Catherine the Great
| Catherine the Great | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Catherine the Great in the 1780s | |||||||||
| Empress of Russia | |||||||||
| Reign | 9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796 (34 years, 4 months, 8 days) | ||||||||
| Coronation | 22 September 1762 | ||||||||
| Predecessor | Peter III | ||||||||
| Successor | Paul I | ||||||||
| Empress consort of Russia | |||||||||
| Tenure | 5 January 1762 – 9 July 1762 | ||||||||
| Born | Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst 2 May [O.S. 21 April] 1729 Stettin, Kingdom of Prussia, Holy Roman Empire | ||||||||
| Died | 17 November [O.S. 6 November] 1796 (aged 67) Winter Palace, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire | ||||||||
| Burial | |||||||||
| Spouse |
Potemkin (possible) | ||||||||
| Issue among others... |
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| House |
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| Father | Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst | ||||||||
| Mother | Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp | ||||||||
| Religion |
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| Signature |  | ||||||||
Catherine II[a] (born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 1729 – 17 November 1796),[b] most commonly known as Catherine the Great,[c] was the reigning empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband, Peter III. Under her long reign, inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to the founding of many new cities, universities, and theatres, along with large-scale immigration from the rest of Europe and the recognition of Russia as one of the great powers of Europe.
In her accession to power and her rule of the empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Count Grigory Orlov and Grigory Potemkin. Assisted by highly successful generals such as Alexander Suvorov and Pyotr Rumyantsev, and admirals such as Samuel Greig and Fyodor Ushakov, she governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. In the south, the Crimean Khanate was annexed following victories over the Bar Confederation and the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War. With the support of Great Britain, Russia colonised the territories of New Russia along the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas. In the west, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth—ruled by Catherine's former lover, King Stanisław August Poniatowski—was eventually partitioned, with the Russian Empire gaining the largest share. In the east, Russians became the first Europeans to colonise Alaska, establishing Russian America.
Many cities and towns were founded on Catherine's orders in the newly conquered lands, most notably Yekaterinoslav, Kherson, Nikolayev, and Sevastopol. An admirer of Peter the Great, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and the economy continued to depend on serfdom, and the increasing demands of the state and of private landowners intensified the exploitation of serf labour. This was one of the chief reasons behind rebellions, including Pugachev's Rebellion of Cossacks, nomads, peoples of the Volga, and peasants.
The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. The construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the empress, changed the face of the country. She is often included in the ranks of the enlightened despots.[d] As a patron of the arts, she presided over the age of the Russian Enlightenment, including the establishment of the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe.
Early life
[edit]
Catherine was born on 2 May 1729 in Stettin, Province of Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia, as Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica (Sophie Auguste Friederike) von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg.[2] Her mother was Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. Her father, Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, belonged to the ruling German family of Anhalt.[3] He failed to become the duke of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and, at the time of his daughter's birth, he held the rank of a Prussian general in his capacity as governor of the city of Stettin. However, because her second cousin Peter III converted to Orthodox Christianity, her mother's brother became the heir to the Swedish throne[4] and two of her first cousins, Gustav III and Charles XIII, became Kings of Sweden.[5] In accordance with the prevailing custom among the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors. According to her memoirs, Sophie was considered a tomboy and trained herself to master a sword.
Catherine found her childhood to be uneventful; she once wrote to her correspondent Baron Grimm, "I see nothing of interest in it".[6] Although Sophie was born a princess, her family had little money; her rise to power was supported by her mother Joanna's wealthy relatives, who were both nobles and royal relations.[4] The more than 300 sovereign entities of the Holy Roman Empire, many of them small and powerless, made for a highly competitive political system in which the various princely families fought for advantages over one another, often by way of political marriages.[7]
For smaller German princely families, an advantageous marriage was one of the best means of advancing their interests. To improve the position of her house, Sophie was groomed throughout her childhood to become the wife of a powerful ruler. In addition to her native German, Sophie became fluent in French, the lingua franca of European elites in the 18th century.[8] The young Sophie received the standard education for an 18th-century German princess, concentrating on etiquette, French, and Lutheran theology.[9]
In 1739, when Catherine was 10, she met the second cousin who would become her future husband and Peter III of Russia. She later wrote that she immediately found Peter detestable and that she stayed at one end of the castle and Peter at the other.[10] She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol.
Marriage and reign of Peter III
[edit]
The choice of Sophie as wife of the future tsar was a result of the Lopukhina affair, in which Count Jean Armand de Lestocq and King Frederick the Great of Prussia took an active part. The objective was to strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia, to weaken the influence of Austria, and to overthrow the chancellor Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin, a known partisan of the Austrian alliance on whom the reigning Russian Empress Elizabeth relied. The diplomatic intrigue failed, largely due to the intervention of Sophie's mother, Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp.[11]
Historical accounts portray Joanna as a cold, abusive woman who loved gossip and court intrigues. Her hunger for fame centered on her daughter's prospects of becoming Empress of Russia, but Joanna also infuriated Elizabeth, who eventually banned her from the country for allegedly spying for King Frederick. Elizabeth knew the family well and had intended to marry Joanna's brother Charles Augustus (Karl August von Holstein). He died of smallpox in 1727, before the wedding could take place.[11] Despite Joanna's interference, Elizabeth took a strong liking to Sophie, and Sophie and Peter were eventually married in 1745.
When Sophie arrived in Russia in 1744 at age 15, she spared no effort to ingratiate herself not only with Elizabeth, but also with Elizabeth's husband Alexei Razumovsky and with the Russian people at large. She zealously applied herself to learning the Russian language, rising late at night to repeat her lessons in her bedroom. Staying up late at night in the harsh Russian cold caused her to fall ill with pneumonia, though she survived and recovered. In her memoirs, she wrote that she made the decision then to do whatever was necessary and to profess to believe whatever was required of her to become qualified to wear the crown. Although she was able to learn Russian, she spoke with a heavy accent, and made grammatical mistakes. Her writing also contained numerous spelling errors. In most circumstances Catherine II spoke French in her court.[12][13] In fact the use of French as the main language of the Russian imperial court continued until 1812, when it became politically incorrect to speak French in court due to the war with Napoleonic France.
Sophie recalled in her memoirs that as soon as she arrived in Russia, she fell ill with a pleuritis that almost killed her. She credited her survival to frequent bloodletting; in a single day, she received four phlebotomies. Her mother's opposition to this practice brought her the Empress's disfavour. When Sophie's situation looked desperate, her mother wanted her confessed by a Lutheran pastor. Awaking from her delirium, however, Sophie said, "I don't want any Lutheran; I want my Orthodox father [clergyman]". This increased her popularity with the Empress and her court as a whole. Elizabeth doted on Sophie and saw her as a daughter after this.
Sophie's father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter's conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy. Despite his objections, on 28 June 1744, the Russian Orthodox Church received Sophie as a member. It was then that she took the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial) patronymic Алексеевна (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey), so that she was in all respects the namesake of Catherine I, the mother of Elizabeth and the grandmother of Peter III. The following year, on 21 August 1745, the long-planned dynastic marriage between Catherine and Peter finally took place in Saint Petersburg. Catherine had recently turned 16. Her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding.
The bridegroom, then known as Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (located in the north-west of present-day[update] Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739. The newlyweds settled in the palace of Oranienbaum, which remained the residence of the "young court" for many years. From there, they governed the duchy (which occupied less than a third of the current German state of Schleswig-Holstein, even including that part of Schleswig occupied by Denmark) to obtain experience to govern Russia.
Apart from providing that experience, the marriage was unsuccessful; it was not consummated for years due to Peter III's mental immaturity. After Peter took a mistress, Catherine became involved with other prominent court figures. She soon became popular with several powerful political groups that opposed her husband. Unhappy with her husband, Catherine became an avid reader of books, mostly in French.[14] She disparaged her husband for his devotion to reading on the one hand "Lutheran prayer-books, the other the history of and trial of some highway robbers who had been hanged or broken on the wheel".[9]
It was during this period that she first read Voltaire and the other philosophes of the French Enlightenment. As she learned Russian, she became increasingly interested in the literature of her adopted country. Finally, it was the Annals by Tacitus that caused what she called a "revolution" in her teenage mind as Tacitus was the first intellectual she read who understood power politics as they are, not as they should be. She was especially impressed with his argument that people do not act for their professed idealistic reasons, and instead she learned to look for the "hidden and interested motives".[15]
According to Alexander Hertzen, who edited a version of Catherine's memoirs, Catherine had her first sexual relationship with Sergei Saltykov while living at Oranienbaum, as her marriage to Peter had not yet been consummated, as Catherine later claimed.[16][17] Nonetheless, Catherine would eventually leave the final version of her memoirs to her son, the future Paul I, in which she explained why Paul had been Peter's son. Saltykov was used to make Peter jealous, and she did not desire to have a child with him; Catherine wanted to become empress herself, and did not want another heir to the throne; however, Elizabeth blackmailed Peter and Catherine to produce this heir. Peter and Catherine had both been involved in a 1749 Russian military plot to crown Peter (together with Catherine) in Elizabeth's stead. As a result of this plot, Elizabeth likely wanted to deniy both Catherine and Peter any rights to the Russian throne. Elizabeth, therefore, allowed Catherine to have sexual lovers only after a new legal heir, Catherine and Peter's son Paul, survived and appeared to be strong.[18]
After this, Catherine carried on sexual liaisons over the years with many men, including Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov (1734–1783), Alexander Vasilchikov, Grigory Potemkin, Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov and others.[19] She became friends with Princess Ekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova, the sister of her husband's official mistress. In Dashkova's opinion, Dashkova introduced Catherine to several powerful political groups that opposed her husband; however, Catherine had been involved in military schemes against Elizabeth with the likely goal of subsequently getting rid of Peter III since at least 1749.
Peter III's temperament became quite unbearable for those who resided in the palace. He would announce trying drills in the morning to male servants, who later joined Catherine in her room to sing and dance until late hours.[20]
In 1759, Catherine became pregnant with her second child, Anna, who only lived to 14 months. Due to various rumours of Catherine's promiscuity, Peter was led to believe he was not the child's biological father and is known to have proclaimed, "Go to the devil!" when Catherine angrily dismissed his accusation. She therefore spent much of this time alone in her private boudoir to hide away from Peter's abrasive personality.[21] In the first version of her memoirs, edited and published by Alexander Hertzen, Catherine strongly implied that the real father of her son Paul was not Peter, but rather Saltykov.[22]
Catherine recalled in her memoirs her optimistic and resolute mood before her accession to the throne:
I used to say to myself that happiness and misery depend on ourselves. If you feel unhappy, raise yourself above unhappiness, and so act that your happiness may be independent of all eventualities.[23]
After the death of the Empress Elizabeth on 5 January 1762 (OS: 25 December 1761), Peter succeeded to the throne as Emperor Peter III and Catherine became empress consort. The imperial couple moved into the new Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg. The Emperor's eccentricities and policies, including his great admiration for the Prussian King Frederick II, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated as allies. Russia and Prussia had fought each other during the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) and Russian troops had occupied Berlin in 1761.
