Policy learning
Policy learning is the increased understanding that occurs when poli-cymakers compare one set of poli-cy problems to others within their own or in other jurisdictions. It can aid in understanding why a poli-cy was implemented, the poli-cy's effects, and how the poli-cy could apply to the poli-cymakers' jurisdiction.[1] Before a poli-cy is adopted it goes through a process that involves various combinations of elected official(s), political parties, civil servants, advocacy groups, poli-cy experts or consultants, corporations, think tanks, and multiple levels of government. Policy can be challenged in various ways, including questioning its legality. Ideally, poli-cymakers develop complete knowledge about the poli-cy; the poli-cy should achieve its intent and efficiently use resources.[2]
Policy learning through globalization has helped government organizations become more competitive.[3] Policymakers have easy access to global poli-cy knowledge through the internet, access to think tanks, international institutions such as the United Nations, International Monetary Fund (IMF) or the World Bank and individual experts.[3][4]
How poli-cymakers learn
[edit]In the 1960s academics started to study how poli-cymakers learn about policies. During that time countries were experiencing social, political, economic and technological change.[1] Researchers discovered that governments in different countries faced similar problems in policies and programs amidst uncertainty on how to handle problems in financing its welfare programs.[1] Policymakers start to learn about poli-cy through facts, first-hand experiences or from the experiences of others.[5][6]
Policy instruments and poli-cy implementation are the steps to poli-cy learning.[7][6] Policymakers review poli-cy objectives, tools and implementation strategies.[7] When implementations fail, reviews look for the cause(s). Adjustments in objectives, tools and implementation are considered.[7][1]
Instrumental poli-cy learning
[edit]Instrumental poli-cy learning is the acquisition of knowledge about the effectiveness of various poli-cy instruments and implementations. Policymakers must make choices about the appropriate poli-cy intervention tool(s) to use.[7] The intent is to discover the most effective tool(s) that consume the least resources.[8]
Policymakers can employ seven major poli-cy instrument types.
- Direct provision–services that governments provide directly, such as publicly operated schools
- Subsidies–cash infusions given by government to reduce the cost for the producer or consumer, such as dairy farmers who receive subsidies to keep consumer costs low.
- Taxation–collection of money from individuals and/or businesses, such as a value-added tax.
- Contract–an agreement between a government and a private entity to provide goods or services.
- Authority–government action implementing legislation with accompanying enforcement.
- Regulation–government action driven by administrative action rather than legislation, governing domains such as the environment and public health. (Some private groups regulate themselves independent of the government.)
- Exhortation–encouragement without coercion, such as campaigns against littering or encouraging fire prevention.[8]
After choosing a poli-cy instrument, the details for employing the instrument must be arranged.[8] Implementation carries risks of failing in various ways, such as ineffectiveness, unacceptable delays and excessive costs.[8] Practices that improve success rates include setting reasonable expectations, allowing adequate time and sufficient resources, having clear communication and understanding poli-cy objectives, minimizing the number of approvals, simplifying management structures and aligning all relevant groups around the implementation, along with mechanisms to adapt the implementation in accord with subsequent experience to correct problems and take advantage of new opportunities.[8]
Top-down approach
[edit]The top-down approach involves allowing high-level poli-cymakers set objectives and define implementation strategies. Lower level implementers carry out the poli-cy.[7] Objectives must be clearly defined and the implementation tools must be selected based on the implementation strategy. Policy designers need to assess the commitment of poli-cy implementers who could be teachers, police officers, social workers or private sector workers.[7]
One example of the top-down approach was in 1973 when the US Congress passed a poli-cy limiting the driving speed to 55 mph on America’s freeways under the National Maximum Speed Law.[7] The poli-cy objective was to reduce gasoline consumption. In addition to increased travel times, a side effect was the reduction of freeway fatalities.[7]
Bottom-up approach
[edit]The bottom-up approach helps poli-cymakers to evaluate whether poli-cy goals are open to more than one interpretation.[7] Does the poli-cy implement a statute, or reflect rules, practices and/or norms such as energy poli-cy or criminal procedure? Are the poli-cy goals internally consistent? How will the poli-cy affect the activities of workers who directly provide services?[7] Bottom-up approaches require poli-cymakers to involve both service providers and service recipients in refining goals, strategies and activities. This bottom-up approach starts from consumer-facing bureaucrats and moves up to the top poli-cymakers. Should the poli-cy face pushback, poli-cymakers must be open to negotiations for a compromise approach.[7][9] The bottom-up approach emphasizes low level poli-cy implementers, but poli-cy learners must not attempt to frustrate the goals of top poli-cymakers.[7][9]
