Introduction

In the contemporary era, the issue of addiction is becoming increasingly prevalent, attracting significant attention from both countries and mental health professionals within those countries. It can be posited that addiction has a detrimental impact on individuals’ family, school, work, and social lives. Behavioural addictions involve engaging excessively and compulsively in certain behaviours, which can result in negative consequences and an inability to control or stop the behaviour1. Some common types of behavioural addictions include gambling addiction, internet addiction, gaming addiction, shopping addiction, and sex addiction1,2,3,4. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in behavioural addictions, which has led to a broader understanding of addiction beyond substances5. A number of studies have identified positive correlations between various behavioural addictions, including compulsive buying, exercise addiction, and internet addiction6.

The relationship between behavioural addictions and suicidal behaviour has been further elucidated, emphasising the necessity for comprehensive clinical assessment and intervention for individuals with behavioural addictions7. Furthermore, behavioural addictions such as social media addiction have been found to share commonalities with well-known behavioural addictions like gambling and gaming, further underscoring the significance of these behavioural issues8.

Among behavioural addictions is online gaming addiction. Online gaming disorder is defined as a psychological addiction characterised by patterns of obsessive–compulsive searching and usage behaviours that overshadow other significant activities, leading to maladaptive psychological dependence on online games9. Research has identified various negative consequences associated with online gaming addiction. For example, a study conducted on the French adult population found a positive correlation between online gaming addiction and aggression and narcissistic personality traits, as well as a negative correlation with self-control10. Another study involving adolescents found a stronger relationship between online gaming addiction and positive emotional relationships in individuals with high impulsivity11. It is crucial to acknowledge that online gaming addiction can have detrimental effects on various aspects of an individual’s life, including physical, psychological, and social consequences12. Furthermore, research has concentrated on the influence of online gaming addiction on mental health, with findings indicating that excessive online gaming can result in physical health issues, stress, anxiety, depression, and a reduction in life satisfaction13,14.

A review of the literature reveals that online gaming addiction is associated with neuroticism, continuous anxiety, state anxiety, and aggression15, as well as depression, anxiety, and loneliness16. Furthermore, an examination of the relationship between online gaming addiction and emotional schemas reveals a positive correlation with vulnerability to emotions, desire for rationality, rumination, differentiation, continuity, and compromise emotional schemas. Conversely, there is a negative correlation with uncontrollability of emotions, denial of emotions, perception of emotions as harmful, acceptance of feelings, and guilt emotional schemas17. In this context, it can be posited that individuals with online gaming addiction may experience negative consequences in a multitude of dimensions of their lives, which may in turn impact their overall life satisfaction level. In a study18 concluded that online game addiction is associated with lower life satisfaction. Another study19 states that online gaming has a negative relationship with life satisfaction.

According to self-determination theory (SDT), people tend to be psychologically independent, capable, and related.20 When these needs are not met, people may turn to addictive behaviors such as online gaming as a compensatory behavior. According to Kaya et al.21, when basic psychological needs are not met, the risk of acquiring technological addictions such as gaming addiction increases. This means that gaming can strengthen addictive behaviors by creating a compensation for people who want to satisfy unmet psychological needs. It has been found that individuals with problematic internet use, including game addiction, have low self-esteem and more depressive symptoms, and it has been suggested that these two psychological variables may mediate the relationship between game addiction and life satisfaction.22 Additionally, when life satisfaction is examined through SDT, it is stated that individuals are more likely to be satisfied with their lives when they engage in activities that meet their psychological needs.23 Based on the research results in the literature24,25, it can be stated that the life satisfaction of an individual—which is associated with many negative situations in his/her life—will decrease as addictive behaviors such as gaming addiction increase.