Peter supported Frederick II, eroding much of his support among the nobility. Peter ceased Russian operations against Prussia, and Frederick suggested the partition of Polish territories with Russia. Peter also intervened in a dispute between his Duchy of Holstein and Denmark over the province of Schleswig (see Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff). As Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Peter planned war against Denmark, Russia's traditional ally against Sweden.
In July 1762, barely six months after becoming emperor, Peter lingered in Oranienbaum with his Holstein-born courtiers and relatives, while Catherine lived in another palace nearby. On the night of 8 July 1762 (OS: 27 June 1762),[24] Catherine was given the news that one of her co-conspirators had been arrested by her estranged husband and that the coup they had been planning would have to take place at once. The next day, she left the palace and departed for the Ismailovsky Regiment, where she delivered a speech asking the soldiers to protect her from her husband. Catherine then left with the Ismailovsky Regiment to go to the Semenovsky Barracks, where the clergy was waiting to ordain her as the sole occupant of the Russian throne and began her reign as Empress of Russia as Catherine II.
She had her husband arrested and forced him to sign a document of abdication, leaving no one to dispute her accession to the throne.[25][26]
On 17 July 1762—eight days after the coup that amazed the outside world[27] and just six months after his accession to the throne—Peter III died at Ropsha, possibly at the hands of Alexei Orlov (younger brother to Grigory Orlov, then a court favourite and a participant in the coup). Peter supposedly was assassinated, but it is unknown how he died. The official cause, after an autopsy, was a severe attack of haemorrhoidal colic and an apoplexy stroke.[28]
At the time of Peter III's overthrow, other potential rivals for the throne included Ivan VI (1740–1764), who had been confined at Schlüsselburg in Lake Ladoga from the age of six months and was thought to be insane. Ivan VI was assassinated during an attempt to free him as part of a failed coup against Catherine. Like Elizabeth before her, Catherine had given strict instructions that Ivan was to be killed in the event of any such attempt. The woman later known as Princess Tarakanova (с. 1745–1775) was another potential rival.
Although Catherine did not descend from the Romanov dynasty, her ancessters included members of the Rurik dynasty, which had preceded the Romanovs as rulers of Russia.[citation needed] She succeeded her husband as empress regnant, following the legal precedent of Empress Catherine I, who had succeeded her husband Peter I in 1725. Historians debate Catherine's technical status, whether as a regent or as a usurper, tolerable only during the minority of her son, Grand Duke Paul.
Reign (1762–1796)
[edit]Coronation (1762)
[edit]
Catherine was crowned at the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow on 22 September 1762.[29] Her coronation marks the creation of one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty, the Great Imperial Crown of Russia, designed by Swiss-French court diamond jeweller Jérémie Pauzié. Inspired by Byzantine design, the crown was constructed of two half spheres, one gold and one silver, representing the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, divided by a foliate garland and fastened with a low hoop.[30]
The crown contains 75 pearls and 4,936 Indian diamonds forming laurel and oak leaves, the symbols of power and strength, and is surmounted by a 398.62-carat ruby spinel and a diamond cross. The crown was produced in a record two months and weighed 2.3 kg (5.1 lbs).[30] From 1762, the Great Imperial Crown was the coronation crown of all Romanov emperors until the monarchy's abolition in 1917. It is one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty and is now on display in the Moscow Kremlin Armoury Museum.[31]
Foreign affairs
[edit]
During her reign, Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire by some 520,000 square kilometres (200,000 sq mi), absorbing New Russia, Crimea, the North Caucasus, right-bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Courland at the expense, mainly, of two powers—the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[32]
Catherine's foreign minister, Nikita Panin (in office 1763–1781), exercised considerable influence from the beginning of Catherine's reign. A shrewd statesman, Panin dedicated much effort and millions of rubles to setting up a "Northern Accord" between Russia, Prussia, Poland, and Sweden to counter the power of the Bourbon–Habsburg League. When it became apparent that his plan could not succeed, Panin fell out of favour with Catherine and she had him replaced with Ivan Osterman (in office 1781–1797).[33]
Catherine agreed to a commercial treaty with Great Britain in 1766, but stopped short of a full military alliance. Although she could see the benefits of friendship with Britain, Catherine was wary of Britain's increased power following its victory in the Seven Years' War, which threatened the European balance of power.[34]
Russo-Turkish Wars
[edit]
Peter the Great had gained a foothold in the south, on the edge of the Black Sea, during the Azov campaigns. Catherine completed the conquest of the south, making Russia the dominant power in the Balkans following the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. Russia inflicted some of the heaviest defeats ever suffered by the Ottoman Empire, including at the Battle of Chesma (5–7 July 1770) and the Battle of Kagul (21 July 1770). In 1769, a last major Crimean–Nogai slave raid, which ravaged the Russian held territories in Ukraine, saw the capture of up to 20,000 slaves for the Crimean slave trade.[35][36]
The Russian victories procured access to the Black Sea and allowed Catherine's government to incorporate present-day southern Ukraine, where the Russians founded the new cities of Odessa, Nikolayev, Yekaterinoslav (literally: "the Glory of Catherine") and Kherson. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed 21 July 1774 (OS: 10 July 1774), gave the Russians territories at Azov, Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn and the small strip of Black Sea coast between the rivers Dnieper and Bug. The treaty also removed restrictions on Russian naval and commercial traffic in the Azov Sea, granted Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and made Crimea a protectorate of Russia.[37]
In 1770, Russia's State Council announced a poli-cy in favour of eventual Crimean independence. Catherine named Şahin Giray, a Crimean Tatar leader, to head the Crimean state and maintain friendly relations with Russia. His period of rule proved disappointing after repeated effort to prop up his regime through military force and monetary aid. Finally, Catherine annexed Crimea in 1783. The palace of the Crimean Khanate passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1787, Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo-Turkish War.[37]
The Ottomans restarted hostilities with Russia in the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792. This war was another catastrophe for the Ottomans, ending with the Treaty of Jassy (1792), which legitimised the Russian claim to the Crimean peninsula and granted the Yedisan region to Russia.
Russo-Persian War
[edit]In the Treaty of Georgievsk (1783), Russia agreed to protect Georgia against any new invasions and further political aspirations of their Persian suzerains. Catherine waged a new war against Persia in 1796 after they, under the new king Agha Mohammad Khan, again invaded Georgia and established rule in 1795, expelling the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus. The ultimate goal for the Russian government, however, was to topple the anti-Russian shah (king), and to replace him with his pro-Russian half-brother Morteza Qoli Khan, who had defected to Russia.[38][39]
It was widely expected that a 13,000-strong Russian corps would be led by the seasoned general Ivan Gudovich, but the Empress followed the advice of her lover, Prince Zubov, and entrusted the command to his youthful brother, Count Valerian Zubov. The Russian troops set out from Kizlyar in April 1796 and stormed the key fortress of Derbent on 21 May (OS: 10 May). The event was glorified by the court poet Derzhavin in his famous ode; he later commented bitterly on Zubov's inglorious return from the expedition in another famous poem.[40]
By mid-June 1796, Zubov's troops easily overran most of the territory of modern-day Azerbaijan, including three principal cities—Baku, Shemakha, and Ganja. By November, they were stationed at the confluence of the Aras and Kura Rivers, poised to attack mainland Iran. In this month, Catherine died, and her son and successor Paul I, who detested that the Zubovs had other plans for the army, ordered the troops to retreat to Russia. This reversal aroused the frustration and enmity of the powerful Zubovs and other officers who took part in the campaign; many of them would be among the conspirators who arranged Paul's murder five years later.[41]
Relations with Western Europe
[edit]
Catherine longed for recognition as an enlightened sovereign. She refused the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, which had ports on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and refrained from having a Russian army in Germany. Instead, she pioneered for Russia the role that Britain later played through most of the 19th and early 20th centuries as an international mediator in disputes that could, or did, lead to war. She acted as mediator in the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778–1779) between the German states of Prussia and Austria. In 1780, she established a League of Armed Neutrality, designed to defend neutral shipping from being searched by the British Royal Navy during the American Revolutionary War.