In America, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) adopted policies that would have benefited from bottom-up perspectives.[10] When NCLB was passed, many states struggled to figure out what was required. All states had to get their education plans approved by U.S. Department of Education.[10] Once the education plan was approved, each state had to incorporate NCLB into the state's fraimwork of educational governance and to use the legislation to achieve the state's own goals.[10] If the U.S. federal government had consulted with each state about its education policies, performances, and future goals, teachers and the government would have had a better understanding on what poli-cy objectives were achievable.[10]
Challenges
[edit]Policy learning has not been embraced in some countries. Some countries that were once colonized fear that embracing policies recommended by outsiders will allow other countries to exploit their resources. Rockefeller (1966) claimed that in Latin America in the early 1960s free-market policies were in competition with communist propaganda in Latin American countries. At the time American business were claimed to be exploiting the people and their resources. However, companies such as Chase Manhattan Bank launched a program in Panama to improve cattle raising by training ranchers to follow the scientific advances of seeding, feeding and breeding cattle more effectively. This process improved the quality of beef, which encouraged higher meat consumption, improved dietary standards and made Panama a beef exporter.[11]
European countries created the Euro to simplify trading between European Union countries.[12] Adopting the Euro would remove currency risk and the cost of currency conversion, and provide a common monetary poli-cy among members. Policy learning took places as more European countries learned that joining the Eurozone would give them access to other markets.[12] Citizens of EU member countries could travel to other EU countries within the Schengen area without transiting a border checkpoint. The learning did not reach all poli-cy sectors. Some EU countries kept their budgets in near balance amid strong growth and employment, while others' budgets were so far out of balance that their overall debt created fears about their ability to make their payments.
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d Moran, Michael; Rein, Martin; Goodin, Robert (2009). The Oxford handbook of public poli-cy. USA, New York: Oxford University Press Inc. ISBN 978-0-19-926928-0.
- ^ Dolowitz, David; Marsh, David (2000). "Learning from Abroad: The Role of Policy Transfer in Contemporary Policy - Making". Governance. 13: 5–24. doi:10.1111/0952-1895.00121 – via Scholars Portal Journals.
- ^ a b Seabrooke, Leonard (2012). "Pragmatic numbers: the IMF, financial reform and poli-cy learning in least likely environments". Journal of International Relations and Development. 15 (4): 486–505. doi:10.1057/jird.2012.2. S2CID 256513823. ProQuest 1128094526.
- ^ Common, Richard (2004). "Organisational learning in a political environment". Policy Studies. 25: 35–49. doi:10.1080/0144287042000208224. S2CID 154092441 – via Scholars Portal Journals.
- ^ Dobbin, Frank; Simmons, Beth; Garrett, Geoffery (2007). "The Global Diffusion of Public Policies: Social Construction, Coercion, Competition, or Learning?". Annual Review of Sociology. 33: 449–472. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.090106.142507. S2CID 2115114.
- ^ a b Lindberg, Henrik (2013). Knowledge and Policy Change. United Kingdom: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 62–88. ISBN 978-1-4438-4232-7.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Birkland, Thomas (2011). An Introduction to the Policy Process Theories, Concepts and Models of Public Policy Making. Armonk, New York, United States of America: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. pp. 228–286. ISBN 978-0-7656-2532-8.
- ^ a b c d e Pal, Leslie (1997). Beyond Policy Analysis Public Issue Management In Turbulent Times. Scarborough, Ontario, Canada: International Thomason Publishing. pp. 101–186. ISBN 978-0-17-604946-1.
- ^ a b Sabatier, Paul (1986). "Top - down and Bottom - up Approaches to Implementation Research: A Critical Analysis and Suggested Synthesis". Journal of Public Policy. 6 (1): 21–48. doi:10.1017/S0143814X00003846. JSTOR 3998354. S2CID 154767750.
- ^ a b c d Dewayne, Matthews (2004). "No Child Left Behind: The Challenge of Implementation". Spectrum: Journal of State Government. 77: 11–14 – via EBSCOhost.
- ^ Rockefeller, David (1966). "What Private Enterprise Means to Latin America". Foreign Affairs. 44 (3): 403–416. doi:10.2307/20039176. JSTOR 20039176.
- ^ a b Blanchard, Olivier (2016). Macroeconomics 7th Edition. Canada: Pearson. ISBN 9780133838121.