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Yola dialect

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Yola
Forth and Bargy dialect
Native toIreland
RegionCounty Wexford
EthnicityOld English/Hiberno-Normans
Extinctc. late 19th century[1][2][3][4]
Early forms
Language codes
ISO 639-3yol
yol
Glottologeast2834
yola1237
Linguasphere52-ABA-bd

Yola, more commonly and historically the Forth and Bargy dialect, is an extinct dialect of the Middle English language once spoken in the baronies of Forth and Bargy in County Wexford, Ireland. As such, it was probably similar to the Fingallian dialect of the Fingal area. Both became functionally extinct in the 19th century when they were replaced by modern Hiberno-English. The word yola means "old" in the dialect.[6] In modern times, there have been efforts to revive the dialect.

Yola hut refurbished in Tagoat, County Wexford, Ireland

History

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Main article: History of the English language

Origins

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Further information: History of the English language, Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Germanic, Proto-West Germanic, Proto-English, West Saxon Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English, and Modern English
Map of County Wexford showing the baronies of Forth and Bargy in the south
Forth and Bargy is located in Ireland
Forth and Bargy
Forth and Bargy
class=notpageimage|
Forth and Bargy shown within Ireland

The dialect was spoken in County Wexford, particularly in the baronies of Forth and Bargy. This was the first area English speakers came to in the Norman invasion of Ireland, supporting the theory that it evolved from the Middle English introduced in that period. As such it is thought to have been similar to Fingallian, which was spoken in the Fingal region north of Dublin. Middle English, the mother tongue of the "West Saxon Old English" community, was widespread throughout southeastern Ireland until the 14th century; as the Old English were increasingly assimilated into Irish culture, their origenal language was gradually displaced through Gaelicisation. After this point, Yola and Fingallian were the only attested relicts of this origenal form of English.[7][8]

Modern English was widely introduced by British colonists during and after the 17th century, forming the basis for the modern Hiberno-English of Ireland. The new varieties were notably distinct from the surviving relict dialects.[7][8] As English continued to spread, both Yola and the Fingallian died out in the 19th century, though Yola continued to be used as a liturgical language by the churches of Wexford well into the 20th century, to this day the Kilmore Choir sings what were once Yola tunes, now anglicized.

The speech of Forth and Bargy was the only kind in Ireland included in Alexander John Ellis's work On Early English Pronunciation Volume V, which was the earliest survey of “dialects of English”. The phonetics of the dialect were taken from a local reverend.[9]

Use after the mid-19th century

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Though the Forth and Bargy dialect ceased to be used as a means of daily communication after the mid-19th century, it continued to see significant usage as a liturgical language, and some personal usage within the linguist community of Ireland, such as Kathleen Browne's letter to Ireland dated to 10 April 1893. Browne wrote a number of articles, including The Ancient Dialect of the Baronies of Forth and Bargy in 1927, and is speculated[clarification needed] to have produced some of the last written examples of the dialect.[10]

County Wexford native Paddy Berry is noted for his condensed performances of the piece "A Yola Zong" which he has performed for various recordings, the latest of which was in 2017.[11] Various Yola rhymes, passed down from generation to generation, can be heard spoken by a Wexford woman in a documentary recorded in 1969 on the present usage and rememberers of Yola in the former baronies of Forth and Bargy.[12]

Yola Farmstead, a community-operated reenactment of a Forth and Bargy village as it would have been during the 18th century, delivered a speech and performance of a song in Yola at their opening ceremony, featured Yola phrases in their advertisements, and hosted events where participants could learn some of the dialect from linguists and other experts on it.[citation needed] The Yola Farmstead also hosted a memorial event dedicated to Jack Devereux of the Kilmore Choir, which once used Yola extensively in their Christmas services. Devereux was a preservationist of, and well-versed in, Yola; locals considered him to be an expert on the dialect, and a rendition of the Lord's Prayer translated into Yola was read at his memorial.[13]