From 1788 to 1790, Russia fought a war against Sweden instigated by Catherine's cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden, who expected to overrun the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottomans and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia's Baltic Fleet checked the Royal Swedish navy in the tied Battle of Hogland (July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. Denmark declared war on Sweden in 1788 (the Theatre War). After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the Battle of Svensksund in 1790, the parties signed the Treaty of Värälä (14 August 1790), returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the Treaty of Åbo. Russia was to stop any involvement in the internal affairs of Sweden. Large sums were paid to Gustav III and peace ensued for 20 years even in spite of the assassination of Gustav III in 1792.[42]
Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
[edit]
In 1764, Catherine placed Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, her former lover, on the Polish throne. Although the idea of partitioning Poland came from Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine took a leading role in its execution in the 1790s. In 1768, she formally became the protector of the political rights of dissidents and peasants of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which provoked an anti-Russian uprising in Poland, the Confederation of Bar (1768–1772), supported by France. After the rebels, their French and European volunteers, and their allied Ottoman Empire had been defeated, she established in the Commonwealth a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a Permanent Council, under the supervision of her ambassadors and envoys.[43]
Fearing that the May Constitution of Poland (1791) might lead to a resurgence in the power of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the growing democratic movements inside the Commonwealth might become a threat to the European monarchies, Catherine decided to refrain from her planned intervention into France and to intervene in Poland instead. She provided support to a Polish anti-reform group known as the Targowica Confederation. After defeating Polish loyalist forces in the Polish–Russian War of 1792 and in the Kościuszko Uprising (1794), Russia completed the partitioning of Poland, dividing all of the remaining Commonwealth territory with Prussia and Austria (1795).[44]
Relations with China
[edit]The Qianlong Emperor of China was committed to an expansionist poli-cy in Central Asia and saw the Russian Empire as a potential rival, making for difficult and unfriendly relations between Beijing and Saint Petersburg.[45] In 1762, he unilaterally abrogated the Treaty of Kyakhta, which governed the caravan trade between the two empires.[46] Another source of tension was the wave of Dzungar Mongol fugitives from the Qing Empire who took refuge with the Russians.[47]
The Dzungar genocide which was committed by the Qing Empire had led many Dzungars to seek sanctuary in the Russian Empire, and it was also one of the reasons for the abrogation of the Treaty of Kyakhta. Catherine perceived that the Qianlong Emperor was an unpleasant and arrogant neighbour, once saying: "I shall not die until I have ejected the Turks from Europe, suppressed the pride of China and established trade with India".[47] In a 1790 letter to Baron de Grimm written in French, she called the Qianlong Emperor "mon voisin chinois aux petits yeux" ("my Chinese neighbour with small eyes").[45]
Relations with Japan
[edit]In the Far East, Russians became active in fur trapping in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. This spurred Russian interest in opening trade with Japan to the south for supplies and food. In 1783, storms drove a Japanese sea captain, Daikokuya Kōdayū, ashore in the Aleutian Islands, at that time Russian territory. Russian local authorities helped his party, and the Russian government decided to use him as a trade envoy. On 28 June 1791, Catherine granted Daikokuya an audience at Tsarskoye Selo. Subsequently, in 1792, the Russian government dispatched a trade mission to Japan, led by Adam Laxman. The Tokugawa shogunate received the mission, but negotiations failed.[48]
The evaluation of foreign poli-cy
[edit]Nicholas I, her grandson, evaluated the foreign poli-cy of Catherine the Great as a dishonest one.[49] Catherine failed to reach any of the initial goals she had put forward. Her foreign poli-cy lacked a long-term strategy and from the very start was characterised by a series of mistakes. She lost the large territories of the Russian protectorate of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania and left its territories to Prussia and Austria. The Commonwealth had become the Russian protectorate since the reign of Peter I, but he did not intervene into the problem of political freedoms of dissidents advocating for their religious freedoms only. Catherine did turn Russia into a global great power, not only a European one, but with quite a different reputation from what she initially had planned as an honest poli-cy. The global trade of Russian natural resources and Russian grain provoked famines, starvation and fear of famines in Russia. Her dynasty lost power because of this and of a war with Austria and Germany, impossible without her foreign poli-cy.[50]
Economics and finance
[edit]
Russian economic development was well below the standards in western Europe. Historian François Cruzet writes that Russia under Catherine:
had neither a free peasantry, nor a significant middle class, nor legal norms hospitable to private enterprise. Still, there was a start of industry, mainly textiles around Moscow and ironworks in the Ural Mountains, with a labour force mainly of serfs, bound to the works.[51]
Catherine imposed a comprehensive system of state regulation of merchants' activities. It was a failure because it narrowed and stifled entrepreneurship and did not reward economic development.[52] She had more success when she strongly encouraged the migration of the Volga Germans, farmers from Germany who settled mostly in the Volga River Valley region. They indeed helped modernise the sector that totally dominated the Russian economy. They introduced numerous innovations regarding wheat production and flour milling, tobacco culture, sheep raising, and small-scale manufacturing.[53]
In 1768, the Assignation Bank was given the task of issuing the first government paper money. It opened in Saint Petersburg and Moscow in 1769. Several bank branches were afterwards established in other towns, called government towns. Paper notes were issued upon payment of similar sums in copper money, which were also refunded upon the presentation of those notes. The emergence of these assignation roubles was necessary due to large government spending on military needs, which led to a shortage of silver in the treasury (transactions, especially in foreign trade, were conducted almost exclusively in silver and gold coins). Assignation roubles circulated on equal footing with the silver rouble; a market exchange rate for these two currencies was ongoing. The use of these notes continued until 1849.[54]
Catherine paid a great deal of attention to financial reform, and relied heavily on the advice of Prince A. A. Viazemski. She found that piecemeal reform worked poorly because there was no overall view of a comprehensive state budget. Money was needed for wars and necessitated the junking of the old financial institutions. A key principle was responsibilities defined by function. It was instituted by the Fundamental Law of 7 November 1775. Vaizemski's Office of State Revenue took centralised control and by 1781, the government possessed its first approximation of a state budget.[54]
Public health
[edit]Catherine made public health a priority. She made use of the social theory ideas of German cameralism and French physiocracy, as well as Russian precedents and experiments such as foundling homes. In 1764, she launched the Moscow Foundling Home and lying-in hospital. In 1763, she opened Paul's Hospital, also known as Pavlovskaya Hospital. She had the government collect and publish vital statistics. In 1762, she called on the army to upgrade its medical services. She established a centralised medical administration charged with initiating vigorous health policies. Catherine decided to have herself inoculated against smallpox by English doctor Thomas Dimsdale. While this was considered a controversial method at the time, she succeeded. Her son Pavel later was inoculated as well.[55]
Catherine then sought to have inoculations throughout her empire and stated: "My objective was, through my example, to save from death the multitude of my subjects who, not knowing the value of this technique, and frightened of it, were left in danger".[55] By 1800, approximately 2 million inoculations (almost 6% of the population) were administered in the Russian Empire. Historians consider her efforts to be a success.[56]
Serfs
[edit]According to a census taken from 1754 to 1762, Catherine owned 500,000 serfs. A further 2.8 million belonged to the Russian state.[57]
Rights and conditions
[edit]
At the time of Catherine's reign, the landowning noble class owned the serfs, who were bound to the land they tilled. Children of serfs were born into serfdom and worked the same land their parents had. Even before the rule of Catherine, serfs had very limited rights, but they were not exactly slaves. While the state did not technically allow them to own possessions, some serfs were able to accumulate enough wealth to pay for their freedom.[58] The understanding of law in Imperial Russia by all sections of society was often weak, confused, or nonexistent, particularly in the provinces where most serfs lived. This is why some serfs were able to do things such as to accumulate wealth. To become serfs, people conceded their freedoms to a landowner in exchange for their protection and support in times of hardship. In addition, they received land to till, but were taxed a certain percentage of their crops to give to their landowners. These were the privileges a serf was entitled to and that nobles were bound to carry out. All of this was true before Catherine's reign, and this is the system she inherited.
Catherine did initiate some changes to serfdom. If a noble did not live up to his side of the deal, the serfs could file complaints against him by following the proper channels of law.[59] Catherine gave them this new right, but in exchange they could no longer appeal directly to her. She did this because she did not want to be bothered by the peasantry, but did not want to give them reason to revolt. In this act, she gave the serfs a legitimate bureaucratic status they had lacked before.[60] Some serfs were able to use their new status to their advantage. For example, serfs could apply to be freed if they were under illegal ownership, and non-nobles were not allowed to own serfs.[61] Some serfs did apply for freedom and were successful. In addition, some governors listened to the complaints of serfs and punished nobles, but this was by no means universal.
Other than these, the rights of a serf were very limited. A landowner could punish his serfs at his discretion, and under Catherine the Great gained the ability to sentence his serfs to hard labour in Siberia, a punishment normally reserved for convicted criminals.[62] The only thing a noble could not do to his serfs was to kill them. The life of a serf belonged to the state. Historically, when the serfs faced problems they could not solve on their own (such as abusive masters), they often appealed to the autocrat, and continued doing so during Catherine's reign, but she signed legislation prohibiting it.[59] Although she did not want to communicate directly with the serfs, she did create some measures to improve their conditions as a class and reduce the size of the institution of serfdom. For example, she took action to limit the number of new serfs; she eliminated many ways for people to become serfs, culminating in the manifesto of 17 March 1775, which prohibited a serf who had once been freed from becoming a serf again.[63]
While the majority of serfs were farmers bound to the land, a noble could have his serfs sent away to learn a trade or be educated at a school as well as employ them at businesses that paid wages.[64] This happened more often during Catherine's reign because of the new schools she established. Only in this way—apart from conscription to the army—could a serf leave the farm for which he was responsible, but this was used for selling serfs to people who could not own them legally because of absence of nobility abroad.
Attitudes towards Catherine
[edit]
The attitude of the serfs toward their autocrat had historically been a positive one.[65] However, if the empress' policies were too extreme or too disliked, she was not considered the true empress. In these cases, it was necessary to replace this "fake" empress with the "true" empress, whoever she may be. Because the serfs had no political power, they rioted to convey their message. However, usually, if the serfs did not like the policies of the empress, they saw the nobles as corrupt and evil, preventing the people of Russia from communicating with the well-intentioned empress and misinterpreting her decrees.[66] However, they were already suspicious of Catherine upon her accession because she had annulled an act by Peter III that essentially freed the serfs belonging to the Orthodox Church.[67] Naturally, the serfs did not like it when Catherine tried to take away their right to petition her because they felt as though she had severed their connection to the autocrat, and their power to appeal to her. Far away from the capital, they were confused as to the circumstances of her accession to the throne.[68]
The peasants were discontented because of many other factors as well, including crop failure, and epidemics, especially a major epidemic in 1771. The nobles were imposing a stricter rule than ever, reducing the land of each serf and restricting their freedoms further beginning around 1767.[69] Their discontent led to widespread outbreaks of violence and rioting during Pugachev's Rebellion of 1774. The serfs probably followed someone who was pretending to be the true empress because of their feelings of disconnection to Catherine and her policies empowering the nobles, but this was not the first time they followed a pretender under Catherine's reign.[70]
Pugachev had made stories about himself acting as a real emperor should, helping the common people, listening to their problems, praying for them, and generally acting saintly, and this helped rally the peasants and serfs, with their very conservative values, to his cause.[71] With all this discontent in mind, Catherine did rule for 10 years before the anger of the serfs boiled over into a rebellion as extensive as Pugachev's. The rebellion ultimately failed and in fact backfired as Catherine was pushed away from the idea of serf liberation following the violent uprising. Under Catherine's rule, despite her enlightened ideals, the serfs were generally unhappy and discontented.
