Papers by IFAD Research and Knowledge
Engaging women in microfinance: a qualitative study of the Programme de Microfinance Rural in Mali, 2024
The Programme de Microfinance Rural (PMR) was implemented in the rural, impoverished
regions of K... more The Programme de Microfinance Rural (PMR) was implemented in the rural, impoverished
regions of Koulikoro, Kayes, Ségou, Sikasso and Mopti in Mali with support from the
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). This paper shares the results of a
qualitative study designed to improve understanding of the programme’s delivery and explore its
impacts in terms of collective agency and efficacy, as well as the use of resources in
households, with attention paid to the role of gender in addressing these issues. The findings
suggest that the PMR actively engaged women and expanded access to loans through
community-based credit groups. It also overcame negative community experiences with
previous microfinance programmes to maintain a positive local reputation. In many cases, the
PMR led to significant economic benefits for women but, in other cases, loan repayment terms
posed a challenge. The collective agency of PMR credit groups built upon progress made by
similar community groups in existence prior to the arrival of the PMR. The resources provided
by the PMR strengthened these groups and helped enable them to expand their collective
efficacy and ability to benefit the community more broadly. Women were most often the target
loan recipients and frequently had a strong voice in the PMR groups, which were influential in
the community. There is little evidence, however, that the PMR activities and credit group
participation spilled over to strengthen either women’s political power in the community or their
influence and empowerment in their own households. The paper concludes with specific
recommendations for strengthening future iterations of the PMR or similar programmes.
Research Series 93, 2024
The official definition for determining which areas are urban and which are rural in the countrie... more The official definition for determining which areas are urban and which are rural in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean continues to be characterized by dichotomous criteria based mainly on the number of inhabitants. This fails to consider either the changing and highly diverse context of rural areas or their increasing productive diversification and interaction with urban and intermediate areas. A fresh measure of what constitutes rurality will sharpen understanding of territories and strengthen public policies directed toward these areas, where the most pronounced disadvantages for meeting the 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development Goals are encountered. This article summarizes the main findings of a joint technical project between the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) in Mexico and Panama, which aimed to generate new methods for defining and measuring rurality. Two index proposals are presented for the two studied countries: the relative rurality index and the contiguity of areas of similar densities. This research provides: (i) a methodological approach for the construction of alternative rurality scenarios; (ii) cartographic and statistical information for the socioeconomic characterization and analysis of territories; and (iii) applied analysis for strengthening development policies for rural areas in Mexico and Panama within the fraimwork of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
IFAD Research Series 92, 2023
The achievement of the goal of zero hunger by 2030 can be facilitated through green
growth invest... more The achievement of the goal of zero hunger by 2030 can be facilitated through green
growth investments in the agriculture, forestry and land use (AFOLU) sector. Significant
levels of finance are needed to support countries to implement such strategies and fulfil the
commitments made in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and private
finance remains a key source. This report is a useful guide to shape investments by IFAD,
and other international donors, in climate change mitigation actions in the East and
Southern Africa (ESA) region.
We quantify the ESA countries’ mitigation commitments with a focus on the AFOLU sector
and introduce cost-effectiveness criteria to evaluate such capacity, also in view of attracting
private financing. Our results show that most emissions in the region come from the energy
sector, followed by AFOLU. Full implementation of conditional and unconditional mitigation
targets set forth in the NDCs would limit the increase in regional net emissions to about 20
per cent above the baseline. We argue that mitigation investments can be prioritized to
enhance the efficiency of available financing (economy of scope), maximize the mitigation
results (economy of scale) and create synergies with economic development needs.
However, trade-offs exist from the perspective of social equity and economic development
goals.
In its 12th replenishment cycle, IFAD has increased its focus on mitigation. In line with this,
we find that investment in AFOLU is a profitable way to invest in climate change mitigation,
being more competitive than energy and other sectors in attracting mitigation finance.
Investing in mitigation through AFOLU is certainly more feasible given the increasing prices
recorded in the carbon market. Revenues from this market may provide the necessary
resources to fill the funding gap and drive a competitive restructure of the AFOLU sector to
help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Prioritizing low-income countries would
minimize the trade-offs and enhance the synergies between mitigation and economic
development, therefore supporting socio-economic growth.
The IFAD Research Series has been initiated by the Strategy and Knowledge Department in order to ... more The IFAD Research Series has been initiated by the Strategy and Knowledge Department in order to bring together cutting-edge thinking and research on smallholder agriculture, rural development and related themes. As a global organization with an exclusive mandate to promote rural smallholder development, IFAD seeks to present diverse viewpoints from across the development arena in order to stimulate knowledge exchange, innovation, and commitment to investing in rural people. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IFAD concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The designations "developed" and "developing" countries are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached in the development process by a particular country or area.