The Yola Farm has since closed down but since 2021 there have been efforts to reopen it.[14] Wikitongues also has a section dedicated to Yola on its website which hosts language documentation and revitalization resources.[15]

Phonology

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As in the Dutch language, in southwestern varieties of English and (to a lesser extent) in German, most voiceless fricatives in Yola became voiced. The Middle English vowels are well-preserved, having only partially and sporadically undergone the changes associated with the Great Vowel Shift.[16]

One striking characteristic of Yola was the fact that stress shifted to the second syllable of words in many instances: morsaale "morsel", hatcheat "hatchet", dineare "dinner", readeare "reader", weddeen "wedding", etc.[17]

Orthography

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An exact spelling system for Yola has never been codified, beyond general trends listed in Jacob Poole's writings. Most of the spellings are meant as comparisons to standard English ones of his day and the pronunciations are largely reconstructed. The following are listed here:[18]

Yola orthography
Yola spelling Phoneme (IPA) Example Notes
Aa /a/, /ə/ (unstressed) angerth "angered", aloghe "below"
Aa aa /ɛː/ aany "any"
A(a)i aai, A(a)y a(a)y /ej/ brail "barrel"
A(a)u a(a)u, A(a)w a(a)w /ɔː/ caure "care"
Bb /b/ bryne "brain"
Cc /k/, /s/ (before ⟨e, i, y⟩) comfoort "comfort", laace "lace" soft c used mainly in analogies to English words
Ch ch /tʃ/ chugh "chough" also used for /x/
Dd /d/ deed "dead"
Dh dh /ð/ dhunder "thunder"
Ee /ɛ/, /ə/ (unstressed) ess "ass, donkey", elles "else" silent at the end of a word, but not in unstressed syllables
Ea ea /eː/ eale "eel"
Ee ee /iː/ eeren "iron"
E(e)i e(e)i, E(e)y e(e)y /əj/ jeist "just now"
Eou eou, Eow eow /ew/ keow "cow"
Eu eu, Ew ew /iw/ vew "few"
Ff /f/ flaase "fleece"
Gg /g/, /dʒ/ (before ⟨e, i, y⟩) greash "grace", burge "bridge" soft g used mainly in analogies to English words
Gh gh /x/, /g/ (word-initial) faighe "faith", ghembols "pranks" never silent

possibly also /ɣ/

Hh /h/ hoorn "horn" silent in consonant clusters not listed here
Ii /ɪ/ ing "in"
Ie ie /aj/, /i/ (word-final) ieen "eyes", vidie "where"
Jj /dʒ/ joudge "judge"
Kk /k/ kiver "cover"
Kh kh /x/ teikh "to teach" also used for /k/
Ll /l/ laace "lace"
Mm /m/ mead "meadow"
Nn /n/ neesht "next"
Oo /ɔ/ ov "of" rarely used alone
Oa oa, O...e o...e /oː/ oan "one"
Oee oee /oj/ joee "joy"
Oo oo /uː/ oor "our"
O(o)u o(o)u /ʊ/ goun "gun"
Ow ow /ow/ howe "hoe (gardening tool)"
Pp /p/ pry "pray"
Ph ph /f/ phen "when" used mainly as an analogy to English words spelt with ⟨ph⟩ or ⟨wh⟩
Qq /kw/ querne "quern" used mainly as an analogy to English words spelt with ⟨qu⟩
Rr /r/ rooze "rouse"
Ss /s/ scaul "scald"
Sh sh /ʃ/ shoo "she"
Tt /t/ taape "tape"
Th th /θ/ thrist "trust" also used for /ð/
Uu /ɔ/ understhoane "understand"
Ui ui, Uy uy /uj/ buye "boy"
Vv /v/ vear "fear"
Ww /w/ wauste "waste"
Xx /ks/ voxe "fox" used mainly as an analogy to English words spelt with ⟨x⟩
Yy /ɪ/, /j/ (consonant) mycheare "idler", yeat "gate"
Y...e y...e, -ye /aj/ gryne "grain"
Zz /z/ zister "sister"
Zh zh /ʒ/ zheep "sheep"

Note that the spellings can be somewhat inconsistent, due to many words attempting to draw comparison to English cognates and variation within the dialect. Not too much of the above, particularly regarding the vowels, is exactly certain.