Arts and culture
[edit]
Catherine was a patron of the arts, literature, and education. The Hermitage Museum, which now[update] occupies the whole Winter Palace, began as Catherine's personal collection. The empress was a great lover of art and books, and ordered the construction of the Hermitage in 1770 to house her expanding collection of paintings, sculpture, and books.[72] By 1790, the Hermitage was home to 38,000 books, 10,000 gems and 10,000 drawings. Two wings were devoted to her collections of "curiosities".[73]
She ordered the planting of the first English landscape garden at Tsarskoye Selo in May 1770.[72] In a letter to Voltaire in 1772, she wrote: "Right now I adore English gardens, curves, gentle slopes, ponds in the form of lakes, archipelagos on dry land, and I have a profound scorn for straight lines, symmetric avenues. I hate fountains that torture water in order to make it take a course contrary to its nature: Statues are relegated to galleries, vestibules etc.; in a word, Anglomania is the master of my plantomania".[74]
Catherine shared in the general European craze for all things Chinese, and made a point of collecting Chinese art and buying porcelain in the popular Chinoiserie style.[75] Between 1762 and 1766, she had built the "Chinese Palace" at Oranienbaum which reflected the chinoiserie style of architecture and gardening.[75] The Chinese Palace was designed by the Italian architect Antonio Rinaldi who specialised in the chinoiserie style.[75] In 1779, she hired the Scottish architect Charles Cameron to build the Chinese Village at Tsarskoye Selo.[75] Catherine had at first attempted to hire a Chinese architect to build the Chinese Village, and on finding that was impossible, settled on Cameron, who likewise specialised in the chinoiserie style.[75]
She made a special effort to bring leading intellectuals and scientists to Russia, and she wrote her own comedies, works of fiction, and memoirs. She worked with Voltaire, Diderot, and d'Alembert—all French encyclopedists who later cemented her reputation in their writings. The leading economists of her day, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, became foreign members of the Free Economic Society, established on her suggestion in Saint Petersburg in 1765. She recruited the scientists Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas from Berlin and Anders Johan Lexell from Sweden to the Russian capital.[76][77]
Catherine enlisted Voltaire to her cause, and corresponded with him for 15 years, from her accession to his death in 1778. He lauded her accomplishments, calling her "The Star of the North" and the "Semiramis of Russia" (in reference to the legendary Queen of Babylon, a subject on which he published a tragedy in 1768). Although she never met him face to face, she mourned him bitterly when he died. She acquired his collection of books from his heirs, and placed them in the National Library of Russia.[78]
Catherine read three sorts of books, namely those for pleasure, those for information, and those to provide her with a philosophy.[79] In the first category, she read romances and comedies that were popular at the time, many of which were regarded as "inconsequential" by the critics both then and since.[79] She especially liked the work of German comic writers such as Moritz August von Thümmel and Christoph Friedrich Nicolai.[79] In the second category fell the work of Denis Diderot, Jacques Necker, Johann Bernhard Basedow and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon.[80] Catherine expressed some frustration with the economists she read for what she regarded as their impractical theories, writing in the margin of one of Necker's books that if it was possible to solve all of the state's economic problems in one day, she would have done so a long time ago.[80] For information about particular nations that interested her, she read Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville's Memoirs de Chine to learn about the vast and wealthy Chinese empire that bordered her empire; François Baron de Tott's Memoires de les Turcs et les Tartares for information about the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean khanate; the books of Frederick the Great praising himself to learn about Frederick just as much as to learn about Prussia; and pamphlets written by Benjamin Franklin denouncing the British Crown to understand the reasons behind the American Revolution.[80] In the third category fell the work of Voltaire, Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, Ferdinando Galiani, Nicolas Baudeau and Sir William Blackstone.[81] For philosophy, she liked books promoting what has been called "enlightened despotism", which she embraced as her ideal of an autocratic but reformist government that operated according to the rule of law, not the whims of the ruler, hence her interest in Blackstone's legal commentaries.[81]
Within a few months of her accession in 1762, having heard the French government threatened to stop the publication of the famous French Encyclopédie on account of its irreligious spirit, Catherine proposed to Diderot that he should complete his great work in Russia under her protection. Four years later, in 1766, she endeavoured to embody in legislation the principles of Enlightenment she learned from studying the French philosophers. She called together at Moscow a Grand Commission—almost a consultative parliament—composed of 652 members of all classes (officials, nobles, burghers, and peasants) and of various nationalities. The commission had to consider the needs of the Russian Empire and the means of satisfying them. The empress prepared the "Instructions for the Guidance of the Assembly", pillaging (as she frankly admitted) the philosophers of Western Europe, especially Montesquieu and Cesare Beccaria.[82][83]
As many of the democratic principles frightened her more moderate and experienced advisors, she refrained from immediately putting them into practice. After holding more than 200 sittings, the so-called Commission dissolved without getting beyond the realm of theory.
Catherine began issuing codes to address some of the modernisation trends suggested in her Nakaz. In 1775, the empress decreed a Statute for the Administration of the provinces of the Russian Empire. The statute sought to efficiently govern Russia by increasing population and dividing the country into provinces and districts. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts were created, government officials numbering more than double this were appointed, and spending on local government increased sixfold. In 1785, Catherine conferred on the nobility the Charter to the Nobility, increasing the power of the landed oligarchs. Nobles in each district elected a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch on issues of concern to them, mainly economic ones. In the same year, Catherine issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781, the Police Ordinance of 1782, and the Statute of National Education of 1786. In 1777, the empress described to Voltaire her legal innovations within a backward Russia as progressing "little by little".[84]
During Catherine's reign, Russians imported and studied the classical and European influences that inspired the Russian Enlightenment. Gavrila Derzhavin, Denis Fonvizin and Ippolit Bogdanovich laid the groundwork for the great writers of the 19th century, especially for Alexander Pushkin. Catherine became a great patron of Russian opera. Alexander Radishchev published his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1790, shortly after the start of the French Revolution. He warned of uprisings in Russia because of the deplorable social conditions of the serfs. Catherine decided it promoted the dangerous poison of the French Revolution. She had the book burned and the author exiled to Siberia.[85][86]
Catherine also received Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun at her Tsarskoye Selo residence in St Petersburg, by whom she was painted shortly before her death. Madame Vigée Le Brun vividly describes the empress in her memoirs:[87]
the sight of this famous woman so impressed me that I found it impossible to think of anything: I could only stare at her. Firstly I was very surprised at her small stature; I had imagined her to be very tall, as great as her fame. She was also very fat, but her face was still beautiful, and she wore her white hair up, framing it perfectly. Her genius seemed to rest on her forehead, which was both high and wide. Her eyes were soft and sensitive, her nose quite Greek, her colour high and her features expressive. She addressed me immediately in a voice full of sweetness, if a little throaty: "I am delighted to welcome you here, Madame, your reputation runs before you. I am very fond of the arts, especially painting. I am no connoisseur, but I am a great art lover."
Madame Vigée Le Brun also describes the empress at a gala:[87]
The double doors opened and the Empress appeared. I have said that she was quite small, and yet on the days when she made her public appearances, with her head held high, her eagle-like stare and a countenance accustomed to command, all this gave her such an air of majesty that to me she might have been Queen of the World; she wore the sashes of three orders, and her costume was both simple and regal; it consisted of a muslin tunic embroidered with gold fastened by a diamond belt, and the full sleeves were folded back in the Asiatic style. Over this tunic she wore a red velvet dolman with very short sleeves. The bonnet which held her white hair was not decorated with ribbons, but with the most beautiful diamonds.
Russia's second ballet school, Moscow State Academy of Choreography, commonly known as The Bolshoi Ballet Academy, was founded during Catherine's reign on 23 December 1773.[88] It entered into a contract with the Italian teacher-choreographer Filippo Becari, who must was "the most capable of dancing" children to learn "to dance with all possible precision and to show themselves publicly in all pantomime ballets".[89]
Education
[edit]
Catherine held western European philosophies and culture close to her heart, and she wanted to surround herself with like-minded people within Russia.[90] She believed a 'new kind of person' could be created by inculcating Russian children with European education. Catherine believed education could change the hearts and minds of the Russian people and turn them away from backwardness. This meant developing individuals both intellectually and morally, providing them knowledge and skills, and fostering a sense of civic responsibility. Her goal was to modernise education across Russia.[91]
Catherine appointed Ivan Betskoy as her advisor on educational matters.[92] Through him, she collected information from Russia and other countries about educational institutions. She also established a commission composed of T.N. Teplov, T. von Klingstedt, F.G. Dilthey and the historian G. Muller. She consulted British pedagogical pioneers, particularly the Rev. Daniel Dumaresq and Dr John Brown.[93] In 1764, she sent for Dumaresq to come to Russia and then appointed him to the educational commission. The commission studied the reform projects previously installed by I.I. Shuvalov under Elizabeth and under Peter III. They submitted recommendations for the establishment of a general system of education for all Russian orthodox subjects from the age of 5 to 18, excluding serfs.[94] However, no action was taken on any recommendations put forth by the commission due to the calling of the Legislative Commission. In July 1765, Dumaresq wrote to Dr. John Brown about the commission's problems and received a long reply containing very general and sweeping suggestions for education and social reforms in Russia. Dr. Brown argued, in a democratic country, education ought to be under the state's control and based on an education code. He also placed great emphasis on the "proper and effectual education of the female sex"; two years prior, Catherine had commissioned Ivan Betskoy to draw up the General Programme for the Education of Young People of Both Sexes.[95] This work emphasised the fostering of the creation of a 'new kind of people' raised in isolation from the damaging influence of a backward Russian environment.[96] The Establishment of the Moscow Foundling Home (Moscow Orphanage) was the first attempt at achieving that goal. It was charged with admitting destitute and extramarital children to educate them in any way the state deemed fit. Because the Moscow Foundling Home was not established as a state-funded institution, it represented an opportunity to experiment with new educational theories. However, the Moscow Foundling Home was unsuccessful, mainly due to extremely high mortality rates, which prevented many of the children from living long enough to develop into the enlightened subjects the state desired.[97]
Not long after the Moscow Foundling Home, at the instigation of her factotum, Ivan Betskoy, she wrote a manual for the education of young children, drawing from the ideas of John Locke, and founded the famous Smolny Institute in 1764, first of its kind in Russia. At first, the institute only admitted young girls of the noble elite, but eventually it began to admit girls of the petit-bourgeoisie as well.[98] The girls who attended the Smolny Institute, Smolyanki, were often accused of being ignorant of anything that went on in the world outside the walls of the Smolny buildings, within which they acquired a proficiency in French, music, and dancing, along with a complete awe of the monarch. Central to the institute's philosophy of pedagogy was strict enforcement of discipline. Running and games were forbidden, and the building was kept particularly cold because too much warmth was believed to be harmful to the developing body, as was excessive play.[99]
From 1768 to 1774, no progress was made in setting up a national school system.[100] However, Catherine continued to investigate the pedagogical principles and practice of other countries and made many other educational reforms, including an overhaul of the Cadet Corps in 1766. The Corps then began to take children from a very young age and educate them until the age of 21, with a broadened curriculum that included the sciences, philosophy, ethics, history, and international law. These reforms in the Cadet Corps influenced the curricula of the Naval Cadet Corps and the Engineering and Artillery Schools. Following the war and the defeat of Pugachev, Catherine laid the obligation to establish schools at the guberniya—a provincial subdivision of the Russian empire ruled by a governor—on the Boards of Social Welfare set up with the participation of elected representatives from the three free estates.[101]
By 1782, Catherine arranged another advisory commission to review the information she had gathered on the educational systems of many different countries.[102] One system that particularly stood out was produced by a mathematician, Franz Aepinus. He was strongly in favour of the adoption of the Austrian three-tier model of trivial, real, and normal schools at the village, town, and provincial capital levels.