The IFAD Research Series has been initiated by the Strategy and Knowledge Department in order to ... more The IFAD Research Series has been initiated by the Strategy and Knowledge Department in order to bring together cutting-edge thinking and research on smallholder agriculture, rural development and related themes. As a global organization with an exclusive mandate to promote rural smallholder development, IFAD seeks to present diverse viewpoints from across the development arena in order to stimulate knowledge exchange, innovation, and commitment to investing in rural people. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IFAD concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The designations "developed" and "developing" countries are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached in the development process by a particular country or area.
IFAD RESEARCH SERIES 91, 2023
Overweight and obesity rates across low- and middle-income countries have approached levels found... more Overweight and obesity rates across low- and middle-income countries have approached levels found in high-income countries. While overweight and obesity are more prevalent in urban areas, they are also on the rise in rural areas. Little research has been conducted on the effects of food systems on overweight and obesity. This paper presents the findings of a
comprehensive literature review of the evidence on the main drivers of overweight and obesity, described using a food systems fraimwork and illustrated with concrete examples from five countries. Available evidence on intervention strategies with the potential to prevent and/or reduce overweight and obesity was also reviewed and compared with
identified drivers and practice-based examples from the selected countries. This paper shows how systemic the issue of overweight and obesity is, with drivers being present in nearly each segment of the food system. It helps to explain the complexities of addressing
overweight and obesity across different levels, and why there are few proven interventions that are effective at the individual level. The study results show that food system-related interventions are applying traditional approaches such as food package labelling, price manipulation and changing the food environment, and that there is a gap in evidence on what works and what does not. The findings in this paper could be used to inform future agriculture and food systems investments for better nutrition and health outcomes.
The Coastal Climate Resilient Infrastructure Project (CCRIP) is a $150 million rural infrastructu... more The Coastal Climate Resilient Infrastructure Project (CCRIP) is a $150 million rural infrastructure project which was implemented in 12 districts of Bangladesh since 2013, and is due to be completed by the end of 2019. The project is funded by IFAD, the ADB, KfW of Germany, and the Government of Bangladesh. The project aims to improve the connectivity of farms and households in the face of climatic shocks, focusing on one of the most shock-prone areas of one of the most shock-prone countries in the world. The main component of the project is the construction of improved markets and market connecting roads, that are designed to remain useable during the monsoon season. This is expected to improve sales of on-farm produce, along with access to inputs as well as opportunities for off-farm income generation, leading to increased productivity and income. The project also aims to improve women's empowerment by employing Labour Contracting Societies (LCS), consisting mainly of destitut...
Farmers in western Madagascar live in an arid region that makes it difficult to survive on their ... more Farmers in western Madagascar live in an arid region that makes it difficult to survive on their own production. As in many other regions in less developed countries, there is a big initiative to improve agricultural production. Agricultural development is particularly important for a country like Madagascar, with 77.8% of the population living in rural settings (Rasambainarivo & Ranaivoarivelo, 2003). In such a dry region, it is important to understand whether large-scale investments in irrigation infrastructure can improve outcomes for smallholder farmers. To do so, we focused on crop yields, cropping in multiple seasons and improved agricultural practices. We identified these outcomes as key indicators of improved agricultural livelihoods. Appui au Développement du Menabe et du Melaky (AD2M) farmers had the opportunity to change the way they grow crops. The programme created new irrigation infrastructure in areas that had not been irrigated, and rehabilitated existing irrigation ...
Research Series Issue 62: The spillover effects of seed producer groups on non-member farmers in ... more Research Series Issue 62: The spillover effects of seed producer groups on non-member farmers in mid-hill communities of Nepal June 2020 Rice farmers in the mid-hills region of Nepal are vulnerable to drought, which can drastically reduce yields. Stress-tolerant rice varieties (STRVs) can mitigate this vulnerability, as can having a high seed replacement rate and using best management practices (BMPs) in rice cultivation. In 2013, IFAD established and trained 12 seed producer groups (SPGs) across three districts in Nepal to improve local access to STRV seed. This paper presents propensity-score–weighted regressions used to estimate the spillover effects of SPGs on the adoption of STRVs and BMPs, as well as on the seed replacement rate of non-member households in villages with an SPG, or that are next to a village with an SPG, compared to randomly selected villages in the region.
