Probable Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Kenya and Its Associated Risk Factors: A Cross-Sectional Household Survey
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Study Site
2.3. Study Participants
2.4. Study Procedures
2.5. Statistical Analysis
2.6. Ethics
3. Results
Trauma Screening Questionnaire | Scores | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Has a traumatic event or experience ever happened to you at any time in your life | Yes | 552 (48.2) | ||
No | 528 (46.1) | |||
Don’t apply | 66 (5.8) | |||
Have you experienced, at least twice in the past week: Feeling upset by reminders of the event | Yes | 250 (50.1) | ||
No | 241 (48.3) | |||
Don’t apply | 8 (1.6) | |||
Have you experienced, at least twice in the past week: Bodily reactions (such as fast heartbeat, stomach churning, sweatiness, dizziness) when reminded of the event | Yes | 166 (33.3) | ||
No | 317 (63.5) | |||
Don’t apply | 16 (3.2) | |||
Have you experienced, at least twice in the past week: Difficulty falling or staying asleep | Yes | 191 (38.3) | ||
No | 297 (59.5) | |||
Don’t apply | 11 (2.2) | |||
Have you experienced, at least twice in the past week: Irritability or outbursts of anger | Yes | 155 (31.2) | ||
No | 334 (67.2) | |||
Don’t apply | 8 (1.6) | |||
Have you experienced, at least twice in the past week: Difficulty concentrating | Yes | 144 (29.0) | ||
No | 344 (69.2) | |||
Don’t apply | 9 (1.8) | |||
Have you experienced, at least twice in the past week: Heightened awareness of potential dangers to yourself and others | Yes | 117 (23.6) | ||
No | 360 (72.6) | |||
Don’t apply | 19 (3.8) | |||
Have you experienced, at least twice in the past week: Being jumpy or being startled at something unexpected | Yes | 102 (20.5) | ||
No | 378 (75.9) | |||
Don’t apply | 18 (3.6) | |||
Total PTSD scores | 0 to 2 | 803 (70.1) | ||
3 to 5 | 222 (19.4) | |||
6 to 7 | 56 (4.9) | |||
Above 7 | 65 (5.6) | |||
Prevalence of probable PTSD (TSQ 6+): % (95% CI) | 10.6 (8.8–12.5) |
Factors | N | Prevalence: n (%) | Unadjusted OR (95% C.I) | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prevalence of PTSD | 1146 | 121 (10.6) | |||
Sex | Male | 601 | 40 (6.7) | 1 | - |
Female | 545 | 81 (14.9) | 2.4 (1.64–3.65) | <0.001 | |
Age group | <30 years | 281 | 39 (13.9) | 1 | - |
30–60 years | 448 | 52 (11.6) | 0.8 (0.52–1.27) | 0.367 | |
>60 years | 171 | 23 (13.5) | 1.0 (0.55–1.68) | 0.898 | |
Household size | ≤6 people | 566 | 61 (10.8) | 1 | - |
>6 people | 580 | 60 (10.3) | 1.0 (0.66–1.39) | 0.812 | |
Marital Status | Married/cohabiting | 714 | 65 (9.1) | 1 | - |
Single | 183 | 22 (12.0) | 1.4 (0.82–2.28) | 0.236 | |
Widowed/divorced | 248 | 34 (13.7) | 1.6 (1.01–2.47) | 0.041 | |
Education | None | 131 | 15 (11.5) | 1 | - |
Primary | 625 | 68 (10.9) | 0.9 (0.52–1.71) | 0.849 | |
Secondary | 319 | 35 (11.0) | 1.0 (0.50–1.81) | 0.883 | |
Post secondary | 71 | 3 (4.2) | 0.3 (0.10–1.22) | 0.098 | |
Employment status | Unemployed | 563 | 47 (8.4) | 1 | - |