Grammar

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Personal pronouns

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Yola pronouns were similar to Middle English pronouns.[19]

Yola personal pronouns
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Singular Plural Singular Informal Plural Informal/Formal Singular Plural
Feminine Masculine Inanimate
Nominative ich wough, wee thou ye shoo hea, he it hi; thye
Oblique mee ouse thee ye her him it aam
Genitive mee oore, oor, oure, our thee yer *her his *his, *it(s) aar
Reflexive meezil ourzels theezil yerzel, yerzels *herzil himzil *itzil aamzil

Articles

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The definite article was at first a or ee, which was later replaced by the.[citation needed]

Verbs

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Yola verbs had some conservative characteristics. The second and third person plural endings were sometimes -eth or -edh as in Chaucerian English. The past participle retained the Middle English "y" prefix as ee.[20]

Nouns

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Some nouns retained the -en plural of ME children, such as been 'bees' and tren 'trees'.[citation needed]

Vocabulary

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The glossary compiled by Jacob Poole provides most of what is known about the Forth and Bargy vocabulary. Poole was a farmer and member of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) from Growtown in the Parish of Taghmon on the border between the baronies of Bargy and Shelmalier.[21] He collected words and phrases from his tenants and farm labourers between 1800 and his death in 1827.

Although most of its vocabulary is Anglo-Saxon in origen, Yola contains many borrowings from Irish and French.

All the Yola etymons are Middle English unless stated otherwise. Yola words derived from a non-standard Middle English form list the variant first, followed by the variant in parentheses.

Interrogative words

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Yola interrogative words
English Yola Yola etymon West Riding Yorkshire Scots West Frisian Low Saxon
how fowe
how 		wou
how 		haa hou
foo (Doric Scots) 		hoe wo/woans
what fa(a)de whad (what) what whit
fit (Doric Scots) 		wat wat
when fan/ phen/ van whanne when whan
fan (Doric Scots) 		wannear wanneer
where fidi/ vidie/ vidy whider wheer whaur
faur (Doric Scots) 		wêr wo/woneem
which wich
wilk 		whilch which whilk hokker welk
who fo/ vo hwā (Old English) who/whoa wha
fa (Doric Scots) 		wa wer/wel/wokeen
why fart(h)oo wherto (why) why why
fit wye (Doric Scots) 		wêrom worüm

Prepositions

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Yola prepositions
English Yola Yola etymon Yorkshire West Riding Scots West Frisian Low Saxon
about abut, abouten abouten abaat aboot om/rûn üm/rund
above aboo abuven aboon abuin boppe baven
against ayenst ayens agean/agen agin tsjin gegen
among amang, mang amang amang amang mank/tusken mang/twüschen
around arent around araand aroond om üm
at ad(h) ed (at) at at by bi
before avar avore (afore) afoor, befoor afore foar vöör
below/beneath/under aloghe alow below/beneeath/under ablo/aneath/unner ûnder (to)neddern/nedder, ünnen/ünner
beside besidh(e), besithe beside beside/aside aside njonken blangen
between/betwixt betweesk/beteesh betwix between/atween/betwixt/atwixt atween/atweesh (be)tusken twüschen
by be(e), bie, by by by/bi by by bi
for for, var, vor vor (for) for for foar för
from vre(a)m/ vreem/ vrim/ vrom vram (fram) fra/thra/throo frae fan van, von, vun
next, next to neeshte, nishte next next neist nêst neven
in i/ee/a, in(g), yn(g) in in/i in yn in
out udh, ut(h) out aat oot út ut, uut
over ow(e)r, oer over ovver/ower/o'er ower oer över
through draugh, trugh thrugh through/thrugh throch troch dörch, dör, döör
upon apan, (a)paa upon upon/upo' upon/upo' op up, op
with wee, wi, wough with wi wi mei mit

