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ma=86400 High-temperature dust formation in carbon-rich astrophysical environments | Nature Astronomy
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High-temperature dust formation in carbon-rich astrophysical environments

Nature Astronomy volume 9, pages 90–100 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Condensation processes, which are responsible for the main chemical differences between gas and solids in the Galaxy, are the major mechanisms that control the cycle of dust from evolved stars to planetary systems. However, they are still poorly understood, mainly because the thermodynamics and kinetic models of nucleation or grain growth lack experimental data. To bridge this gap, we used a large-volume three-phase alternating-current plasma torch to obtain a full high-temperature condensation sequence at an elevated carbon-to-oxygen ratio from a fluxed chondritic gas composition. We show that the crystallized suites of carbides, silicides, nitrides, sulfides, oxides and silicates and the bulk composition of the condensates are properly modelled by a kinetically inhibited condensation scenario controlled by gas flow. This validates the thermodynamic predictions of the condensation sequence at a high carbon-to-oxygen ratio. On this basis and using appropriate optical properties, we also demonstrate the influence of pressure on dust chemistry as well as the low probability of forming and detecting iron silicides in asymptotic giant branch C-rich circumstellar environments as well as in our chondritic meteorites. By demonstrating the potential of predicting dust mineralogy in these environments, this approach holds high promise for quantitatively characterizing dust composition and formation in diverse astrophysical settings.

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Fig. 1: Experimental device and thermal regime in the condensation chamber.
Fig. 2: Photographs of condensates on the T-shaped graphite rod after the experiment.
Fig. 3: Representative scanning electron microscope images of high-temperature condensates obtained at a high C/O ratio.
Fig. 4: Chemical composition of condensates.
Fig. 5: Influence of pressure on dust chemistry.
Fig. 6: Probability of forming and detecting dust in AGB circumstellar environments.

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All data needed to evaluate the conclusions of this study are presented in this paper and in the Supplementary Information. Additional data related to this study may be requested from the authors.

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Acknowledgements

We are particularly grateful to F. Fabry (PERSEE, Mines ParisTech, Nice, France) for his assistance with running the plasma torch. We are grateful to S. Höfner for her insightful advice during the early stages of this project, and M. Chaussidon for discussions. This project was financially supported by funding from the Fédération de Recherche Wolfgang Doeblin, FR 2800, and the Université Côté d’Azur through its Academy of Complex Systems (G.L.). This study also received partial support from the ERC-funded project COSMOKEMS #694819 (B.B.).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Université Côte d’Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, Nice, France

    Guy Libourel & Eric Lagadec

  2. Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon Terre Planètes Environnement, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon I, Lyon, France

    Marwane Mokhtari & Bernard Bourdon

  3. PSL Research University, MINES ParisTech, PERSEE – Centre Procédés, Énergies renouvelables et Systèmes énergétiques, Valbonne, France

    Vandad-Julien Rohani, François Cauneau & Laurent Fulcheri

  4. Université Côte d’Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Géoazur, Valbonne, France

    Clément Ganino

  5. Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, CRHEA-Centre de Recherche sur l’Hétéro-Epitaxie et ses Applications, Valbonne, France

    Philippe Vennéguès & Vincent Guigoz

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Contributions

G.L. designed the study and performed the experiments with L.F., V-J.R., C.G. and F.C. G.L, C.G, V.G. and P.V. determined the mineralogy of the condensates. M.M., B.B. and G.L. reduced the data and performed the thermodynamic calculations and models. G.L., M.M. and B.B. wrote the paper under the supervision of E.L. for asymptotic giant branch implications.

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Correspondence to Guy Libourel.

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Extended data

Extended Data Fig. 1 2D thermal regime.

The 2D thermal regime (a) inside the chamber as well as the trajectory (b) and velocity of fictive particles (c) have been obtained using the ANSYS Fluent computational fluid dynamics software (see Methods).

Extended Data Fig. 2 Samples.

Photograph of the graphite rod sample holder after the experiment that collected the condensates. As shown, 14 segments of 5 cm each have been sampled for bulk chemical analysis. CS1-CS6 correspond to sampling for detailed mineralogy depicted in Extended Data Fig. 3. See the chemistry and mineralogy of the condensates in Extended Data Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Kinetic model.

Schematic view of the kinetic model. a) The internal cylinder is the graphite rod. The total surface of evaporation corresponds to the graphite rod and the chamber’s sides. b) Condensation factor of Ca (red) and Fe (blue). For temperatures higher than 1750 K, Ca partitions only in the oxide melt, then in oxide melt and CaS.

Extended Data Fig. 4 FeSi growth timescale.

Calculated timescales of FeSi growth (red) and stellar outflow (blue) as a function of the distance of the star (normalized to star radius R*). Red curves are for Si growth for grains with a size labeled on the curve. Assuming a larger grain diameter would lead to longer timescales. Sticking coefficient of Si(g) is taken from ref. 76.

Extended Data Table 1 Chemical Composition
Full size table
Extended Data Table 2 Mineralogy
Full size table
Extended Data Table 3 Bulk Chemistry
Full size table
Extended Data Table 4 Optical Parameter
Full size table

Supplementary information

Supplementary Figures

Supplementary Figs. 1–4.

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Libourel, G., Mokhtari, M., Rohani, VJ. et al. High-temperature dust formation in carbon-rich astrophysical environments. Nat Astron 9, 90–100 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-024-02393-7

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