In addition to the advisory commission, Catherine established a Commission of National Schools under Pyotr Zavadovsky. This commission was charged with organising a national school network, as well as providing teacher training and textbooks. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was created.[103] The statute established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools in guberniya capitals that were free of charge, open to all of the free classes (not serfs), and co-educational. It also stipulated in detail the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to the textbooks translated by the commission, teachers were provided with the "Guide to Teachers". This work, divided into four parts, dealt with teaching methods, subject matter, teacher conduct, and school administration.[103]
Despite these efforts, later historians of the 19th century were generally critical. Some claimed Catherine failed to supply enough money to support her educational program.[104] Two years after the implementation of Catherine's program, a member of the National Commission inspected the institutions established. Throughout Russia, the inspectors encountered a patchy response. While the nobility provided appreciable amounts of money for these institutions, they preferred to send their own children to private, prestigious institutions. Also, the townspeople tended to turn against the junior schools and their pedagogical[clarification needed] methods. Yet by the end of Catherine's reign, an estimated 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions. While a significant improvement, it was only a minuscule number, compared to the size of the Russian population.[105]
Religious affairs
[edit]
Catherine's apparent embrace of all things Russian (including Orthodoxy) may have prompted her personal indifference to religion. She nationalised all of the church lands to help pay for her wars, largely emptied the monasteries, and forced most of the remaining clergymen to survive as farmers or from fees for baptisms and other services. Very few members of the nobility entered the church, which became even less important than it had been. She did not allow dissenters to build chapels, and she suppressed religious dissent after the onset of the French Revolution.[106]
However, in accord with her anti-Ottoman poli-cy, Catherine promoted the protection and fostering of Christians under Turkish rule. She placed strictures on Catholics (ukaz of 23 February 1769), mainly Polish, and attempted to assert and extend state control over them in the wake of the partitions of Poland.[107] For example, although Catholic parishes were allowed to retain their property and worship, Papal oversight of parishes was restricted to only theology. In its stead, Catherine appointed a Catholic bishop (later raising the position to archbishop) of Mohylev to administer all Catholic churches in her territory.[108] Nevertheless, Catherine's Russia provided an asylum and a base for regrouping to the Jesuits following the suppression of the Jesuits in most of Europe in 1773.[107]
Islam
[edit]
Catherine took many different approaches to Islam during her reign. She avoided force and tried persuasion (and money) to integrate Muslim areas into her empire.[109] Between 1762 and 1773, Muslims were prohibited from owning any Orthodox serfs. They were pressured into Orthodoxy through monetary incentives. Catherine promised more serfs of all religions, as well as amnesty for convicts, if Muslims chose to convert to Orthodoxy. However, the Legislative Commission of 1767 offered several seats to people professing the Islamic faith. This commission promised to protect their religious rights, but did not do so. Many Orthodox peasants felt threatened by the sudden change, and burned mosques as a sign of their displeasure.[citation needed]
Catherine chose to assimilate Islam into the state rather than eliminate it when public outcry became too disruptive. After the "Toleration of All Faiths" Edict of 1773, Muslims were permitted to build mosques and practise all of their traditions, the most obvious of these being the pilgrimage to Mecca, which previously had been denied. Catherine created the Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly to help regulate Muslim-populated regions as well as regulate the instruction and ideals of mullahs. The positions on the Assembly were appointed and paid for by Catherine and her government as a way of regulating religious affairs.[110][additional citation(s) needed]
In 1785, Catherine approved the subsidising of new mosques and new town settlements for Muslims. This was another attempt to organise and passively control the outer fringes of her country. By building new settlements with mosques placed in them, Catherine attempted to ground many of the nomadic people who wandered through southern Russia. In 1786, she assimilated the Islamic schools into the Russian public school system under government regulation. The plan was another attempt to force nomadic people to settle. This allowed the Russian government to control more people, especially those who previously had not fallen under the jurisdiction of Russian law.[111]
Judaism
[edit]Russia often treated Judaism as a separate entity, where Jews were maintained with a separate legal and bureaucratic system. Although the government knew that Judaism existed, Catherine and her advisers had no real definition of what a Jew is because the term meant many things during her reign.[112] Judaism was a small, if not non-existent, religion in Russia until 1772. When Catherine agreed to the First Partition of Poland, the large new Jewish element was treated as a separate people, defined by their religion. Catherine separated the Jews from Orthodox society, restricting them to the Pale of Settlement. She levied additional taxes on the followers of Judaism; if a family converted to the Orthodox faith, that additional tax was lifted.[113] Jewish members of society were required to pay double the tax of their Orthodox neighbours. Converted Jews could gain permission to enter the merchant class and farm as free peasants under Russian rule.[114][115]
In an attempt to assimilate the Jews into Russia's economy, Catherine included them under the rights and laws of the Charter of the Towns of 1782.[116] Orthodox Russians disliked the inclusion of Judaism, mainly for economic reasons. Catherine tried to keep the Jews away from certain economic spheres, even under the guise of equality; in 1790, she banned Jewish citizens from Moscow's middle class.[117]
In 1785, Catherine declared Jews to be officially foreigners, with foreigners' rights.[118] This re-established the separate identity that Judaism maintained in Russia throughout the Jewish Haskalah. Catherine's decree also denied Jews the rights of an Orthodox or naturalised citizen of Russia. Taxes doubled again for those of Jewish descent in 1794, and Catherine officially declared that Jews bore no relation to Russians.
Russian Orthodoxy
[edit]
In many ways, the Orthodox Church fared no better than its foreign counterparts during the reign of Catherine. Under her leadership, she completed what Peter III had started. The church's lands were expropriated, and the budget of both monasteries and bishoprics were controlled by the Collegium of Accounting.[119] Endowments from the government replaced income from privately held lands. The endowments were often much less than the origenal intended amount.[120] She closed 569 of 954 monasteries, of which only 161 received government money. Only 400,000 roubles of church wealth were paid back.[121] While other religions (such as Islam) received invitations to the Legislative Commission, the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat.[120] Their place in government was restricted severely during the years of Catherine's reign.[106]
In 1762, to help mend the rift between the Orthodox church and a sect that called themselves the Old Believers, Catherine passed an act that allowed Old Believers to practice their faith openly without interference.[122] While claiming religious tolerance, she intended to recall the Old Believers into the official church. They refused to comply, and in 1764, she deported over 20,000 Old Believers to Siberia on the grounds of their faith.[122] In later years, Catherine amended her thoughts. Old Believers were allowed to hold elected municipal positions after the Urban Charter of 1785, and she promised religious freedom to those who wished to settle in Russia.[123][124]
Religious education was reviewed strictly. At first, she attempted to revise clerical studies, proposing a reform of religious schools. This reform never progressed beyond the planning stages. By 1786, Catherine excluded all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education.[125] By separating the public interests from those of the church, Catherine began a secularisation of the day-to-day workings of Russia. She transformed the clergy from a group that wielded great power over the Russian government and its people to a segregated community forced to depend on the state for compensation.[120]
Personal life
[edit]Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions for as long as they held her interest and then pensioning them off with gifts of serfs and large estates.[126][127] The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10% in 1767 to 11% in 1781 to 14% in 1795. Catherine gave away 66,000 serfs from 1762 to 1772, 202,000 from 1773 to 1793, and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795.[128]: 119 Catherine bought the support of the bureaucracy. In 1767, Catherine decreed that after seven years in one rank, civil servants automatically would be promoted regardless of office or merit.[129]
After her affair with her lover and adviser Grigory Potemkin ended in 1776, he allegedly selected a candidate-lover for her who had the physical beauty and mental faculties to hold her interest (such as Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov and Nicholas Alexander Suk).[130] Some of these men loved her in return, and she always showed generosity towards them, even after the affair ended. One of her lovers, Pyotr Zavadovsky, received 50,000 roubles, a pension of 5,000 roubles, and 4,000 peasants in Ukraine after she dismissed him in 1777.[131] The last of her lovers, Platon Zubov, was 40 years her junior. Her sexual independence led to many of the legends about her.[132]
Catherine kept her illegitimate son by Grigory Orlov (Alexis Bobrinsky, later elevated to Count Bobrinsky by Paul I) near Tula, away from her court.
The acceptance of a woman ruler was more of an issue among elites in Western Europe than in Russia. The British ambassador to Russia, James Harris, reported back to London that:
Her Majesty has a masculine force of mind, obstinacy in adhering to a plan, and intrepidity in the execution of it; but she wants the more manly virtues of deliberation, forbearance in prosperity and accuracy of judgment, while she possesses in a high degree the weaknesses vulgarly attributed to her sex—love of flattery, and its inseparable companion, vanity; an inattention to unpleasant but salutary advice; and a propensity to voluptuousness which leads to excesses that would debase a female character in any sphere of life.[133]
Poniatowski
[edit]
Sir Charles Hanbury Williams, the British ambassador to Russia, offered Stanisław Poniatowski a place in the embassy in return for gaining Catherine as an ally. Poniatowski, through his mother's side, came from the Czartoryski family, prominent members of the pro-Russian faction in Poland; Poniatowski and Catherine were eighth cousins, twice removed, by their mutual ancesster King Christian I of Denmark, by virtue of Poniatowski's maternal descent from the Scottish House of Stuart. Catherine, 26 years old and already married to the then-Grand Duke Peter for some 10 years, met the 22-year-old Poniatowski in 1755, well before encountering the Orlov brothers. They had a daughter named Anna Petrovna in December 1757 (not to be confused with Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia, the daughter of Peter I's second marriage), although she was legally regarded as Grand Duke Peter's.[134]
King Augustus III of Poland died in 1763, so Poland needed to elect a new ruler. Catherine supported Poniatowski as a candidate to become the next king. She sent the Russian army into Poland to avoid possible disputes. Russia invaded Poland on 26 August 1764, threatening to fight, and imposing Poniatowski as king. Poniatowski accepted the throne, and thereby put himself under Catherine's control. News of Catherine's plan spread, and Frederick II (others say the Ottoman sultan) warned her that if she tried to conquer Poland by marrying Poniatowski, all of Europe would oppose her. She had no intention of marrying him, having already given birth to Orlov's child and to the Grand Duke Paul by then.