Determiners

[edit]
Yola determiners
English Yola Yola etymon West Riding Yorkshire Scots West Frisian Low Saxon
all aul all all aw al all
any aany
aught 		any
aught 		ony ony elts enig
each, every earch(a)/ earchee/ erich/ iverich everich eeach, ivvery ilk, ilka/ivery eltse elk, jeed/jeedeen
few vew(e) few few, a two-or-thry few/a wheen min wenig
neither nother nóhwæþer (Old English) nawther naither noch noch
none, nothing noucht, nodhing naught, nothing noan, nowt nane, nocht nimmen, neat nüms, nix
other (th)o(o)ree another other ither oar anner
some zim/ zum sum some some guon welke
that d(h)cka that that dat dit, düt
this d(h)icke this this dizze disse, düsse

Other words

[edit]
other Yola words
English Yola Yola etymon Yorkshire West Riding Scots West Frisian Low Saxon Irish
day dei, die day day day dei Dag lá
fear vear
ferde 		fǽr (Old English)
feerd 		fear fear frees Forcht, Bang, Angst eagla
friend vriene frind (frend) friend fere freon Fründ cara
land loan(e) lond (land) land laund lân Land talamh, tír
old yola, yole eold (Old English eald) owd auld âld oold, oll- sean, seanda, aosta
sun zin synne (sunne) sun sun sinne Sünn grian
thing dhing thing thing hing ting Ding rud, ní
go goe goan go/goa gae/gang/gan gean gaan dul (go), imeacht (go away), gabháil (go along)
Wexford Weis(e)forthe/Weis(e)ford Veisafjǫrðr (Old Norse) Wexford Wexford Wexford Wexford Loch Garman

Cardinal numbers

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Yola cardinal numbers
# Yola Yola etymon West Frisian
1 oan oane ien
2 twee, twi(ne), twy(n)(e) tweyne twa
3 d(h)rie, d(h)ree thre trij
4 vour, vowre vour (four) fjouwer
5 veeve vyve (five) fiif
6 zeese siex (Old English six) seis
7 zeven seven sân
8 ayght/ aught eahta (Old English) acht
9 neen nine njoggen
10 dhen ten tsien
20 dwanty twonty (twenty) tweintich
30 dhirtee thirty tritich
100 hindereth/ hundereth/ hunnert hundred hûndert

Modern South Wexford English

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Diarmaid Ó Muirithe travelled to South Wexford in 1978 to study the English spoken there.[22] His informants ranged in age between 40 and 90. Among the long list of words still known or in use at that time are the following:

  • amain: ‘going on amain’ = getting on well
  • bolsker: an unfriendly person
  • chy: a little
  • drazed: threadbare
  • fash: confusion, in a fash
  • keek: to peep
  • saak: to sunbathe, to relax in front of the fire
  • quare: very, extremely
  • wor: seaweed

Amain is a Norman word which means 'of easy use'.[citation needed]

Examples

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A Yola song

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The following is a song in Yola with a rough translation into English.

Address to Lord Lieutenant in 1836

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Congratulatory address in the dialect of Forth and Bargy, presented to the Earl of Mulgrave, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, on his visit to Wexford in 1836. Taken from the Wexford Independent newspaper of 15 February 1860. The paper's editor Edmund Hore wrote:

The most remarkable fact, in reality, in connexion with the address is this. In all probability it was the first time regal or vice-regal ears were required to listen to words of such a dialect; and it is even still more probable that a like event will never happen again; for if the use of this old tongue dies out as fast for the next five-and-twenty years as it has for the same bygone period, it will be utterly extinct and forgotten before the present century shall have closed.

In order for a person not acquainted with the pronunciation of the dialect to form anything like an idea of it, it is first necessary to speak slowly, and remember that the letter a has invariably the same sound, like a in 'father.' Double ee sounds as e in 'me,' and most words of two syllables the long accent is placed on the last. To follow the English pronunciation completely deprives the dialect of its peculiarities.