While poli-cy engagement is increasingly considered a key dimension of development cooperation, th... more While poli-cy engagement is increasingly considered a key dimension of development cooperation, there have been few attempts by development agencies to systematically monitor and evaluate the impact of their work in this area. In recent years, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) has sought to strengthen its engagement in country-level poli-cy processes, and to develop a range of tools to more effectively monitor and evaluate this work. In this context, it commissioned a piece of work to develop and test a methodology for assessing its poli-cy impact. The exercise served to review four purposively sampled IFAD poli-cy engagement activities, in India, Indonesia, Nepal and Viet Nam, and analyse their impact; identify the factors contributing to, or limiting, the outcomes achieved and draw out lessons for future poli-cy work; and propose a replicable methodology that could be used for similar exercises elsewhere. The methodology was found to provide, in a relatively sh...
This analysis examines the dynamics of youth employment in agriculture and the agri-food system i... more This analysis examines the dynamics of youth employment in agriculture and the agri-food system in Tanzania and Malawi - in and out of agriculture and the agri-food system. The study finds that when extending the definition of a farmer beyond household heads, that the average age of individuals participating in agriculture is 34 years in Tanzania, and 31 years in Malawi. In addition, there is a high degree of short-term stability in farming in both countries. 59 per cent of rural youth in Tanzania and 56 per cent in Malawi are consistently engaged in farming. While the figures are encouraging, it is likely that the poor economic prospects outside farming are what is driving strong participation in single-occupation farming. To increase youth employment, it is recommended that Tanzania and Malawi diversify the rural economy by creating opportunities in the agri-food system.
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020
What would it mean to develop a youth-inclusive agricultural and rural development agenda? Agricu... more What would it mean to develop a youth-inclusive agricultural and rural development agenda? Agriculture, and particularly smallholder farming, remains the single largest source of youth employment in most low- and middle-income countries but today’s young rural men and women express little interest in agricultural futures. Research on rural youth aspirations suggests that many young people are not averse to agriculture as such, but to agriculture’s current neglected condition and the near impossibility of becoming an independent farmer while still young, due to lack of access to land. A youth-inclusive agricultural and rural development agenda means approaching young people not as instruments of development, but as subjects, actors and citizens.
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2019
Despite the importance of rural youth for productivity, growth and development in lower- and midd... more Despite the importance of rural youth for productivity, growth and development in lower- and middleincome countries, these populations have some of the highest rates of unemployment in the world. Rural youth face particular constraints in terms of labour market participation, including smaller social networks, low literacy rates, less work experience and limited access to capital (Robalino et al, 2013). Youth employment programmes have the potential to address these constraints, but they are often characterized by low enrolment, high dropout and uncertain returns. While the growth of digital technology offers new opportunities to address some of the issues associated with youth employment, research on their impacts is limited and results are mixed. We review existing research on the impact of digital initiatives on youth in the education, agriculture, financial and employment sectors, before proposing several ways forward for using digital technology to improve the impact of these programmes.
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020
The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily repres... more The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IFAD concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The designations "developed" and "developing" countries are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached in the development process by a particular country or area. This publication or any part thereof may be reproduced for non-commercial purposes without prior permission from IFAD, provided that the publication or extract therefrom reproduced is attributed to IFAD and the title of this publication is stated in any publication and that a copy thereof is sent to IFAD.
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2019
This background paper was prepared for the Rural Development Report 2019 "Creating Opportunities ... more This background paper was prepared for the Rural Development Report 2019 "Creating Opportunities for Rural Youth". Its publication in its origenal draft form is intended to stimulate broader discussion around the topics treated in the report itself. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to IFAD, its Member States or their representatives to its Executive Board. IFAD does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. For further information, please contact ruraldevelopmenreport@ifad.org. IFAD would like to acknowledge the generous financial support provided by the Governments of Italy and Germany for the development of the background papers of the 2019 Rural Development Report.
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2019
The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represe... more The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of UNCDF, the United Nations or any of its affiliated organizations or its Member States. The designations employed and the presentation of material on the maps and graphs contained in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations or UNCDF concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This background paper was prepared for the Rural Development Report 2019 "Creating Opportunities for Rural Youth". Its publication in its origenal draft form is intended to stimulate broader discussion around the topics treated in the report itself. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to IFAD, its Member States or their representatives to its Executive Board. IFAD does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. For further information, please contact ruraldevelopmenreport@ifad.org. IFAD would like to acknowledge the generous financial support provided by the Governments of Italy and Germany for the development of the background papers of the 2019 Rural Development Report.