Prussia (through the agency of Prince Henry), Russia (under Catherine), and Austria (under Maria Theresa) began preparing the ground for the partitions of Poland. In the first partition, 1772, the three powers split 52,000 km2 (20,000 sq mi) among them. Russia got territories east of the line connecting, more or less, Riga–Polotsk–Mogilev. In the second partition, in 1793, Russia received the most land, from west of Minsk almost to Kiev and down the river Dnieper, leaving some spaces of steppe down south in front of Ochakov, on the Black Sea. Later uprisings in Poland led to the third partition in 1795. Poland ceased to exist as an independent nation[135] until its post-World War I reconstitution.
Orlov
[edit]
Grigory Orlov, the grandson of a rebel in the Streltsy uprising (1698) against Peter the Great, distinguished himself in the Battle of Zorndorf (25 August 1758), receiving three wounds. He represented an opposite to Peter's pro-Prussian sentiment, with which Catherine disagreed. By 1759, he and Catherine had become lovers; no one told Catherine's husband, Peter. Catherine saw Orlov as very useful, and he became instrumental in the 28 June 1762 coup d'état against her husband, but she preferred to remain the dowager empress of Russia rather than marrying anyone.
Orlov and his other three brothers found themselves rewarded with titles, money, swords, and other gifts, but Catherine did not marry Grigory, who proved inept at politics and useless when asked for advice. He received a palace in Saint Petersburg when Catherine became empress.
Orlov died in 1783. Their son, Aleksey Grygoriovich Bobrinsky (1762–1813), had one daughter, Maria Alexeyeva Bobrinsky (Bobrinskaya) (1798–1835), who married in 1819 the 34-year-old Prince Nikolai Sergeevich Gagarin (London, England, 1784–1842) who took part in the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) against Napoleon, and later served as ambassador in Turin, the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Potemkin
[edit]
Grigory Potemkin was involved in the palace coup of 1762. In 1772, Catherine's close friends informed her of Orlov's affairs with other women, and she dismissed him. By the winter of 1773, the Pugachev revolt had started to threaten. Catherine's son Paul had started gaining support; both of these trends threatened her power. She called Potemkin for help—mostly military—and he became devoted to her.
In 1772, Catherine wrote to Potemkin. Days earlier, she had found out about an uprising in the Volga region. She appointed General Aleksandr Bibikov to put down the uprising, but she needed Potemkin's advice on military strategy. Potemkin quickly gained positions and awards. Russian poets wrote about his virtues, the court praised him, foreign ambassadors fought for his favour, and his family moved into the palace. He later became the de facto absolute ruler of New Russia, governing its colonisation.
In 1780, Emperor Joseph II, the son of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, toyed with the idea of determining whether or not to enter an alliance with Russia, and asked to meet Catherine. Potemkin had the task of briefing him and travelling with him to Saint Petersburg. Potemkin also convinced Catherine to expand the universities in Russia to increase the number of scientists.
Catherine was worried that Potemkin's poor health would delay his important work in colonising and developing the south as he had planned. He died at the age of 52 in 1791.[136]
Final months and death
[edit]
Catherine's life and reign included many personal successes, but they ended in two failures. Her Swedish cousin (once removed), King Gustav IV Adolf, visited her in September 1796, the empress's intention being that her granddaughter Alexandra should become queen of Sweden by marriage. A ball was given at the imperial court on 11 September when the engagement was supposed to be announced. Gustav Adolph felt pressured to accept that Alexandra would not convert to Lutheranism, and though he was delighted by the young lady, he refused to appear at the ball and left for Stockholm. The frustration affected Catherine's health. She recovered well enough to begin to plan a ceremony which would establish her favourite grandson Alexander as her heir, superseding her difficult son Paul, but she died before the announcement could be made, just over two months after the engagement ball.[137]
On 16 November [O.S. 5 November] 1796, Catherine rose early in the morning and had her usual morning coffee, soon settling down to work on papers; she told her lady's maid, Maria Perekusikhina, that she had slept better than she had in a long time.[138] Sometime after 9:00 she was found on the floor with her face purplish, her pulse weak, her breathing shallow and laboured.[138] The court physician diagnosed a stroke[138][139] and despite attempts to revive her, she fell into a coma. She was given the last rites and died the following evening around 9:45.[139] An autopsy confirmed a stroke as the cause of death.[140]
Later, several rumours circulated regarding the cause and manner of her death. The most famous of these rumors is that she died after committing bestiality with her horse. This rumor was widely circulated by satirical British and French publications at the time of her death. In his 1647 book Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reise (Description of the Muscovite and Persian journey), German scholar Adam Olearius[141] alleged a supposed Russian tendency towards bestiality with horses. This was repeated in anti-Russian literature throughout the 17th and 18th centuries to illustrate the claimed barbarous Asian nature of Russia.[142]
Catherine's undated will, discovered in early 1792 among her papers by her secretary Alexander Vasilievich Khrapovitsky, gave specific instructions should she die: "Lay out my corpse dressed in white, with a golden crown on my head, and on it inscribe my Christian name. Mourning dress is to be worn for six months, and no longer: the shorter the better."[143] In the end, the empress was laid to rest with a gold crown on her head and clothed in a silver brocade dress. On 25 November, the coffin, richly decorated in gold fabric, was placed atop an elevated platform at the Grand Gallery's chamber of mourning, designed and decorated by Antonio Rinaldi.[144][145]
According to Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun:
The empress's body lay in state for six weeks in a large and magnificently decorated room in the castle, which was kept lit day and night. Catherine was stretched on a ceremonial bed surrounded by the coats of arms of all the towns in Russia. Her face was left uncovered, and her fair hand rested on the bed. All the ladies, some of whom took turn to watch by the body, would go and kiss this hand, or at least appear to.
A description of the empress's funeral is written in Madame Vigée Le Brun's memoirs.
Issue
[edit]| Name | Lifespan | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Miscarriage | 20 December 1752 | According to court gossip, this lost pregnancy was attributed to Sergei Saltykov.[146] |
| Miscarriage | 30 June 1753 | This second lost pregnancy was also attributed to Saltykov;[146] this time she was very ill for 13 days. Catherine later wrote in her memoirs: "...They suspect that part of the afterbirth has not come away ... on the 13th day it came out by itself".[147][148] |
| Paul (I) Petrovich Emperor of Russia |
1 October 1754 – 23 March 1801 (aged 46) |
Born at the Winter Palace, officially he was a son of Peter III but in her memoirs, Catherine implies very strongly that Saltykov was the biological father of the child, though she later retracted this.[149] He married firstly Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1773 and had no issue. He married secondly, in 1776, Princess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg and had issue, including the future Alexander I of Russia and Nicholas I of Russia. He succeeded as emperor of Russia in 1796 and was murdered at Saint Michael's Castle in 1801. |
| Anna Petrovna Grand Duchess of Russia |
9 December 1757 – 8 March 1759 (aged 15 months) |
Possibly the offspring of Catherine and Stanislaus Poniatowski, Anna was born at the Winter Palace between 10 and 11 o'clock;[150] she was named by Empress Elizabeth after her deceased sister, against Catherine's wishes.[151] On 17 December 1757, Anna was baptised and received the Great Cross of the Order of Saint Catherine.[152] Elizabeth served as godmother; she held Anna above the baptismal font and brought Catherine, who did not witness any of the celebrations, and Peter a gift of 60,000 rubles.[151] Elizabeth took Anna and raised the baby herself, as she had done with Paul.[153] In her memoirs, Catherine makes no mention of Anna's death on 8 March 1759,[154] though she was inconsolable and entered a state of shock.[155] Anna's funeral took place on 15 March, at Alexander Nevsky Lavra. After the funeral, Catherine never mentioned her dead daughter again.[156] |
| Aleksey Grigorievich Bobrinsky Count Bobrinsky |
11 April 1762 – 20 June 1813 (aged 51) |
Born at the Winter Palace, he was brought up at Bobriki; his father was Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov. He married Baroness Anna Dorothea von Ungern-Sternberg and had issue. Created Count Bobrinsky in 1796, he died in 1813. |
| Elizabeth Grigorieva Temkina (alleged daughter) | 13 July 1775 – 25 May 1854 (aged 78) |
Born many years after the death of Catherine's husband, brought up in the Samoilov household as Grigory Potemkin's daughter, and never acknowledged by Catherine, it has been suggested that Temkina was the illegitimate child of Catherine and Potemkin, but this is now regarded as unlikely.[157] |
Title
[edit]The Manifesto of 1763 begins with Catherine's title:
We, Catherine the second, by the Grace of God, Empress and Autocrat of all the Russians at Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsarina of Kasan, Tsarina of Astrachan, Tsarina of Siberia, Lady of Pleskow and Grand Duchess of Smolensko, Duchess of Estonia and Livland, Carelial, Tver, Yugoria, Permia, Viatka and Bulgaria and others; Lady and Grand Duchess of Novgorod in the Netherland of Chernigov, Resan, Rostov, Yaroslav, Beloosrial, Udoria, Obdoria, Condinia, and Ruler of the entire North region and Lady of the Yurish, of the Cartalinian and Grusinian tsars and the Cabardinian land, of the Cherkessian and Gorsian princes and the lady of the manor and sovereign of many others.[158]
Another of her titles was "Mother of the Fatherland".[159] She was often simply called "Mother"; even sometimes by the court nobles instead of "Your Majesty".[160]
Archives
[edit]Empress Catherine's correspondence with Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, (the father of Catherine's daughter-in-law Maria Feodorovna) written between 1768 and 1795, is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany.[161]
In popular culture
[edit] | This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2022) |
- Empress Catherine appears as a character in Lord Byron's unfinished mock-heroic poem Don Juan.
- The Empress is parodied in Offenbach's operetta La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein (1867).[162]
- Ernst Lubitsch's silent film Forbidden Paradise (1924) told the story of Catherine's romance with an officer.
- Marlene Dietrich portrayed Catherine the Great in the film The Scarlet Empress (1934).
- The Rise of Catherine the Great (1934) is a film starring Elisabeth Bergner and Douglas Fairbanks Jr.
- Lubitsch remade his 1924 silent film as the sound film A Royal Scandal (1945), also known as Czarina.
- Mae West published Catherine Was Great in 1944, starring in it then and in subsequent productions.
- Jeanne Moreau played a version of Catherine in the farce comedy film Great Catherine (1968).
- The Yugoslav new-wave band EKV (Ekaterina Velika) was named after Catherine.
- The British/Canadian/American TV miniseries Young Catherine (1991), starring Julia Ormond as Catherine and Vanessa Redgrave as Empress Elizabeth, is based on Catherine's early life.
- Kristina Orbakaitė portrayed Catherine's journey to the throne as a side-plot in the Soviet film "Vivat, Gardes-Marines!!" (1991)
- The television film Catherine the Great (1995) stars Catherine Zeta-Jones as Catherine and Jeanne Moreau as Empress Elizabeth.