Life satisfaction is defined as a subjective evaluation of one’s own life and is considered an integral component of subjective well-being26. The measurement of life satisfaction typically employs scales or questionnaires that assess individuals’ satisfaction levels in various aspects of life, including relationships, work, health, and overall happiness27,28,29,30. While life satisfaction is typically regarded as a long-term evaluation of one’s own life, happiness is more closely associated with the experience of positive and negative emotions on a daily basis.30.

A review of the literature reveals that individuals’ life satisfaction is associated with their resilience, perceived social support, and ability to express emotions31. Furthermore, individuals’ expression of emotions is associated with a number of psychological symptoms, including somatisation, obsessive–compulsive behaviours, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychoticism32. In this context, it can be proposed that studies focusing on the denial of existing emotions, the perception of emotions as harmful, and feelings of guilt, which are associated with high levels of online gaming, may assist in reducing the prevalence of online gaming addiction.

One of the concepts associated with online gaming addiction is emotional schemas17. The Emotional Schema Model was developed by Robert L. Leahy33. According to this model, individuals have different schemas related to emotions. These schemas reflect the ways emotions are experienced and the things individuals believe are appropriate plans to implement when experiencing distressing emotions. The emotional schema model is a social-cognitive model that examines how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to their own and others’ emotions. This model suggests that individuals have different emotion regulation theories, which in turn lead to problematic strategies in coping with emotions such as suppression, rumination, avoidance, blame, and substance addiction34. A total of 14 emotional schemas have been identified, including blame, devalued, duration, guilt, incomprehensibility, invalidation, loss of control, low consensus, low expression, nonacceptance of feelings, numbness, overly rational, rumination, and simplistic view of emotion. When the literature is examined, it is seen that positive schemas are positively related to life satisfaction 35. Additionally, emotional schemas appear to be associated with online gaming addiction.13 Research has shown that maladaptive emotional schemas can lead to negative emotions, which in turn can affect life satisfaction. For example, Imani et al.36 found that negative emotional schemas can reduce quality of life. They suggested that individuals with such schemas may have difficulty coping with their emotions strongly, which may result in lower life satisfaction. This is consistent with the findings of Xiang et al.37, who stated that individuals who develop maladaptive emotional schemas have reduced overall life satisfaction.

The concepts of online gaming addiction, life satisfaction, and emotional schemas are interconnected, as evidenced by comprehensive research17,18. However, the mediating role of emotional schemas in the relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction has not been encountered. It can be said that it is important to link the variables that affect this situation in order to prevent online gaming addiction, which significantly reduces the life satisfaction and functionality of the individual today19,38. When the studies on online gaming addiction are examined, it can be seen that there may be some emotional problems in individuals with this addiction39,40. Therefore, by identifying the emotional schemas associated with online gaming addiction, the addiction level of the individual with this addiction can be reduced and life satisfaction can be increased through preventive interventions. This suggests that emotional schemas may play a mediating role in the relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction. Therefore, understanding these relationships is crucial for developing effective interventions and support systems for individuals struggling with online gaming addiction. Consequently, this research aims to investigate the mediating role of emotional schemas in the relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction.

Method

Participants

The participants of the study consist of university students who are enrolled in university and play online games. Participants were selected by simple random sampling from universities in Türkiye.The ages of the participants range from 18 to 40. Among the 549 university students who participated in the study, 231 (42.1%) were female, and 318 (57.9%) were male. When examining the daily gaming durations of university students who participated in the study and play online games, out of 549 students, 327 (59.6%) play games for 1 h, 109 (19.9%) for 2 h, 70 (12.8%) for 3 h, 21 (3.8%) for 4 h, 17 (3.1%) for 5 h, and 5 (0.9%) play games for over 5 h. The average age of all participants is 21.