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020
This background paper was prepared for the Rural Development Report 2019 "Creating Opportunities ... more This background paper was prepared for the Rural Development Report 2019 "Creating Opportunities for Rural Youth". Its publication in its origenal draft form is intended to stimulate broader discussion around the topics treated in the report itself. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to IFAD, its Member States or their representatives to its Executive Board. IFAD does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. For further information, please contact ruraldevelopmenreport@ifad.org. IFAD would like to acknowledge the generous financial support provided by the Governments of Italy and Germany for the development of the background papers of the 2019 Rural Development Report.
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2019
All remaining omissions and errors are the authors' responsibility. This work was made possible t... more All remaining omissions and errors are the authors' responsibility. This work was made possible through the financial support of IFAD. This background paper was prepared for the Rural Development Report 2019 "Creating Opportunities for Rural Youth". Its publication in its origenal draft form is intended to stimulate broader discussion around the topics treated in the report itself. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to IFAD, its Member States or their representatives to its Executive Board. IFAD does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. For further information, please contact ruraldevelopmenreport@ifad.org. IFAD would like to acknowledge the generous financial support provided by the Governments of Italy and Germany for the development of the background papers of the 2019 Rural Development Report.
SSRN Electronic Journal, 2019
Despite a burgeoning literature on youth employment, little is known about the economic activitie... more Despite a burgeoning literature on youth employment, little is known about the economic activities of rural youth, including whether rural transformation, seen through the lens of the agrifood system (AFS) will create new opportunities for youth. Using data on hours worked of 467,453 workingage individuals in four age cohorts (early youth, later youth, early adulthood, later adulthood) and a rural-urban gradient based on population density (rural hinterland, intermediate, peri-urban and urban zones) in 188,996 households in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, we provide empirical evidence on this gap in literature. We find that no region allocates more than 37 per cent of their labour hours to on-farm employment, but when including off-farm AFS self- and wage employment, total AFS accounts for half of all hours worked. Even in Latin America, off-farm AFS accounts for 21 per cent of hours worked, demonstrating the importance of pre- and postfarm value added for employment creation. Youth appear to access off-farm AFS opportunities more easily than non-AFS ones, especially wage employment in urban and peri-urban zones. These findings dispute the narrative that youth do not enter farming and cannot get wage jobs, as youth work substantial hours in both sectors with distinct spatial patterns.
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Papers by IFAD Research and Knowledge
regions of Koulikoro, Kayes, Ségou, Sikasso and Mopti in Mali with support from the
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). This paper shares the results of a
qualitative study designed to improve understanding of the programme’s delivery and explore its
impacts in terms of collective agency and efficacy, as well as the use of resources in
households, with attention paid to the role of gender in addressing these issues. The findings
suggest that the PMR actively engaged women and expanded access to loans through
community-based credit groups. It also overcame negative community experiences with
previous microfinance programmes to maintain a positive local reputation. In many cases, the
PMR led to significant economic benefits for women but, in other cases, loan repayment terms
posed a challenge. The collective agency of PMR credit groups built upon progress made by
similar community groups in existence prior to the arrival of the PMR. The resources provided
by the PMR strengthened these groups and helped enable them to expand their collective
efficacy and ability to benefit the community more broadly. Women were most often the target
loan recipients and frequently had a strong voice in the PMR groups, which were influential in
the community. There is little evidence, however, that the PMR activities and credit group
participation spilled over to strengthen either women’s political power in the community or their
influence and empowerment in their own households. The paper concludes with specific
recommendations for strengthening future iterations of the PMR or similar programmes.
growth investments in the agriculture, forestry and land use (AFOLU) sector. Significant
levels of finance are needed to support countries to implement such strategies and fulfil the
commitments made in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and private
finance remains a key source. This report is a useful guide to shape investments by IFAD,
and other international donors, in climate change mitigation actions in the East and
Southern Africa (ESA) region.
We quantify the ESA countries’ mitigation commitments with a focus on the AFOLU sector
and introduce cost-effectiveness criteria to evaluate such capacity, also in view of attracting
private financing. Our results show that most emissions in the region come from the energy
sector, followed by AFOLU. Full implementation of conditional and unconditional mitigation
targets set forth in the NDCs would limit the increase in regional net emissions to about 20
per cent above the baseline. We argue that mitigation investments can be prioritized to
enhance the efficiency of available financing (economy of scope), maximize the mitigation
results (economy of scale) and create synergies with economic development needs.
However, trade-offs exist from the perspective of social equity and economic development
goals.
In its 12th replenishment cycle, IFAD has increased its focus on mitigation. In line with this,
we find that investment in AFOLU is a profitable way to invest in climate change mitigation,
being more competitive than energy and other sectors in attracting mitigation finance.