Self employed | 484 | 67 (13.8) | 1.8 (1.19–2.62) | 0.005 | |
Employed | 99 | 7 (7.1) | 0.8 (0.37–1.91) | 0.669 | |
Positive | 269 | 30 (11.2) | 1.1 (0.72–1.79) | 0.584 | |
Asset Groups | Lowest, Q1 | 403 | 35 (8.7) | 1 | - |
Q2 | 409 | 50 (12.2) | 1.5 (0.93–2.31) | 0.101 | |
Highest, Q3 | 334 | 36 (10.8) | 1.3 (0.78–2.07) | 0.338 | |
Life events | 0–1 | 361 | 18 (5.0) | 1 | - |
2–3 | 476 | 48 (10.1) | 2.1 (1.22–3.74) | 0.008 | |
4 or more | 309 | 55 (17.8) | 4.1 (2.37–7.20) | <0.001 | |
Perceived lack of social support | No lack: 0 | 3 | 1 (33.3) | 1 | - |
Moderate lack: 1–7 | 312 | 31 (9.9) | 0.2 (0.02–2.50) | 0.223 | |
Severe lack: 8+ | 828 | 89 (10.8) | 0.2 (0.02–2.68) | 0.247 | |
Total social group size | 3 or less | 144 | 12 (8.3) | 1 | - |
–8 | 519 | 56 (10.8) | 1.3 (0.69–2.56) | 0.391 | |
9 or more | 480 | 53 (11.0) | 1.4 (0.71–2.63) | 0.352 | |
Presence of CMD | No | 1027 | 75 (7.3) | 1 | - |
Yes | 119 | 46 (38.7) | 8.0 (5.16–12.39) | <0.001 | |
Carer for >4 h | No | 26 | 3 (11.5) | 1 | - |
Yes | 171 | 14 (8.2) | 0.7 (0.18–2.56) | 0.573 | |
Spent time at institution <16 years | No | 919 | 84 (9.1) | 1 | - |
Yes | 220 | 37 (16.8) | 2.0 (1.32–3.05) | 0.001 | |
Did not live continuously with both natural parents until age 16 | No | 963 | 102 (10.6) | 1 | - |
Yes | 176 | 19 (10.8) | 1.0 (0.61–1.72) | 0.936 |
Factors | Adjusted OR * (95% C.I) | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Female | 2.0 (1.25 to 3.17) | 0.004 |
Marital status | Single | 1.8 (1.03 to 3.13) | 0.038 |
Widowed/divorced | 0.7 (0.44 to 1.29) | 0.294 | |
Employment | Self employed | 1.9 (1.24 to 3.00) | 0.003 |
Employed | 1.1 (0.47 to 2.77) | 0.770 | |
Total life events | 2–3 | 2.1 (1.17 to 3.87) | 0.013 |
4 or more | 3.8 (2.10 to 6.89) | <0.001 | |
Any CMD | 7.0 (4.21 to 11.68) | <0.001 | |
Spent time at institution <16 years | 1.8 (1.10 to 2.79) | 0.018 |
Factors | N | Prevalence: n (%) | Unadjusted OR (95% C.I) | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Serious illness, injury or assault to self | No | 818 | 72 (8.8) | 1 | - |
Yes | 328 | 49 (14.9) | 1.8 (1.23 to 2.68) | 0.003 | |
Serious illness, injury or assault to a close relative | No | 819 | 65 (7.9) | 1 | - |
Yes | 327 | 56 (17.1) | 2.4 (1.63 to 3.52) | <0.001 | |
Death of an immediate family member of yours | No | 443 | 29 (6.6) | 1 | - |
Yes | 703 | 92 (13.1) | 2.1 (1.39 to 3.32) | 0.001 | |
Death of a close family friend or other relative | No | 693 | 75 (10.8) | 1 | - |
Yes | 453 | 46 (10.2) | 0.9 (0.63 to 1.37) | 0.719 | |
Separation due to marital differences, divorce or steady relationship broken | No | 1115 | 114 (10.2) | 1 | - |
Yes | 31 | 7 (22.6) | 2.6 (1.08 to 6.08) | 0.033 | |
Serious problem with a close friend, neighbour or relative | No | 1046 | 109 (10.4) | 1 | - |
Yes | 100 | 12 (12.0) | 1.2 (0.62 to 2.21) | 0.624 | |
Being made redundant or sacked from your job | No | 1093 | 119 (10.9) | 1 | - |
Yes | 53 | 2 (3.8) | 0.3 (0.08 to 1.34) | 0.118 | |