Measures

Online gaming addiction scale

To determine the levels of online gaming addiction among high school students, the "Online Gaming Addiction Scale" developed by Kaya41 was adapted for university students by Bekir and Yıldırım42. The scale, which consists of 21 items, was adapted for university students and is in a 5-point Likert scale format (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree) and has three sub-dimensions (disruptions, achievements, and economic gains). The disruptions sub-dimension consists of items numbered 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 14, 17, and 21, the achievements sub-dimension consists of items numbered 2, 4, 8, 10, 13, 16, 18, and 19, and the economic gains sub-dimension consists of items numbered 6, 11, 15, and 20. Sample items of the scale are as follows: "My sleep pattern was disrupted because I played online games." "I earn money by selling the character I developed in online games." and "I usually eat my meals in front of the computer while playing online games." The scale, which does not contain reverse-coded items, can be examined both in terms of total score and scores for sub-dimensions. High scores obtained from the scale indicate that university students have high levels of online gaming addiction. According to the results of the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) conducted to determine the construct validity of the scale, it is stated that the factor loadings range from 0.58 to 0.8342. Additionally, the scale demonstrated an overall internal consistency coefficient of 0.93, while the subscales pertaining to success, inconveniences, and economic gain exhibited coefficients of 0.93, 0.89, and 0.84, respectively. Upon applying the test–retest method, a correlation coefficient of 0.86 was obtained. In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability value of the scale was found to be 0.93.

Life satisfaction scale

To measure individuals’ levels of life satisfaction, the adaptation of the scale developed by Diener et al.43 into Turkish was conducted by Durak, Şenol Durak, and Gençöz44. The scale, which is in a 7-point Likert scale format (1 = Not Suitable at All, 2 = Not Suitable, 3 = Slightly Not Suitable, 4 = Neither Suitable nor Unsuitable, 5 = Slightly Suitable, 6 = Suitable, 7 = Very Suitable), consists of 5 items and a single dimension. High scores obtained from the scale indicate high levels of life satisfaction. Sample items for the scale are: "I am satisfied with my life." and "My life meets my ideal in many ways." Reliability of the scale was evaluated using internal consistency indices in the adaptation study.The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) in the adaptation study of the scale is 0.81. Additionally, the indices of fit resulting from the analysis conducted on the sample of university students, correctional officers, and elderly individuals indicate that the fit is adequate (IFI = 0.963, TLI = 0.963, CFI = 0.963, SRMR = 0.019, RMSEA = 0.046)44. In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability value of the scale was found to be 0.84.

Leahy emotional schema scale

The Turkish adaptation of the Emotional Schema Scale (ESS), developed by Leahy33, was conducted by Yavuz, Türkçapar, Demirel, and Karadere45. The Leahy Emotional Schema Scale (LESS) consists of statements regarding an individual’s beliefs about emotions and how they cope with their emotions. The scale comprises 50 items and 14 sub-dimensions (approval, weakness, avoidance of emotions, comprehensibility, uncontrollability, desire for rationality, acceptance of feelings, rumination, differentiation, denial of emotions, continuity, compromise, perception of emotions as harmful, guilt). Some sample items from the scale include: "I don’t want anyone to know about some of my feelings." "You shouldn’t allow yourself to feel certain feelings, such as feelings related to sexuality and violence." The scale is in a 6-point Likert scale format (1 = Not at all applicable to me, 2 = Not very applicable to me, 3 = Somewhat not applicable to me, 4 = Somewhat applicable to me, 5 = Moderately applicable to me, 6 = Very applicable to me).

According to the test–retest analysis conducted for the items of the scale, correlation coefficients ranged from 0.37 to 0.75, and the Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient for the items was reported as α = 0.86. To test the construct validity of the scale, the relationship between LESS scores and scores from the Upper Cognition Scale was examined using the Pearson correlation method. It was indicated that significant correlations were found between LESS sub-dimensions and upper cognition scale scores45. In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability value of the scale was found to be 0.86.