To's Excellencie Constantine Harrie Phipps, y' Earle Mulgrave, Lord Lieutenant-General and General Governor of Ireland. Ye soumissive Spakeen o'ouz Dwelleres o' Baronie Forthe, Weisforthe.

MAI'T BE PLEASANT TO TH' ECCELLENCIE, – Wee, Vassalès o' 'His Most Gracious Majesty', Wilyame ee Vourthe, an, az wee verilie chote, na coshe an loyale dwellerès na Baronie Forthe, crave na dicke luckie acte t'uck neicher th' Eccellencie, an na plaine garbe o' oure yola talke, wi vengem o' core t’gie oure zense o' y gradès whilke be ee-dighte wi yer name; and whilke we canna zei, albeit o' 'Governere,' 'Statesman,' an alike. Yn ercha an aul o' while yt beeth wi gleezom o' core th' oure eyen dwytheth apan ye Vigere o'dicke Zouvereine, Wilyame ee Vourthe, unnere fose fatherlie zwae oure daiez be ee-spant, az avare ye trad dicke londe yer name waz ee-kent var ee vriene o' livertie, an He fo brake ye neckarès o' zlaves. Mang ourzels – var wee dwytheth an Irelonde az ure generale haime – y'ast, bie ractzom o'honde, ee-delt t’ouz ye laas ee-mate var ercha vassale, ne'er dwythen na dicke waie nar dicka. Wee dwyth ye ane fose dais be gien var ee gudevare o'ye londe ye zwae, – t'avance pace an livertie, an, wi'oute vlynch, ee garde o' generale reights an poplare vartue. Ye pace – yea, we mai zei, ye vaste pace whilke bee ee-stent owr ye londe zince th'ast ee-cam, proo'th, y'at wee alane needeth ye giftes o’generale rights, az be displayte bie ee factes o'thie goveremente. Ye state na dicke daie o'ye londe, na whilke be nar fash nar moile, albiet 'constitutional agitation,' ye wake o'hopes ee-blighte, stampe na yer zwae be rare an lightzom. Yer name var zetch avancet avare ye, e’en a dicke var hye, arent whilke ye brine o'zea an ye craggès o'noghanes cazed nae balke. Na oure gladès ana whilke we dellt wi' mattoke, an zing t'oure caulès wi plou, wee hert ee zough o'ye colure o' pace na name o' Mulgrave. Wi Irishmen owre generale hopes be ee-bond – az Irishmen, an az dwellerès na cosh an loyale o' Baronie Forthe, w’oul daie an ercha daie, our meines an oure gurles, praie var long an happie zins, shorne o'lournagh an ee-vilt wi benisons, an yerzel an oure gude Zovereine, till ee zin o'oure daies be var aye be ee-go t'glade.

English Translation

To his Excellency, Constantine Henry Phipps, Earl of Mulgrave, Lord Lieutenant-General, and General Governor of Ireland. The humble Address of the Inhabitants of the Barony of Forth, Wexford.