Looking for work without success for >1 month | No | 997 | 106 (10.6) | 1 | - |
Yes | 149 | 15 (10.1) | 0.9 (0.53 to 1.66) | 0.834 | |
Major financial crisis, like losing an equivalent of 3months income | No | 881 | 83 (9.4) | 1 | - |
Yes | 265 | 38 (14.3) | 1.6 (1.07 to 2.43) | 0.023 | |
Problem with police involving court appearance | No | 1108 | 114 (10.3) | 1 | - |
Yes | 38 | 7 (18.4) | 2.0 (0.85 to 4.57) | 0.115 | |
Something you valued being lost or stolen | No | 990 | 83 (8.4) | 1 | - |
Yes | 156 | 38 (24.4) | 3.5 (2.29 to 5.41) | <0.001 | |
Bullying | No | 1093 | 113 (10.3) | 1 | - |
Yes | 53 | 8 (15.1) | 1.5 (0.71 to 3.35) | 0.275 | |
Violence at work | No | 1098 | 117 (10.7) | 1 | - |
Yes | 48 | 4 (8.3) | 0.8 (0.27 to 2.16) | 0.609 | |
Violence at home | No | 932 | 76 (8.2) | 1 | - |
Yes | 214 | 45 (21.0) | 3.0 (2.00 to 4.49) | <0.001 | |
Sexual abuse | No | 1140 | 121 (10.6) | 1 | - |
Yes | 6 | 0 (-) | - | - | |
Being expelled from school | No | 1113 | 116 (10.4) | 1 | - |
Yes | 33 | 5 (15.2) | 1.5 (0.58 to 4.05) | 0.387 | |
Running away from you home | No | 1119 | 112 (10.0) | 1 | - |
Yes | 27 | 9 (33.3) | 4.5 (1.97 to 10.24) | <0.001 | |
Being homeless | No | 1132 | 118 (10.4) | 1 | - |
Yes | 14 | 3 (21.4) | 2.3 (0.64 to 8.52) | 0.196 |
4. Discussion
4.1. Overall Findings
4.2. Comparison with Other Relevant Studies
Prevalence
4.3. Strengths of Study
4.4. Limitations of Study
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Jenkins, R.; Othieno, C.; Omollo, R.; Ongeri, L.; Sifuna, P.; Mboroki, J.K.; Kiima, D.; Ogutu, B. Probable Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Kenya and Its Associated Risk Factors: A Cross-Sectional Household Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 13494-13509. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121013494
Jenkins R, Othieno C, Omollo R, Ongeri L, Sifuna P, Mboroki JK, Kiima D, Ogutu B. Probable Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Kenya and Its Associated Risk Factors: A Cross-Sectional Household Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(10):13494-13509. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121013494
Chicago/Turabian StyleJenkins, Rachel, Caleb Othieno, Raymond Omollo, Linnet Ongeri, Peter Sifuna, James Kingora Mboroki, David Kiima, and Bernhards Ogutu. 2015. "Probable Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Kenya and Its Associated Risk Factors: A Cross-Sectional Household Survey" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 10: 13494-13509. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121013494
APA StyleJenkins, R., Othieno, C., Omollo, R., Ongeri, L., Sifuna, P., Mboroki, J. K., Kiima, D., & Ogutu, B. (2015). Probable Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Kenya and Its Associated Risk Factors: A Cross-Sectional Household Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(10), 13494-13509. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121013494