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James Snoke

American River College, Anthropology, Business and Computer Science, Emeritus

American River College, Business and Computer Science, Adjunct

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Anthropologist, Educator, and Humanist. Retired college professor. 42 years of full-time teaching, 3 years of adjunct teaching after retirement. Research interests include: cross-cultural research into origens of cultural patterns, linguistic inter-relatedness of Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic languages, effects of verb-based versus noun-based languages on human brain configurations, Native North American culture histories, migrations, and linguistic affiliations, proto-Indian languages in Native North America, natural phenomena imposing cultural, linguistic, and historical change on early European and Baltic development.
Address: 5233 Tony Lema Drive
Weed, CA 96094

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Escola Superior de Música de Catalunya

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Drafts by James Snoke

East-Eurasian Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems and Lateral Marriage: Further Discussion of the Incongruities Between Kinship Terminology and Marriage Patterns Within Language Families.

The East-Eurasian Culture Area has 94 societies included in the Ethnographic Atlas (Murdock, 1967... more The East-Eurasian Culture Area has 94 societies included in the Ethnographic Atlas (Murdock, 1967) . This paper presents data within and across language families to illustrate further the empirical fact that sister-cousin kinship terminology systems and marriage allowances, preferences, prescriptions, and proscriptions are largely disconnected in culture areas and language families throughout the globe. In fact, marriages in each of the 6 major sister-cousin terminology systems fail to follow the terminological “rules” in nearly 50% of all societies world-wide. For example, in a sample of 864 societies world-wide , the Iroquois Sister-Cousin System occurs in 202 of them. Of those, duolateral cross-cousin marriage is found in only 103 societies, even though the Iroquois system prescribes duolateral cross-cousin marriage. 57 of the 202 specifically proscribe some form of 1st or 2nd cousin marriage. Clearly, there is a need to revise the anthropological thinking about kinship terminology and marriage patterns, and further, encourage those who base predictive models of cognitive kin behavior on kinship terms alone to begin to consider empirical data on marriage as well as, or in spite of, the kinship terms alone.

Discussion Concerning a Recent Paper Declaring That the Witoto of South America Have Omaha Sister-Cousin Terminology: Continuing Discussion of Sister-Cousin Terminology System Incongruities. (Version 1.9, 7 December, 2019)

The Witoto, a South American culture, have long been the object of anthropological and other disc... more The Witoto, a South American culture, have long been the object of anthropological and other discussion. Murdock , (1934) and (1967) attempted to classify the Witoto sister-cousin terminology system, but in the Ethnographic Atlas the data for sister-cousin terms are missing, along with a considerable amount of other data. Both isolation and hostility toward outsiders may have contributed to the lack of data. A very interesting recent paper – “Witotoan Kinship and its Terminology: An Analysis of the Witoto Kin Terms” (K. Wojtylak, December, 2019) draws a conclusion that the sister-cousin affiliation of the Witoto is Omaha, in spite of earlier anthropological speculations by G.P. Murdock and others.

Circum-Mediterranean Language Families: Further Discussion of Kinship Models and Inconsistent Marriage Patterns within Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems

Inconsistencies in sister-cousin terminology systems and marriage practices are numerous within t... more Inconsistencies in sister-cousin terminology systems and marriage practices are numerous within the Circum-Mediterranean Culture Area. This paper is a continuation of the issues presented in previous versions of this discussion in North America, South America, Africa, and Insular Pacific culture areas.

African Language Families: Inconsistencies in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems Within Language Families. Further Discussion of Predictive Models and Primary Kin Term Discrepancies.

This paper is a continuation of the discussion about primary kin term inconsistencies within majo... more

Insular Pacific Language Families: Inconsistencies in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems. Further Discussion of Sister-Cousin Terminological Discrepancies within Language Families.

The current discussion focuses on Insular Pacific Language Families and the discrepancies in sist... more The current discussion focuses on Insular Pacific Language Families and the discrepancies in sister-cousin terminologies in each. Data are presented from the Malayo-Polynesian, Papuan, and Australian Language Families using a sample of 89 societies extracted from a cross-cultural sample of 652 societies.

South American Language Families: Consistency and Inconsistency Within Language Families: Further Discussion of Predictable Models of Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems.

This paper is a continuation of the discussion of sister-cousin incongruities within languages an... more This paper is a continuation of the discussion of sister-cousin incongruities within languages and language families among indigenous cultures around the globe. The data are presented to illustrate the problem of predictive models that do not, or cannot, explain variation within a language or language families that have cognate words for primary kin.

Pueblo Language Families: Evidence of Linguistic and Sister-Cousin Continuity and Incongruity - More on the Discussion of Predictable Change in Sister-Cousin Terminology.

Abstract: This paper is a continuation of the problem of sister-cousin variation within language... more

Language Family and Sister-Cousin Kin Terms: Inconsistencies in Primary Kin Terms Within Language Families in Native North America. Further Discussion of Predictable Change in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems.

Language families in Native North American Culture Areas show inconsistencies in sister-cousin te... more

Kinship Classification Systems and Anthropological Predictive Models: Further Discussion of Predictable Change in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems

In this discussion, generational kinship classification problems are discussed along with the que... more

Predictable Change in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems

Sister-Cousin kinship systems are more than anthropological constructs – they are causally relate... more Sister-Cousin kinship systems are more than anthropological constructs – they are causally related to the need to balance production and reproduction, and are capable of predictable change. Difficulties with past attempts to analyze these systems stem from reliance on kinship terms rather than on causal factors determining marriage practices.