Procedure and ethics declarations

Prior to the commencement of data collection, permission to utilise the intended data collection tools was obtained by contacting the relevant researchers via email. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Then, the documents required for ethical approval were completed and an application was made to the ethics committee. Subsequently, ethical approval (Reference number: 467) was obtained from the Sakarya University Ethics Committee for the fall semester of the 2022–2023 academic year, and data collection was conducted online. In order to include university students who play online games in the research, contact was made with e-sports communities of universities in Turkey in the online environment. Subsequently, links to the research form created on Google Forms were sent to the e-sports communities of 49 different universities who responded positively to the participation invitation. A brief explanation about the purpose and importance of the research was provided in the description section of the created research form. Furthermore, participants were requested not to provide any personal information, in accordance with the principles of data protection. As a consequence of the application process, data were collected from 549 university students who engage in online gaming. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

Data analysis

The research data were analysed using correlation analysis, t-tests, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test the hypotheses of the study. Additionally, structural equation modelling (SEM) was conducted to examine the mediating effect of emotional schemas on the relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction. The IBM SPSS Statistics 24 software package was used to analyse the data. Prior to conducting parametric tests, the normality of the distribution was examined. Descriptive methods were employed to examine skewness, kurtosis, mean, and standard deviation values.

Results

Upon examination of Table 1, it can be observed that the skewness values of the variables ranged from − 0.32 to 0.59, while the kurtosis values ranged from − 0.79 to 0.42. These values falling within the range of − 1 to + 1 indicate that the data are within an acceptable range in terms of normality46. The findings of the study indicate that there was no statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction (r = − 0.04, p > 0.05). The relationships between online gaming addiction and emotional schemas exhibited a range of values between − 0.16 and 0.23 in 10 sub-dimensions. However, in four sub-dimensions (uncontrollability, acceptance of feelings, rumination, and compromise), the relationships were not significant (p > 0.05). Furthermore, the fit indices of the structural equation model were found to be satisfactory (CMIN/DF: 2.886, RMSEA: 0.06, GFI: 0.93, AGFI: 0.91, CFI: 0.91, IFI: 0.91)47,48. These findings led to the conclusion that a structural equation model could be established among the three variables in question.

Table 1 Results regarding descriptive statistics and normal distribution.
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The correlation analysis results indicating the relationships between online gaming addiction, life satisfaction, and emotional schemas are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Result of correlation analysis for the relationships between online gaming addiction, life satisfaction and, emotional schemas.
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Upon examining Table 2, it can be observed that there is a positive, low-level, and statistically significant correlation between the level of online gaming addiction and emotional schemas of weakness towards emotions (r = 0.20), desire for rationality (r = 0.23), uniqueness (r = 0.15), continuity (r = 0.13), approval (r = 0.12), viewing emotions as harmful (r = 0.14), and guilt (r = 0.16). Furthermore, there are negative, low-level, and statistically significant correlations between the understanding of emotions (r = − 0.14), avoidance of emotions (r = − 0.12), and denial of emotions (r = − 0.16) emotional schemas.

Similarly, upon further examination of Table 2, it is evident that university students’ levels of life satisfaction are positively and moderately correlated with the understanding of emotions (r = 0.35) and acceptance of feelings (r = 0.31) emotional schemas. Additionally, there are positive, low-level, and statistically significant correlations between life satisfaction and emotional schemas of uncontrollability (r = 0.11), desire for rationality (r = 0.10), denial of emotions (r = 0.28), compromise (r = 0.17), and viewing emotions as harmful (r = 0.14). On the other hand, there are negative, low-level, and statistically significant correlations between life satisfaction and emotional schemas of rumination (r = − 0.17), uniqueness (r = − 0.24), and continuity (r = − 0.24).

Upon evaluating the correlation analysis results among the variables in Table 2, it is evident that online gaming addiction and life satisfaction have both positive and negative relationships with some emotional schemas.

Structural equation model

Considering the results of the correlation analysis between the variables in the study, the research data were tested with structural equation modelling to determine the variables that predict online gaming addiction and to see if the structure identified by the researcher was confirmed. The results of the CFA (confirmatory factor analysis), which was carried out to test the measurement model before building the structural equation model, are presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Measurement model.

