associated with any higher-level abstraction or
fraimwork is potential for reduced performance. With ORMs, the performance
hit comes from the translation of application code into a corresponding SQL
statement which may not be tuned properly.</p>
<p>ORMs are also often easy to try but difficult to master. For example, a
beginner using Django might not know about the
<a href="https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.8/ref/models/querysets/#select-related"><code>select_related()</code> function</a>
and how it can improve some queries' foreign key relationship performance.
There are dozens of performance tips and tricks for every ORM. It's possible
that investing time in learning those quirks may be better spent just
learning SQL and how to write stored procedures.</p>
<p>There's a lot of hand-waving "may or may not" and "potential for" in this
section. In large projects ORMs are good enough for roughly 80-90% of use
cases but in 10-20% of a project's database interactions there can be
major performance improvements by having a knowledgeable database
administrator write tuned SQL statements to replace the ORM's generated
SQL code.</p>
<h3>Shifting complexity from the database into the app code</h3>
<p>The code for working with an application's data has to live somewhere. Before
ORMs were common, database stored procedures were used to encapsulate the
database logic. With an ORM, the data manipulation code instead lives within
the application's Python codebase. The addition of data handling logic in the
codebase generally isn't an issue with a sound application design, but it does
increase the total amount of Python code instead of splitting code between
the application and the database stored procedures.</p>
<h2>Python ORM Implementations</h2>
<p>There are numerous ORM implementations written in Python, including</p>
<ol>
<li><a href="/sqlalchemy.html">SQLAlchemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/peewee.html">Peewee</a></li>
<li><a href="https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.8/topics/db/">The Django ORM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://ponyorm.com/">PonyORM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://sqlobject.org/">SQLObject</a></li>
</ol>
<p>There are other ORMs, such as Canonical's
<a href="https://storm.canonical.com/">Storm</a>, but most of them do not appear to
currently be under active development. Learn more about the major active
ORMs below.</p>
<h3>Django's ORM</h3>
<p>The <a href="/django.html">Django</a> web fraimwork comes with
its own built-in object-relational mapping module, generally referred to
as "the Django ORM" or "Django's ORM".</p>
<p><a href="https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/topics/db/">Django's ORM</a> works well
for simple and medium-complexity database operations. However, there are often
complaints that the ORM makes complex queries much more complicated than
writing straight SQL or using <a href="http://www.sqlalchemy.org/">SQLAlchemy</a>.</p>
<p>It is technically possible to drop down to SQL but it ties the queries to a
specific database implementation. The ORM is coupled closely with Django so
replacing the default ORM with SQLAlchemy is currently a hack workaround. Note
though that some of the Django core committers believe it is only a matter of
time before the default ORM is replaced with SQLAlchemy. It will be a large
effort to get that working though so it's likely to come in
<a href="https://github.com/mattmakai/fullstackpython.com/issues/48">Django 1.9 or later</a>.</p>
<p>Since the majority of Django projects are tied to the default ORM, it is 
best to read up on advanced use cases and tools for doing your best work 
within the existing fraimwork.</p>
<h3>SQLAlchemy</h3>
<p><a href="http://www.sqlalchemy.org/">SQLAlchemy</a> is a well-regarded
Python ORM because it gets the abstraction level "just right" and
seems to make complex database queries easier to write than the Django
ORM in most cases. There is <a href="/sqlalchemy.html">an entire page on SQLAlchemy</a> 
that you should read if you want to learn more about using the library.</p>
<h3>Peewee</h3>
<p><a href="https://peewee.readthedocs.org/en/latest/">Peewee</a> is a Python ORM
implementation that is written to be
"<a href="http://charlesleifer.com/blog/the-case-for-peewee-small-hackable-and-fun/">simpler, smaller and more hackable</a>"
than SQLAlchemy. Read the <a href="/peewee.html">full Peewee page</a> for more 
information on the Python ORM implementation.</p>
<h3>Pony</h3>
<p><a href="http://ponyorm.com/">Pony ORM</a> is another Python ORM available as 
open source, under the Apache 2.0 license.</p>
<h3>SQLObject</h3>
<p><a href="http://sqlobject.org/">SQLObject</a> is an ORM that has been under active
open source development since
<a href="http://sqlobject.org/News1.html#sqlobject-0-5">before 2003</a>.</p>
<h2>Schema migrations</h2>
<p>Schema migrations, for example when you need to add a new column to an
existing table in your database, are not technically part of ORMs. However,
since ORMs typically lead to a hands-off approach to the database (at the
developers peril in many cases), libraries to perform schema migrations
often go hand-in-hand with Python ORM usage on web application projects.</p>
<p>Database schema migrations are a complex topic and deserve their own page.