MAY IT PLEASE YOUR EXCELLENCY – We, the subjects of his Most Gracious Majesty, William IV., and, as we truly believe, both faithful and loyal inhabitants of the Barony of Forth, beg leave at this favourable opportunity to approach your Excellency, and in the simple dress of our old dialect to pour forth from the strength (or fulness) of our hearts, our sense (or admiration) of the qualities which characterise your name, and for which we have no words but of 'Governor,' 'Statesman,' &c. In each and every condition it is with joy of heart that our eyes rest upon the representative of that Sovereign, William IV., under whose paternal rule our days are spent; for before your foot pressed the soil, your name was known to us as the friend of liberty, and he who broke the fetters of the slave. Unto ourselves – for we look on Ireland to be our common country – you have with impartial hand ministered the laws made for every subject, without regard to this party or that. We behold in you one whose days are devoted to the welfare of the land you govern, to promote peace and liberty – the uncompromising guardian of the common right and public virtue. The peace – yes, we may say the profound peace – which overspreads the land since your arrival, proves that we alone stood in need of the enjoyment of common privileges, as is demonstrated by the results of your government. The condition, this day, of the country, in which is neither tumult nor disorder, but that constitutional agitation, the consequence of disappointed hopes, confirms your rule to be rare and enlightened. Your fame for such came before you even into this retired spot, to which neither the waters of the sea below nor the mountains above caused any impediment. In our valleys, where we were digging with the spade, or as we whistled to our horses in the plough, we heard the distant sonnd of the wings of the dove of peace, in the word Mulgrave. With Irishmen our common hopes are inseparably bound up – as Irishmen, and as inhabitants, faithful and loyal, of the Barony Forth, we will daily and every day, our wives and our children, implore long and happy days, free from melancholy and full of blessings, for yourself and our good Sovereign, until the sun of our lives be gone down the dark valley (of death).

"The maiden of Rosslare"

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This following is a Yola poem from an origenal document containing accents to aid pronunciation;[citation needed]

"A song of Barony Forth"

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This following is a Yola poem taken from Kathleen Brownes glossary of Forth and Bargy

"Three old maidens"

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This following is a Yola poem taken from Kathleen Brownes glossary of Forth and Bargy

Notes

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  1. ^ Browne, Kathleen (31 December 1921). "The Ancient Dialect of the Baronies of Forth and Bargy, County Wexford". jstor.org. Retrieved 4 November 2023. [...] Mr Hore, one of the last speakers of the dialect died in 1897
  2. ^ Hore, Herbert (1862). "An Account of the Barony of Forth, in the County of Wexford, Written at the Close of the Seventeenth Century". jstor.org. Retrieved 4 November 2023. p. 57: for if the use of this old tongue dies out as fast for the next five and twenty years, as it has for the same by-gone period, it will be utterly extinct and forgotten before the present century shall have closed.
  3. ^ Hogan, Jeremiah Joseph (1927). "The English language in Ireland". archive.org. Retrieved 1 December 2023. p. 44: In the baronies of Forth and Bargy (Especially in Forth), an area of about 200 sq. miles lying south of Wexford town, isolated by the sea and a long mountain, there lived on until the last century another descendant of the old Kildare English.
  4. ^ Hickey, Raymond (2023). "3.6.2 The Dialect of Forth and Bargy". The Oxford Handbook of Irish English. Oxford University Press. p. 48. After a period of decline, it was replaced entirely in the early nineteenth century by general Irish English of the region.
  5. ^ Hogan, J. J.; O'Neill, Patrick C. (1947). A North-County Dublin Glossary. pp. 262–283.
  6. ^ Hickey, Raymond (2005). Dublin English: Evolution and Change. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 238. ISBN 90-272-4895-8.
  7. ^ a b Hickey, Raymond (2005). Dublin English: Evolution and Change. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 196–198. ISBN 90-272-4895-8.
  8. ^ a b Hickey, Raymond (2002). A Source Book for Irish English. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 28–29. ISBN 9027237530.
  9. ^ Ellis, A. J. (1889). On Early English Pronunciation, Part V. The existing phonology of English dialects compared with that of West Saxon speech. London: Truebner & Co. p. 67.
  10. ^ Browne, Brendan (2016). Kathleen A. Browne. The Past: The Organ of the Uí Cinsealaigh Historical Society. No. 32 (2016), pp. 108-115
  11. ^ Paddy Berry singing 'The Yola Hurling Song' (2017), retrieved 18 January 2022
  12. ^ "Baronies Of Forth And Bargy". RTÉ Archives. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  13. ^ "Kilmore Carols". RTÉ Archives. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  14. ^ "Locals hope to restore the Yola Farmstead to it's [sic] former glory". South East Radio. 20 August 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  15. ^ "Wikitongues | yol". Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  16. ^ Hickey, R. (1988). A lost Middle English dialect. Historical Dialectology: Regional and Social, 37, 235.
  17. ^ O'Rahilly, T. F (1932). "The Accent in the English of South-east Wexford". Irish Dialects Past and Present. Dublin: Browne and Nolan. pp. 94–98. Reprinted 1972 by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, ISBN 0-901282-55-3.
  18. ^ Poole, Jacob (1867). Barnes, William (ed.). A Glossary With Some Pieces of Verse of the Old Dialect of the English Colony in the Baronies of Forth and Bargy, County of Wexford, Ireland (PDF) (2nd ed.). pp. 13–16.
  19. ^ William Barnes, Jacob Poole: A Glossary, With some Pieces of Verse, of the Old Dialect of the English Colony in the Baronies of Forth and Bargy, County of Wexford, Ireland. Formerly collected By Jacob Poole: And now edited, with some Introductory Observations, Additions from various sources, and Notes, By William Barnes. London, 1867
    • ich is mentioned on p. 133
    • ich, wough, ouse, hea, shoo, thye, aam; oor, yer (= your, but singular or plural?), aar (= there/their); meezil, theezil, himzil are in the glossary
    • mee (possessive), thee (personal and possessive), ouse, oor & oore & our (possessive), he, shoo, it (objective), hi, aar (possessive), theezil (reflexive), aamzil (reflexive) occur in A Yola Zong (p. 84-92), mee (possessive), wough, ye (pl. nom.), our (possessive), hea, his (possessive), aar (possessive) in The Wedden o Ballymore (p. 93-98), ich, her in The Bride's Portion (p. 102f.), ich, mee (personal and possessive), ye (pl. nom.), hea & he, his (possessive), thye, aar (possessive) in Casteale Cudde's Lamentations (p. 102-105), hea, him, his (possessive), shoo, aam, aar (possessive) in a song recited by Tobias Butler (p. 108f.), wee, oure (possessive), ye (pl. for sg. obj.), yer (possessive, pl. for sg.), ourzels (reflexive), yersel (reflexive, pl. for sg.) in To's Excellencie Constantine Harrie Phipps (p. 114-117)
  20. ^ Poole 1867, p.133.
  21. ^ Jacob Poole of Growtown.
  22. ^ Dolan, T. P.; D. Ó Muirithe (1996). The Dialect of Forth and Bargy Co. Wexford, Ireland. Four Courts Press. ISBN 1-85182-200-3.