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According to the analysis results regarding the measurement model in Fig. 1, the fit indices of the variables are as follows; CMIN/DF: 2.886, RMSEA: 0.06, GFI: 93, AGFI: 0.91, CFI: 0.91, IFI: 9147,48. Covariances can be checked with GFI and AGFI values49. In this context, when the fit indices related to the measurement model in Fig. 1 are examined, it can be said that the fit indices are within an acceptable range. When the observed variables and latent variables in Fig. 1 are examined, it is observed that the regression coefficients range from − 0.62 to 1.02.

The relationship between life satisfaction and online gaming addiction was examined through regression analysis to determine whether life satisfaction predicts online gaming addiction before investigating the mediating role of emotional schemas in the structural equation model. The findings obtained are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Structural equation model showing the total effect of life satisfaction.

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The fit index values ​​for the first model in Fig. 2 are as follows: CMIN/DF: 3.299, RMSEA: 0.06, GFI: 97, AGFI: 0.95, CFI: 0.97, IFI: 9747,48. In this context, when the fit indices for the structural equation model are examined, it can be said that the fit indices are within an acceptable range. Mediation analysis was conducted based on the findings from Figs. 1 and 2, and the results obtained are presented in the structural equation analysis shown in Fig. 3. It was concluded that life satisfaction predicts online gaming addiction at β = − 0.10 level.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Structural equation model for variables of online gaming addiction, life satisfaction, and emotional schemas.

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The goodness-of-fit indices for the structural equation model in Fig. 3 (CMIN/DF: 2.886, RMSEA: 0.06, GFI: 93, AGFI: 0.91, CFI: 0.91, IFI: 91) were found to be acceptable.

Upon examining Fig. 3, it is observed that the coefficient for emotional schemas predicting online gaming addiction is β = − 0.31, while the coefficient for life satisfaction predicting online gaming addiction is β = 0.06. The coefficient for life satisfaction predicting emotional schemas is β = 0.53. It can be concluded that online gaming addiction is positively predicted by life satisfaction and negatively predicted by emotional schemas. When the emotional schemas variable is added to the model, the prediction level of life satisfaction on online gaming addiction decreases from β = − 0.10 to β = 0.6, and it is found to not significantly predict online gaming addiction. Therefore, it can be stated that emotional schemas have a fully mediating effect on the relationship between life satisfaction and online gaming addiction.

In summary, the main results obtained as a result of the research are as follows:

  • The findings of the study indicate that there was no statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction (r = − 0.04, p > 0.05).

  • The relationships between online gaming addiction and emotional schemas exhibited a range of values between − 0.16 and 0.23 in 10 sub-dimensions. However, in four sub-dimensions (uncontrollability, acceptance of feelings, rumination, and compromise), the relationships were not significant (p > 0.05).

  • University students’ levels of life satisfaction are positively and moderately correlated with the understanding of emotions (r = 0.35) and acceptance of feelings (r = 0.31) emotional schemas.

  • Additionally, there are positive, low-level, and statistically significant correlations between life satisfaction and emotional schemas of uncontrollability (r = 0.11), desire for rationality (r = 0.10), denial of emotions (r = 0.28), compromise (r = 0.17), and viewing emotions as harmful (r = 0.14). On the other hand, there are negative, low-level, and statistically significant correlations between life satisfaction and emotional schemas of rumination (r = − 0.17), uniqueness (r = − 0.24), and continuity (r = − 0.24).

  • It can be stated that emotional schemas have a fully mediating effect on the relationship between life satisfaction and online gaming addiction.