Papers by James Snoke

Historic Property Survey Report On Route 50 in El Dorado County from Twin Bridges To Near Camp Sacramento

East-Eurasian Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems and Lateral Marriage: Further Discussion of the Incongruities Between Kinship Terminology and Marriage Patterns Within Language Families.

The East-Eurasian Culture Area has 94 societies included in the Ethnographic Atlas (Murdock, 1967... more The East-Eurasian Culture Area has 94 societies included in the Ethnographic Atlas (Murdock, 1967) . This paper presents data within and across language families to illustrate further the empirical fact that sister-cousin kinship terminology systems and marriage allowances, preferences, prescriptions, and proscriptions are largely disconnected in culture areas and language families throughout the globe. In fact, marriages in each of the 6 major sister-cousin terminology systems fail to follow the terminological “rules” in nearly 50% of all societies world-wide. For example, in a sample of 864 societies world-wide , the Iroquois Sister-Cousin System occurs in 202 of them. Of those, duolateral cross-cousin marriage is found in only 103 societies, even though the Iroquois system prescribes duolateral cross-cousin marriage. 57 of the 202 specifically proscribe some form of 1st or 2nd cousin marriage. Clearly, there is a need to revise the anthropological thinking about kinship terminology and marriage patterns, and further, encourage those who base predictive models of cognitive kin behavior on kinship terms alone to begin to consider empirical data on marriage as well as, or in spite of, the kinship terms alone.

Discussion Concerning a Recent Paper Declaring That the Witoto of South America Have Omaha Sister-Cousin Terminology: Continuing Discussion of Sister-Cousin Terminology System Incongruities. (Version 1.9, 7 December, 2019)

The Witoto, a South American culture, have long been the object of anthropological and other disc... more The Witoto, a South American culture, have long been the object of anthropological and other discussion. Murdock , (1934) and (1967) attempted to classify the Witoto sister-cousin terminology system, but in the Ethnographic Atlas the data for sister-cousin terms are missing, along with a considerable amount of other data. Both isolation and hostility toward outsiders may have contributed to the lack of data. A very interesting recent paper – “Witotoan Kinship and its Terminology: An Analysis of the Witoto Kin Terms” (K. Wojtylak, December, 2019) draws a conclusion that the sister-cousin affiliation of the Witoto is Omaha, in spite of earlier anthropological speculations by G.P. Murdock and others.

Circum-Mediterranean Language Families: Further Discussion of Kinship Models and Inconsistent Marriage Patterns within Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems

Inconsistencies in sister-cousin terminology systems and marriage practices are numerous within t... more Inconsistencies in sister-cousin terminology systems and marriage practices are numerous within the Circum-Mediterranean Culture Area. This paper is a continuation of the issues presented in previous versions of this discussion in North America, South America, Africa, and Insular Pacific culture areas.

African Language Families: Inconsistencies in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems Within Language Families. Further Discussion of Predictive Models and Primary Kin Term Discrepancies.

This paper is a continuation of the discussion about primary kin term inconsistencies within majo... more

Insular Pacific Language Families: Inconsistencies in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems. Further Discussion of Sister-Cousin Terminological Discrepancies within Language Families.

The current discussion focuses on Insular Pacific Language Families and the discrepancies in sist... more The current discussion focuses on Insular Pacific Language Families and the discrepancies in sister-cousin terminologies in each. Data are presented from the Malayo-Polynesian, Papuan, and Australian Language Families using a sample of 89 societies extracted from a cross-cultural sample of 652 societies.

South American Language Families: Consistency and Inconsistency Within Language Families: Further Discussion of Predictable Models of Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems.

This paper is a continuation of the discussion of sister-cousin incongruities within languages an... more This paper is a continuation of the discussion of sister-cousin incongruities within languages and language families among indigenous cultures around the globe. The data are presented to illustrate the problem of predictive models that do not, or cannot, explain variation within a language or language families that have cognate words for primary kin.

Pueblo Language Families: Evidence of Linguistic and Sister-Cousin Continuity and Incongruity - More on the Discussion of Predictable Change in Sister-Cousin Terminology.

Abstract: This paper is a continuation of the problem of sister-cousin variation within language... more

Language Family and Sister-Cousin Kin Terms: Inconsistencies in Primary Kin Terms Within Language Families in Native North America. Further Discussion of Predictable Change in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems.

Language families in Native North American Culture Areas show inconsistencies in sister-cousin te... more

Kinship Classification Systems and Anthropological Predictive Models: Further Discussion of Predictable Change in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems

In this discussion, generational kinship classification problems are discussed along with the que... more

Predictable Change in Sister-Cousin Terminology Systems

Sister-Cousin kinship systems are more than anthropological constructs – they are causally relate... more Sister-Cousin kinship systems are more than anthropological constructs – they are causally related to the need to balance production and reproduction, and are capable of predictable change. Difficulties with past attempts to analyze these systems stem from reliance on kinship terms rather than on causal factors determining marriage practices.

Historic Property Survey Report On Route 50 in El Dorado County from Twin Bridges To Near Camp Sacramento