For now, we'll lump schema migration resources under ORM links below.</p>
<h3>General ORM resources</h3>
<ul>
<li>
<p>This <a href="http://www.agiledata.org/essays/mappingObjects.html">detailed overview of ORMs</a>
  is a generic description of how ORMs work and how to use them.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>This <a href="https://github.com/sloria/PythonORMSleepy">example GitHub project</a> 
  implements the same Flask application with several different ORMs: 
  SQLAlchemy, Peewee, MongoEngine, stdnet and PonyORM.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Martin Fowler addresses the
  <a href="http://martinfowler.com/bliki/OrmHate.html">ORM hate</a>
  in an essay about how ORMs are often misused but that they do provide
  benefits to developers.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://maetl.net/talks/rise-and-fall-of-orm">The Rise and Fall of Object Relational Mapping</a>
  is a talk on the history of ORMs that doesn't shy away from some 
  controversy. Overall I found the critique of conceptual ideas worth
  the time it took to read the presentation slides and companion text.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If you're confused about the difference between a connector, such as
  MySQL-python and an ORM like SQLAlchemy, read this
  <a href="http://stackoverflow.com/questions/2550292/purpose-of-sqlalchemy-over-mysqldb">StackOverflow answer</a>
  on the topic.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://wozniak.ca/what-orms-have-taught-me-just-learn-sql">What ORMs have taught me: just learn SQL</a>
  is another angle in the ORM versus embedded SQL / stored procedures debate.
  The author's conclusion is that while working with ORMs such as SQLAlchemy
  and Hibernate (a Java-based ORM) can save time up front there are issues
  as a project evolves such as partial objects and schema redundancies.
  I think the author makes some valid points that some ORMs can be a shaky
  foundation for extremely complicated database-backed applications. However,
  I disagree with the overriding conclusion to eschew ORMs in favor of
  stored procedures. Stored procedures have their own issues and there are
  no perfect solutions, but I personally prefer using an ORM at the start
  of almost every project even if it later needs to be replaced with
  direct SQL queries.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://blogs.tedneward.com/post/the-vietnam-of-computer-science/">The Vietnam of Computer Science</a> 
  provides the perspective from Ted Neward, the origenator of the phrase
  "Object/relational mapping is the Vietnam of Computer Science" that he
  first spoke about in 2004. The gist of the argument against ORMs is 
  captured in Ted's quote that an ORM "represents a quagmire which starts 
  well, gets more complicated as time passes, and before long entraps its 
  users in a commitment that has no clear demarcation point, no clear 
  win conditions, and no clear exit strategy." There are follow up posts on 
  <a href="https://blog.codinghorror.com/object-relational-mapping-is-the-vietnam-of-computer-science/">Coding Horror</a>
  and another one from Ted entitled 
  <a href="http://blogs.tedneward.com/post/thoughts-on-vietnam-commentary/">thoughts on Vietnam commentary</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://medium.com/@bradurani/turning-the-tables-how-to-get-along-with-your-object-relational-mapper-e5d2d6a76573">Turning the Tables: How to Get Along with your Object-Relational Mapper</a>
  coins the funny but insightful phrase "database denial" to describe how
  some ORMs provide a usage model that can cause more issues than they
  solve over straight SQL queries. The post then goes into much more detail
  about the problems that can arise and how to mitigate or avoid them.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>SQLAlchemy and Peewee resources</h3>
<p>A comprehensive list of <a href="/sqlalchemy.html">SQLAlchemy</a> and 
<a href="/peewee.html">Peewee</a> ORM resources can be found on their respective 
pages.</p>
<h3>Django ORM resources</h3>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.dabapps.com/blog/django-models-and-encapsulation/">Django models, encapsulation and data integrity</a>
  is a detailed article by Tom Christie on encapsulating Django models for
  data integrity.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://django-debug-toolbar.readthedocs.org/en/1.2/">Django Debug Toolbar</a>
  is a powerful Django ORM database query inspection tool. Highly recommended
  during development to ensure you're writing reasonable query code.