Discussion

The findings of the research indicate that there is a positive, low-level, and statistically significant correlation between the level of online gaming addiction and the emotional vulnerability schema. A review of the literature revealed only one study that examined the relationships between online gaming addiction and emotional schemas. In this study17, a positive and statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and the emotional vulnerability schema was observed, which is consistent with the current research findings. Upon examination of the items comprising the vulnerability sub-dimension of the Emotional Schema Scale, it can be stated that the individual in question generally experiences emotional confusion and weakness in this context. This is evidenced by the following statements: "I cannot stand having contradictory feelings about the same person, such as liking and disliking them at the same time." and "When I have contradictory feelings about someone, I feel bad or confused." A review of the literature reveals that maladaptive cognitions, shyness, and depression are associated with addiction50. Furthermore, individuals with a healthy relationship profile develop less problematic online gaming styles51. When these studies are evaluated in conjunction with the emotional vulnerability schema, it can be posited that individuals with a vulnerability schema may experience complex emotions and may have maladaptive cognitions, thus may be prone to online gaming addiction. Therefore, in the current research, a statistically significant relationship may have been found between the vulnerability emotional schema and online gaming addiction.

Another finding of the research is that there is a positive, low-level, and statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and the rationality desire emotional schema. Upon examination of the literature, it becomes evident that a similar study17 yielded a positive, low-level, and statistically significant correlation between online gaming addiction and the rationality desire emotional schema. Upon examination of the items comprising the rationality desire sub-dimension of the Emotional Schema Scale, the following statements were identified: "It is important for me to be logical and practical rather than being sensitive and open to my feelings.", "I think it is important to be logical and rational in almost everything.", and "You cannot trust your feelings to tell you what is good for you." In this context, individuals who are addicted to online gaming may require the ability to think logically and rationally when making decisions in order to successfully accomplish the tasks in the levels of the games. Therefore, the current research suggests that online gaming addiction may have a positive, low-level, and statistically significant relationship with the rationality desire emotional schema.

Another finding of the research is that there is a positive, low-level, and statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and the differentiation emotional schema. Upon examination of the literature, it becomes evident that a similar study17 yielded a positive, low-level, and statistically significant correlation between online gaming addiction and the differentiation emotional schema. A search of the literature revealed that no research examining the relationship between online gaming addiction and the differentiation emotional schema could be found. Upon examination of the items comprising the differentiation emotional schema of the Leahy Emotional Schema Scale, it can be stated that the individual in question exhibits a schema of having emotional experiences that differ from those of other individuals. This is evidenced by the following statements: "If other people were different, I would feel much better about myself.", "I am ashamed of my feelings.", "Things that bother other people do not bother me" and "Nobody really cares about my feelings". In this context, it may be posited that individuals in the research group, being university students and being in the developmental period of adolescence, may have a schema of being emotionally different from other individuals. Consequently, if they cannot express this difference in their social life, they may express it in online games more easily. Due to reasons such as the anonymity of online games and the lack of face-to-face interaction with other individuals, the individual can reflect their difference more comfortably in this gaming environment. Consequently, it can be posited that a positive correlation may have been identified between online gaming addiction and the emotional differentiation schema in this research.

The research findings indicated a positive, low-level, and statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and continuity emotional schema. Similarly, a similar finding was reported in a study by Bekir17, which also demonstrated a positive, low-level, and statistically significant correlation between online gaming addiction and continuity emotional schema. Upon examination of the items constituting the continuity emotional schema sub-dimension, it became evident that the individual in question exhibited a belief that they would consistently experience emotions. In online games, individuals may experience emotions such as achievement, autonomy, being liked, and approval due to the successes they achieve in the games. The satisfaction derived from these emotions may lead to an increased desire to play games, with the aim of experiencing the same emotions again. This situation can also reinforce the continuity of their emotions. Therefore, it can be hypothesised that a positive relationship may have been found between online gaming addiction and continuity emotional schema in this research.