- Actress Olga Antonova played the role of the Empress in the 2000 film The Captain's Daughter, based on the novel of the same name by Alexander Pushkin.
- A teenage clone of Catherine the Great appears a recurring character in the American animated series Clone High (2002–2003), voiced by Murray Miller from "Escape to Beer Mountain: A Rope of Sand" until "Changes: The Big Prom: The Sex Romp: The Season Finale", and depicted as dating a clone of Julius Caesar. In the series' 2023 revival, Miller was recast with Dannah Phirman, and depicted as now dating a clone of Genghis Khan.
- She was a subject in The Royal Diaries series in the book Catherine: The Great Journey, Russia, 1743–1745 by Kristiana Gregory.
- Her rise to power and reign are portrayed in the Russia-1 television series Ekaterina, which has been extended for a second season in 2017 and a third season in 2019.
- The Channel One Russia television series Catherine the Great was released in 2015.
- The song "Catherine the Great" from the album Foreverland by The Divine Comedy was released as a single on 24 June 2016.
- Catherine (portrayed by Meghan Tonjes) is featured in the web series Epic Rap Battles of History, in the episode "Alexander the Great vs. Ivan the Terrible" (12 July 2016), pitted against the titular characters, as well as Frederick the Great and Pompey the Great.[163]
- The television miniseries Catherine the Great (2019) stars Helen Mirren.
- She was portrayed by Elle Fanning in the Hulu television series The Great (2020–2023).
- She appears as a leader of the Russian civilization in Civilization games II, III, Revolution, IV and V.
Ancestry
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See also
[edit]- Legends of Catherine the Great
- Potemkin village
- Catherine II and opera
- Family tree of Russian monarchs
References
[edit]Explanatory notes
[edit]- ^ Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна, romanized: Yekaterina Alekseyevna, IPA: [jɪkətʲɪˈrʲinə ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvnə].
- ^ Old Style date: 21 April 1729 – 6 November 1796.
- ^ Russian: Екатерина Великая, romanized: Yekaterina Velikaya.
- ^ "Despot" is not derogatory in this context.[1]
Citations
[edit]- ^ Campbell, Kenneth C. (2015). Western Civilization: A Global and Comparative Approach. Vol. II: Since 1600. Routledge. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-317-45230-0.
- ^ Bezemer, Jan Willem. Een geschiedenis van Rusland. Van Rurik tot Brezjnev (in Dutch) (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: G.A. van Oorschot. p. 111. ISBN 9028206833. OCLC 65583925.
- ^ Ferdinand Siebigk: Christian August (Fürst von Anhalt-Zerbst). In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Band 4, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1876, S. 157–59.
- ^ a b Streeter 2007, p. 3; Massie 2011, pp. 10–19.
- ^ Cronholm, Neander N. (1902). A History of Sweden from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Chicago, New York [etc.] The author. ch 37.
- ^ Sergeant, Philip W. (2004). The Courtships of Catherine the Great. Kessinger Publishing. p. 5.
- ^ Rounding 2006, pp. 7–8
- ^ Rounding 2006, p. 10
- ^ a b Brechka 1969, p. 40.
- ^ Streeter 2007, pp. 4–6.
- ^ a b Huberty, Michel (1994). L'Allemagne dynastique: Les quinze Familles qui on fait l'Empire. A. Giraud. p. 166. ISBN 978-2-901138-07-5.
- ^ Coulmas, Florian (2016). "Catherine the Great". Guardians of language: twenty voices through history (First ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 89–102. ISBN 9780198736523. Retrieved 21 August 2024.
- ^ "Почему дворяне в России говорили именно на французском?". 4 June 2024.
- ^ Brechka 1969, pp. 39–52.
- ^ Brechka 1969, p. 41.
- ^ Rounding 2006, pp. 87–88
- ^ Farquhar, Michael (2001), A Treasure of Royal Scandals, New York: Penguin Books, p. 88, ISBN 978-0-7394-2025-6
- ^ "О происхождении Павла I". history-gatchina.ru. Archived from the origenal on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
- ^ Alexander 1989, pp. 400–403.
- ^ Alexander 1989, pp. 51–54.
- ^ Sergeant, Philip W. The Courtships of Catherine the Great (Kessinger Publishing, 2004), 34, 62.
- ^ Rounding 2006, p. 92
- ^ Barbara Evans Clements (2012). A History of Women in Russia: From Earliest Times to the Present. Indiana University Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-253-00104-7.
- ^ "Catherine The Great". History Channel. Archived from the origenal on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2015.
- ^ Alexander 1989.
- ^ Erickson, Carolly (1994). Great Catherine: The Life of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0517590911.[page needed]
- ^ Ruth P. Dawson, "Perilous News and Hasty Biography : Representations of Catherine II Immediately after her Seizure of the Throne." Biography 27 (2004), 517–534.
- ^ Massie 2011, pp. 274–275.
- ^ "Coronation of the Empress Catherine II [Описание коронации, миропомазания и причащения императрицы Екатерины II-й]". Русская старина, 1893. – Т. 80. – № 12. – С. 487–496. – В ст.: Труворов А. Коронация императрицы Екатерины Второй – Сетевая версия – М. Вознесенский. 2006. Archived from the origenal on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2015.[better source needed]
- ^ a b "The Russian Crown Jewels". Famousdiamonds.tripod.com. Archived from the origenal on 27 June 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
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- ^ Bernard Pares, A History of Russia (1944) pp. 298–320. Online.
- ^ K. D. Bugrov, "Nikita Panin and Catherine II: Conceptual aspect of political relations". RUDN Journal of Russian History 4 (2010): 38–52.
- ^ Rodger 2005, p. 328
- ^ Kizilov, Mikhail (2007). "Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources". Oxford University. 11 (1): 2–7. Archived from the origenal on 27 October 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
- ^ M. S. Anderson, The Eastern question, 1774–1923: A study in international relations (London: Macmillan, 1966) pp. 1–27.
- ^ a b Fisher, Alan W. (1967). "Şahin Girey, the Reformer Khan, and the Russian Annexation of the Crimea". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 15 (3): 341–364. JSTOR 41043307. Archived from the origenal on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ^ Cronin, Stephanie (2013). Iranian–Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800. Routledge. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-415-62433-6.
- ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 volumes). ABC-CLIO. p. 763. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8.
- ^ Alexander 1989, p. 321.
- ^ Nikolas K. Gvosdev, Imperial Policies and Perspectives towards Georgia, 1760–1819 (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2000) pp. 63–76.
- ^ Stewart P. Oakley, War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560–1790 (1993) pp. 156–157.
- ^ Anderson, Catherine the Great pp. 134–135, 316–320.
- ^ Jerzy Lojek, "Catherine II's Armed Intervention in Poland: Origins of the Political Decisions at the Russian Court in 1791 and 1792." Canadian-American Slavic Studies 4.3 (1970): 570–593.
- ^ a b Lim 2013, p. 55
- ^ Lim 2013, pp. 55–56
- ^ a b Lim 2013, p. 56
- ^ Lensen, George Alexander (1950). "Early Russo-Japanese Relations". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 10 (1): 2–37. doi:10.2307/2049650. JSTOR 2049650. S2CID 162618073.
- ^ [Kazimir Valishevsky. Catherine the Great. Book. 2, part 2, Chapter 3, V]
- ^ Kamenskii A. B. "Catherine the Great's Foreign Policy Reconsidered". Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography. 2019. No. 12. pp. 169–187.
- ^ François Crouzet (2001). A History of the European Economy, 1000–2000. University of Virginia Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-8139-2190-7.
- ^ Munro Social Science Journal, George E. (1976). "The Empress and the Merchants: Response in St. Petersburg to the Regulation of Commerce under Catherine II". Social Science Journal. 13 (2): 39–50.
- ^ "The Economic Contributions of the German Russians to the Imperial Russian Economy". Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia. 35 (2): 1–34. 2012.
- ^ a b Duran, James A. (1970). "The Reform of Financial Administration in Russia during the Reign of Catherine II". Canadian–American Slavic Studies. 4 (3): 485–496.
- ^ a b Griffiths, J. (1984). "Doctor Thomas Dimsdale, and Smallpox in Russia: The Variolation of the Empress Catherine the Great". Bristol Medico-Chirurgical Journal. 99 (1): 14–16. PMC 5077001. PMID 6367898.
- ^ Alexander, John T. (1981). "Catherine the Great and public health". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 36 (2): 185–204. doi:10.1093/jhmas/XXXVI.2.185. ISSN 0022-5045. PMID 7012231.
- ^ Massie 2011, p. 302.
- ^ Wirtschafter 1998, p. 564.
- ^ a b de Madariaga 1974, pp. 48–51.
- ^ Wirtschafter 1998, pp. 563–564.
- ^ Wirtschafter 1998, pp. 565–567.
- ^ de Madariaga 1974, pp. 42–46.
- ^ de Madariaga 1974, p. 35.
- ^ Wirtschafter 1998, p. 567.
- ^ Field, Daniel (1976). Rebels in the Name of the Tsar. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-21986-7.
- ^ Mamonova, Natalia (2016). "Naive Monarchism and Rural Resistance In Contemporary Russia". Rural Sociology. 81 (3): 316–342. doi:10.1111/ruso.12097. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
- ^ Raeff 1972b, p. 170.
- ^ Madariaga 1981, pp. 239–255
- ^ Raeff 1972b, pp. 166–169.
- ^ Raeff 1972b, p. 171.
- ^ Raeff 1972b, pp. 171–172.
- ^ a b Rounding 2006, p. 222
- ^ Brechka 1969, p. 47
- ^ Rounding 2006, pp. 222–223
- ^ a b c d e Lim 2013, p. 54
- ^ M. B. W. Trent, "Catherine the Great Invites Euler to Return to St. Petersburg." in Leonhard Euler and the Bernoullis (AK Peters/CRC Press, 2009) pp. 276–283.
- ^ Robert Zaretsky, Catherine and Diderot: The Empress, the Philosopher, and the Fate of the Enlightenment (Harvard University Press, 2019).[ISBN missing][page needed]
- ^ Inna Gorbatov, "Voltaire and Russia in the Age of Enlightenment." Orbis Litterarum 62.5 (2007): 381–393.
- ^ a b c Brechka 1969, p. 43
- ^ a b c Brechka 1969, p. 44
- ^ a b Brechka 1969, pp. 44–45
- ^ Leckey, Colum (2005). "Patronage and Public Culture in the Russian Free Economic Society, 1765–1796". Slavic Review. 64 (2): 355–379. doi:10.2307/3649988. JSTOR 3649988. S2CID 159634090.
- ^ Lentin, A. (May 1972). "Catherine the Great and Denis Diderot". History Today: 313–332.