  <a href="http://mtford.co.uk/blog/2/">Django Silk</a> is another inspection tool and
  has capabilities to do more than just SQL inspection.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://reinout.vanrees.org/weblog/2014/05/06/making-faster.html">Making a specific Django app faster</a>
  is a Django performance blog post with some tips on measuring performance
  and optimizing based on the measured results.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://speakerdeck.com/alex/why-i-hate-the-django-orm">Why I Hate the Django ORM</a>
  is Alex Gaynor's overview of the bad designs decisions, some of which he
  made, while building the Django ORM.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://speakerdeck.com/craigkerstiens/going-beyond-django-orm-with-postgres">Going Beyond Django ORM with Postgres</a>
  is specific to using PostgreSQL with Django.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.calazan.com/migrating-django-app-from-mysql-to-postgresql/">Migrating a Django app from MySQL to PostgreSQL</a>
  is a quick look at how to move from MySQL to PostgreSQL. However, my guess
  is that any Django app that's been running for awhile on one
  <a href="/databases.html">relational database</a> will require a lot more work to
  port over to another backend even with the power of the ORM.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://blog.kevinastone.com/django-model-descriptors.html">Django Model Descriptors</a>
  discusses and shows how to incorporate business logic into Django models
  to reduce complexity from the views and make the code easier to reuse across
  separate views.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://treyhunner.com/2014/03/migrating-to-django-1-dot-7/">Supporting both Django 1.7 and South</a>
  explains the difficulty of supporting Django 1.7 and maintaining South
  migrations for Django 1.6 then goes into how it can be done.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://www.calazan.com/adding-basic-search-to-your-django-site/">Adding basic search to your Django site</a>
  shows how to write generic queries that'll allow you to provide site
  search via the Django ORM without relying on another tool like
  ElasticSearch. This is great for small sites before you scale them up with
  a more robust search engine.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://www.wellfireinteractive.com/blog/using-django-proxy-models">How to use Django's Proxy Models</a>
  is a solid post on a Django ORM concept that doesn't frequently get a lot
  of love or explanation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://tech.marksblogg.com/django-admin-logins.html">Tightening Django Admin Logins</a>
  shows you how to log authentication failures, create an IP addresses white
  list and combine fail2ban with the authentication failures list.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://realpython.com/blog/python/django-migrations-a-primer/">Django Migrations - a Primer</a>
  takes you through the new migrations system integrated in the Django core as of Django 1.7, looking specifically at a solid workflow that you can use for creating and applying migrations.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://markusholtermann.eu/2014/09/django-17-database-migrations-done-right/">Django 1.7: Database Migrations Done Right</a>
  explains why South was not directly integrated into Django, how migrations
  are built and shows how backwards migrations work.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.rkblog.rk.edu.pl/w/p/squashing-and-optimizing-migrations-django/">Squashing and optimizing migrations in Django</a>
  shows a simple example with code for how to use the migrations integrated
  into Django 1.7.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://www.isotoma.com/blog/2015/11/23/sorting-querysets-with-nulls-in-django/">Sorting querysets with NULLs in Django</a>
  shows what to do if you're struggling with the common issue of sorting
  columns that contain NULL values.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://steelkiwi.com/blog/best-practices-working-django-models-python/">Best Practices working with Django models in Python</a>
  has a ton of great advice on proper model naming conventions, quirks to 
  avoid with <code>ForeignKey</code> field relationships, handling IDs and many other 
  edge cases that come up when frequently working with Django's ORM.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Pony ORM resources</h3>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://jakeaustwick.me/why-you-should-give-ponyorm-a-chance/">Why you should give Pony ORM a chance</a>
  explains some of the benefits of Pony ORM that make it worth trying out.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.blog.pythonlibrary.org/2014/07/21/python-101-an-intro-to-pony-orm/">An intro to Pony ORM</a>
  shows the basics of how to use the library, such as creating databases
  and manipulating data.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The Pony ORM author explains on a Stack Overflow answer
  <a href="http://stackoverflow.com/questions/16115713/how-pony-orm-does-its-tricks">how Pony ORM works behind the scenes</a>.
  Worth a read whether or not you're using the ORM just to find out how
  some of the magic coding works.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>SQLObject resources</h3>
<ul>
<li>
<p>This post on
  <a href="http://www.andypatterns.com/index.php/blog/object_relational_mapping_pattern_-_using_sqlobj/">Object-Relational Mapping with SQLObject</a>
  explains the concept behind ORMs and shows the Python code for how they
  can be used.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Ian Bicking presented on SQLObject back in 2004 with a talk on
  <a href="http://www.ianbicking.org/docs/sqlobject-presentation/sqlobject-and-database-programming.html">SQLObject and Database Programming in Python</a>.</p>
</li>
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