This study identified a positive, low-level, and statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and the approval emotional schema. However, when the literature is examined, a study examining the relationship between online gaming addiction and the approval emotional schema17 found no relationship between the variables. Conversely, in the study by Sarıkaya and colleagues52, a positive correlation was observed between online gaming addiction and the need for social approval. Individuals with an addiction to online gaming are able to participate in teams in online games, express their opinions, and assume leadership roles. Furthermore, an individual who achieves successful results in the game may receive approval from other players for their style of play. Furthermore, the prevalence of online gaming among university students today may have led to the emergence of a new phenomenon: individuals addicted to online gaming and successful in games may have met their need for social approval by sharing these experiences with other online gamers at the university. Consequently, a positive relationship may have been found between online gaming addiction and the approval emotional schema in this research. One potential explanation for the discrepancy between the current research findings and those of Bekir17 is the possibility that university students, following the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2019, continued their education online and spent extended periods of time at home, primarily satisfying their approval needs through online gaming.

The research findings indicated a positive, low-level, and statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and the harmful perception of emotions emotional schema. Upon examination of the literature, a study by Bekir17 examining the relationships between these two variables revealed a negative relationship between online gaming addiction and the harmful perception of emotions emotional schema. An individual with a harmful perception of emotions believes that emotional experience will be out of control and therefore will be harmed45. The state of behavioural addiction, defined as the inability to prevent impulses and urges that cause behaviours that may harm oneself or others, causes the individual to experience high levels of tension and excitement before performing the behaviour, and a feeling of relief shortly after performing the behaviour53. Among behavioural addictions, individuals addicted to online gaming may turn to the games they are addicted to in order to relieve the discomfort caused by this high level of excitement and tension they experience. Consequently, a positive relationship may have been found between online gaming addiction and the harmful perception of emotions emotional schema in the research.

A positive, low-level, and statistically significant relationship has been identified between online gaming addiction and the guilt emotional schema. Upon examination of the research in this field, it is observed that the aforementioned finding is contradicted by the results of Bekir’s17 study, which indicates a negative relationship between online gaming addiction and the guilt emotional schema. A university student with an online gaming addiction engages in gaming for extended periods. As a consequence of this addiction, they may invest less time and effort in developing the professional and social skills that are necessary for success in university education. Consequently, a student who is addicted to online gaming and has low academic achievement may experience uncertainty about their future career path and how to secure employment. Therefore, they may feel guilt due to the long hours spent playing online games. This situation could be the reason for the positive relationship between online gaming addiction and the guilt emotional schema in the study.

The research findings indicate a negative, low-level, and statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and the emotional schemas of understandability and emotional avoidance. A study examining the relationships between these two variables was identified in the literature. However, the results of this study17 did not yield a statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and the understandability emotional schema. The understandability emotional schema is an important component of anxiety and depression33. In this context, as the level of online gaming addiction increases and individuals focus on competition and tasks in the game, they may distance themselves from their emotions and consequently decrease their level of understandability emotional schema.

Another finding of the study is that there is a negative, low-level, and statistically significant relationship between online gaming addiction and emotional schemas of emotional avoidance and emotional denial. In the literature, the only study examining the relationship between online gaming addiction and emotional avoidance and emotional denial schemas was conducted by Bekir17, which found no statistically significant relationship. Upon examination of the items comprising the emotional avoidance and emotional denial schemas as defined by the Leahy Emotional Schema Scale, it becomes evident that individuals may engage in various behaviours with the aim of swiftly alleviating distressing emotions. One such behaviour could be the act of playing online games, which may serve as a means of avoiding uncomfortable emotions. Consequently, it can be postulated that a negative relationship between online gaming addiction and emotional avoidance and emotional denial schemas may have been reached in the aforementioned study.