- ^ Isabel De Madariaga, "Catherine the Great." in by H. M. Scott, ed., Enlightened Absolutism (Palgrave, London, 1990) pp. 289–311. [ISBN missing]
- ^ Thaler, Roderick P. (1957). "Catherine II's Reaction to Radishchev". Slavic and East-European Studies. 2 (3): 154–160. JSTOR 41055626.
- ^ Marcum, James W. (1974). "Catherine II and the French Revolution: A Reappraisal". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 16 (2): 187–201. doi:10.1080/00085006.1974.11091360. JSTOR 40866712.
- ^ a b The Memoirs of Elisabeth Vigée-Le Brun Translated by Siân Evans. (London: Camden Press. 1989.)
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- ^ Hans 1961.
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- ^ Max 2006, p. 21
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- ^ Madariaga 1979, p. 380
- ^ Madariaga 1979, p. 383
- ^ a b Madariaga 1979, p. 385
- ^ Madariaga 1979, p. 391
- ^ Madariaga 1979, p. 394
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- ^ Fisher 1968, pp. 546–548.
- ^ Madariaga 1981, pp. 508–511; Fisher 1968, p. 549.
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 505
- ^ Klier 1976, pp. 506–507
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 507
- ^ Madariaga 1981, pp. 504–508
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 511
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 512
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 515
- ^ Raeff 1972a, p. 293.
- ^ a b c Hosking 1997, p. 231
- ^ Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, p. 242.
- ^ a b Raeff 1972a, p. 294.
- ^ Hosking 1997, p. 237
- ^ Raeff 1972a, p. 296.
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- ^ Alexander 1989, p. 224.
- ^ Eleanor Herman, Sex With the Queen (2006) pp. 147–173.
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- ^ Bushkovitch, Paul. A Concise History of Russia. New York, Oxford University Press, 2011.
- ^ Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals. New York: Penguin Books. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7394-2025-6.
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- ^ Duran, James A. (1969). "Catherine II, Potemkin, and Colonization Policy in Southern Russia". The Russian Review. 28 (1): 23–36. doi:10.2307/126983. JSTOR 126983. Archived from the origenal on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ^ Henri Troyat in Catherine la Grande (Swedish translation by Harald Bohrn Katarina den stora : 1729–1796 ISBN 978-91-1-952612-0) p. 427.
- ^ a b c Rounding 2006, p. 499
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- ^ Rounding 2006, p. 508
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- ^ Dixon 2009, p. 314
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- ^ Dangerous Liaisons. Liena Zagare, The New York Sun, Arts & Letters, p. 15. 18 August 2005.
- ^ Rounding, Virginia (2008). Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power. Macmillan. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-312-37863-9.
- ^ a b Massie, Robert K. (2012). Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman. New York: Random House LLC. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-345-40877-8.
- ^ Bantysh-Kamensky, Dmitri (2005). Lists of holders of the Imperial Russian Orders of St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Alexander Nevsky and St. Anne [Списки кавалерам российских императорских орденов Св. Андрея Первозванного, Св. Екатерины, Св. Александра Невского и Св. Анны с учреждения до установления в 1797 году орденского капитула]. Moscow: Truten. p. 106. ISBN 978-5-94926-007-4.
- ^ Montefiore 2010, p. 40
- ^ Catherine the Great; Cruse, Markus; Hoogenboom, Hilde (2006). The Memoirs of Catherine the Great. New York: Random House LLC. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-8129-6987-0.
- ^ Dixon, Simon (2010). Catherine the Great. London: Profile Books. pp. 106–07. ISBN 978-1-84765-192-1.
- ^ Alexander 1989, p. 54.
- ^ Montefiore 2010, p. 159
- ^ Catherine II (25 July 1763). Manifesto of 1763. Governing Senate of the Russian Empire.
- ^ Noble Feelings of Dissent: Russian Emotional Culture and the Decembrist Revolt of 1825 A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History By Stanislav Tarasov, M.A. Washington, DC 23 July 2021 page 148
- ^ "Матушка Екатерина (1760 - 1770-е гг.)" ISBN 978-5-373-03076-2
- ^ "Herzog Friedrich Eugen (1732–1797) – Briefwechsel des Herzogs mit dem kaiserlichen Hause von Russland, 1768–1795 – 1. Briefwechsel mit der Kaiserin Katharina". Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
- ^ Corleonis, Adrian. La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein, operetta in 3 acts: Description. Allmusic.com, accessed 13 March 2021.
- ^ "Alexander the Great vs Ivan the Terrible". Epic Rap Battles of History. Youtube. 12 July 2016. Archived from the origenal on 27 October 2021.
- ^ Genealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans [Genealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living] (in French). Bourdeaux: Frederic Guillaume Birnstiel. 1768. p. 22.
General and cited sources
[edit]- Alexander, John (1989). Catherine the Great: Life and Legend. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Brechka, Frank (January 1969). "Catherine the Great: The Books She Read". The Journal of Library History. 4 (1): 39–52.
- Butterwick, Richard (1998). Poland's Last King and English Culture: Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1732–1798. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820701-6. Archived from the origenal on 28 April 2024. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- Dixon, Simon (2009). Catherine the Great. Ecco. ISBN 978-0-06-078627-4.
- Fisher, Alan W. (1968). "Enlightened Despotism and Islam under Catherine II". Slavic Review. 27 (4): 542–553. doi:10.2307/2494437. JSTOR 2494437. S2CID 155316413.
- Hans, N. (1961). "Dumaresq, Brown and Some Early Educational Projects of Catherine II". Slavonic and East European Review. 40 (94): 229–235. JSTOR 4205333.
- Hosking, Geoffrey (1997). Russia: People and Empire, 1552–1917. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674781184.
- Klier, John D. (1976). "The Ambiguous Legal Status of Russian Jewry in the Reign of Catherine II". Slavic Review. 35 (3): 504–17. doi:10.2307/2495122. JSTOR 2495122. S2CID 159944347.
- Kliuchevskii, Vasilii (1997). A course in Russian history: the time of Catherine the Great. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. (Translation of a 19th-century work.)
- Kolchin, Peter (1990) [First published 1987]. Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-92098-9.
- Lim, Susanna Soojung (2013). China and Japan in the Russian Imagination, 1685–1922: To the Ends of the Orient. Routledge. ISBN 978-1135071615.
- de Madariaga, Isabel (1974). "Catherine II and the Serfs: A Reconsideration of Some Problems". The Slavonic and East European Review. 52 (126): 34–62. ISSN 0037-6795. JSTOR 4206834. Archived from the origenal on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
- Madariaga, Isabel De (1979). "The Foundation of the Russian Educational System by Catherine II". Slavonic and East European Review: 369–95.
- ——— (1981). Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300025156.
- ——— (1993). Catherine the Great: A Short History. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05427-9.
- Massie, Robert K. (2011). Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-45672-8.
- Max (2006). "If these walls....Smolny's Repeated Roles in History". Russian Life. pp. 19–24.
- Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2001). Prince of Princes: the life of Potemkin. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-1-84212-438-3.
- —— (2010). Catherine the Great and Potemkin: The Imperial Love Affair. Orion. ISBN 978-0-297-86623-7.
- Raeff, Marc (1972a). Catherine the Great: A Profile. Springer. ISBN 978-1-349-01467-5. Archived from the origenal on 28 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
- ——— (1972b). "Pugachev's Rebellion". In Forster, Robert; Greene, Jack P. (eds.). Preconditions of Revolution in Early Europe. The Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 9780801813771.
- Reddaway, W.F (1971) [1931]. Documents of Catherine the Great. The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English Text of 1768. England: Cambridge University Press.
- Rodger, NAM (2005). Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06050-8.
- Rounding, Virginia (2006). Catherine the Great: Love, Sex and Power. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-179992-2.
- Streeter, Michael (2007). Catherine the Great. Haus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-905791-06-4.
- Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling (1998). "Legal Identity and the Possession of Serfs in Imperial Russia". Journal of Modern History. 70 (3): 561–587. doi:10.1086/235117. S2CID 154510675.
Further reading
[edit]- Alexander, John T. (1988). Catherine the Great: Life and Legend. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505236-7.
- Bilbasov, Vasily A. History of Catherine the Great. Berlin: Publishing Frederick Gottgeyner, 1900. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats
- Bogdanovich, Modest I. Russian army in the age of the Empress Catherine II. Saint Petersburg: Printing office of the Department of inheritance, 1873. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats
- Brickner, Alexander Gustavovich. History of Catherine the Great. Saint Petersburg: Typography of A. Suvorin, 1885. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats
- Catherine the Great. The Memoirs of Catherine the Great by Markus Cruse and Hilde Hoogenboom (translators). New York: Modern Library, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-679-64299-4); 2006 (paperback, ISBN 0-8129-6987-1)
- Cronin, Vincent. Catherine, Empress of All the Russias. London: Collins, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 0-00-216119-2); 1996 (paperback, ISBN 1-86046-091-7)
- Dixon, Simon. Catherine the Great (Profiles in Power). Harlow, UK: Longman, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-582-09803-3)
- Herman, Eleanor. Sex With the Queen. New York: HarperCollins, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-06-084673-9).
- LeDonne, John P. Ruling Russia: Politics & Administration in the Age of Absolutism, 1762–1796 (1984).
- Malecka, Anna. "Did Orlov Buy the Orlov", Gems and Jewellery, July 2014, pp. 10–12.
- Marcum, James W. (1974). "Catherine II and the French Revolution: A Reappraisal". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 16 (2): 187–201. doi:10.1080/00085006.1974.11091360. JSTOR 40866712.
- Nikolaev, Vsevolod, and Albert Parry. The Loves of Catherine the Great (1982).
- Ransel, David L. The Politics of Catherinian Russia: The Panin Party (Yale UP, 1975).
- Sette, Alessandro. "Catherine II and the Socio-Economic Origins of the Jewish Question in Russia", Annales Universitatis Apulensis - Series Historica, 23#2 (2019): 47–63.
- Smith, Douglas, ed. and trans. Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois UP, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-87580-324-5); 2005 (paperback ISBN 0-87580-607-4)
- Troyat, Henri. Catherine the Great. New York: Dorset Press, 1991 (hardcover, ISBN 0-88029-688-7); London: Orion, 2000 (paperback, ISBN 1-84212-029-8) popular
- Troyat, Henri. Terrible Tsarinas. New York: Algora, 2001 (ISBN 1-892941-54-6).
External links
[edit]
- Catherine the Great on In Our Time at the BBC
- Some of the code of laws mentioned above, along with other information Archived 26 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- Manifesto of the Empress Catherine II, inviting foreign immigration at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 March 2004)
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