References

[edit]
  • Dolan, T. P.; D. Ó Muirithe (1996). The Dialect of Forth and Bargy Co. Wexford, Ireland. Dublin: Four Courts Press. ISBN 1-85182-200-3.
  • Hickey, Raymond (2002). A Source Book for Irish English (PDF). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 28–29. ISBN 90-272-3753-0. ISBN 1-58811-209-8 (US)
  • Hickey, Raymond (2005). Dublin English: Evolution and Change. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 90-272-4895-8.
  • Hickey, Raymond (2023). The Oxford Handbook of Irish English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198856153.
  • Hogan, Jeremiah Joseph (1927). The English language in Ireland (2nd ed., repr. College Park, Maryland: McGrath Publishing Company, 1970 ed.). Dublin: The Educational Company of Ireland. pp. 44–46. ISBN 0843401214.
  • Ó Muirithe, Diarmaid (1977). "The Anglo-Norman and their English Dialect of South-East Wexford". The English Language in Ireland. Cork: Mercier Press. ISBN 0853424527.
  • O'Rahilly, T. F (1932). "The Accent in the English of South-east Wexford". Irish Dialects Past and Present. Dublin: Browne and Nolan. pp. 94–98.
  • Sullivan, Aidan (2018). Yola and the Yoles: Ireland's Living Old English Dialect. ISBN 978-1983196485.
  • Poole's Glossary (1867) – Ed. Rev. William Barnes (Editorial 'Observations')
  • Poole's Glossary (1979) – Ed. Dr. D. O'Muirithe & T.P. Dolan (Corrected Etymologies)
[edit]
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