The present study examined the mediating effect of emotional schemas on the relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction in university students. The results indicated that emotional schemas fully mediate the relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction. Additionally, the findings demonstrated that life satisfaction predicts online gaming addiction at the level of β = − 0.10. A review of the literature reveals that excessive online gaming can lead to a range of adverse consequences, including physical problems such as low sleep quality, insomnia, and vision problems, as well as psychological problems such as stress, anxiety, and decreased life satisfaction54. It has been demonstrated that individuals with low self-esteem and lower daily life satisfaction exhibit higher levels of online gaming addiction55,56. Additionally, various factors, including advanced age, low self-esteem, and low daily life satisfaction, have been identified as predictors of online gaming addiction in men57. It has been reported that in India, individuals engage in continuous gaming for over ten hours without exhibiting any signs of adverse effects on their general health. This can result in a range of detrimental consequences, including poor personal hygiene, inadequate nutrition, a lack of exercise, and insufficient sleep. In extreme cases, prolonged gaming can lead to the development of blood clots, which can cause heart attacks and, in some instances, death. This can have a significant impact on an individual’s overall health and quality of life58. The results of the current study are consistent with those of previous studies in this area.

The research findings indicate that emotional schemas predict online gaming addiction at the level of β = − 0.27. This finding is corroborated by Bekir’s17 study, which demonstrates that emotional schemas predict online gaming addiction. Kardefelt-Winther59 posits in the compensatory internet use Theory that problematic real-life situations can motivate users to be online and use certain applications to fulfill unmet psychological needs or alleviate deep dissatisfaction. However, when internet use is motivated by unmet real-life needs or specific psychological characteristics, the risk of negative outcomes is significantly higher when the intensity or duration of use required for such compensation is long60. In the literature, it is emphasised that negative escapism associated with specific emotional schemas is associated with internet gaming disorder symptoms and low life satisfaction among online gamers50. The Emotional Schema Model61 and Kardefelt-Winther’s59 compensatory internet use Theory suggest that individuals may become addicted to online games in order to escape from and relax from the situation they are experiencing due to not being able to cope emotionally with the difficulties they face in life and the unmet emotional needs. Upon examination of the difficulties encountered by university students in the study group, it becomes evident that they face economic, academic, adaptation, and social challenges62. The emotional schemas that individuals hold about the emotions they experience in response to various problems can influence their ability to cope with these challenges. Consequently, it can be argued that emotional schemas play a pivotal role in the lives of university students. Students with limited emotional schemas may encounter difficulties in managing their emotions and may resort to online gaming as a means of escaping from emotional distress and satisfying their emotional needs. Consequently, it can be posited that emotional schemas exert a complete mediating influence between life satisfaction and online gaming addiction.

Limitations

There are some limitations in this research. The first of these is that the individuals participating in the study may have been influenced by filling out the form online. Another limitation of the study is that it is quantitative. Another limitation of the research is that it consists of individuals studying at 49 universities in Türkiye and playing online games. Therefore, the results of the current research cannot be generalized to all university students in Türkiye.

Conclusion

In this study, it was determined that emotional schemas mediate the relationship between online gaming addiction and life satisfaction among university students. Considering the rapid increase in online gaming addiction day by day, it is recommended that this issue be further investigated in scientific studies for its solution. Mental health professionals working in both public and private sectors in Turkey can incorporate emotional schemas into the counseling process for the treatment/psychological counseling of online gaming addiction. Psychological processes play an important role in minimizing the challenges faced by university students, and within these processes, raising awareness about emotional schemas through seminars or training sessions held throughout the university can help increase awareness and identify the need for solutions to any existing problems. A relational study was conducted in the current research. In future research, group psychological counseling practices and psychoeducation applications based on the Emotional Schema Model, which can be integrated into many therapy approaches, can be implemented. Especially in the Turkish literature, there are very few studies related to emotional schemas. Therefore, as suggested by the findings of the current research, it is recommended to further investigate this concept, which can have a significant impact on the lives of university students. Since online gaming addiction is prevalent among university students, addiction counseling centers can be established at universities to provide free assistance to students who seek help but cannot access it due to psychological counseling fees. At the same time, specialization in the field of addiction can be achieved through scientific studies conducted in these units.