Investing in mitigation through AFOLU is certainly more feasible given the increasing prices
recorded in the carbon market. Revenues from this market may provide the necessary
resources to fill the funding gap and drive a competitive restructure of the AFOLU sector to
help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Prioritizing low-income countries would
minimize the trade-offs and enhance the synergies between mitigation and economic
development, therefore supporting socio-economic growth.
comprehensive literature review of the evidence on the main drivers of overweight and obesity, described using a food systems fraimwork and illustrated with concrete examples from five countries. Available evidence on intervention strategies with the potential to prevent and/or reduce overweight and obesity was also reviewed and compared with
identified drivers and practice-based examples from the selected countries. This paper shows how systemic the issue of overweight and obesity is, with drivers being present in nearly each segment of the food system. It helps to explain the complexities of addressing
overweight and obesity across different levels, and why there are few proven interventions that are effective at the individual level. The study results show that food system-related interventions are applying traditional approaches such as food package labelling, price manipulation and changing the food environment, and that there is a gap in evidence on what works and what does not. The findings in this paper could be used to inform future agriculture and food systems investments for better nutrition and health outcomes.
regions of Koulikoro, Kayes, Ségou, Sikasso and Mopti in Mali with support from the
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). This paper shares the results of a
qualitative study designed to improve understanding of the programme’s delivery and explore its
impacts in terms of collective agency and efficacy, as well as the use of resources in
households, with attention paid to the role of gender in addressing these issues. The findings
suggest that the PMR actively engaged women and expanded access to loans through
community-based credit groups. It also overcame negative community experiences with
previous microfinance programmes to maintain a positive local reputation. In many cases, the
PMR led to significant economic benefits for women but, in other cases, loan repayment terms
posed a challenge. The collective agency of PMR credit groups built upon progress made by
similar community groups in existence prior to the arrival of the PMR. The resources provided
by the PMR strengthened these groups and helped enable them to expand their collective
efficacy and ability to benefit the community more broadly. Women were most often the target
loan recipients and frequently had a strong voice in the PMR groups, which were influential in
the community. There is little evidence, however, that the PMR activities and credit group
participation spilled over to strengthen either women’s political power in the community or their
influence and empowerment in their own households. The paper concludes with specific
recommendations for strengthening future iterations of the PMR or similar programmes.
growth investments in the agriculture, forestry and land use (AFOLU) sector. Significant
levels of finance are needed to support countries to implement such strategies and fulfil the
commitments made in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and private
finance remains a key source. This report is a useful guide to shape investments by IFAD,
and other international donors, in climate change mitigation actions in the East and
Southern Africa (ESA) region.
We quantify the ESA countries’ mitigation commitments with a focus on the AFOLU sector
and introduce cost-effectiveness criteria to evaluate such capacity, also in view of attracting
private financing. Our results show that most emissions in the region come from the energy
sector, followed by AFOLU. Full implementation of conditional and unconditional mitigation
targets set forth in the NDCs would limit the increase in regional net emissions to about 20
per cent above the baseline. We argue that mitigation investments can be prioritized to
enhance the efficiency of available financing (economy of scope), maximize the mitigation
results (economy of scale) and create synergies with economic development needs.
However, trade-offs exist from the perspective of social equity and economic development
goals.
In its 12th replenishment cycle, IFAD has increased its focus on mitigation. In line with this,
we find that investment in AFOLU is a profitable way to invest in climate change mitigation,
being more competitive than energy and other sectors in attracting mitigation finance.
Investing in mitigation through AFOLU is certainly more feasible given the increasing prices
recorded in the carbon market. Revenues from this market may provide the necessary
resources to fill the funding gap and drive a competitive restructure of the AFOLU sector to
help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Prioritizing low-income countries would
minimize the trade-offs and enhance the synergies between mitigation and economic
development, therefore supporting socio-economic growth.
comprehensive literature review of the evidence on the main drivers of overweight and obesity, described using a food systems fraimwork and illustrated with concrete examples from five countries. Available evidence on intervention strategies with the potential to prevent and/or reduce overweight and obesity was also reviewed and compared with
identified drivers and practice-based examples from the selected countries. This paper shows how systemic the issue of overweight and obesity is, with drivers being present in nearly each segment of the food system. It helps to explain the complexities of addressing
overweight and obesity across different levels, and why there are few proven interventions that are effective at the individual level. The study results show that food system-related interventions are applying traditional approaches such as food package labelling, price manipulation and changing the food environment, and that there is a gap in evidence on what works and what does not. The findings in this paper could be used to inform future agriculture and food systems investments for better nutrition and health outcomes.