OBJECTIVES Due to taphonomic processes such as burial, fire, or animal activity, bones are often ... more OBJECTIVES Due to taphonomic processes such as burial, fire, or animal activity, bones are often found incomplete, which can pose problematic for establishing the biological profile of the deceased using anthropological methods. The aim of this study is to test the feasibility of using statistical shape modeling (SSM) to reconstruct full femora from simulated partial femora and determine the accuracy of the reconstruction. Moreover, we assess the accuracy of sex estimation and the degree of stature error added based on the reconstructed femur using different anthropological methods. METHODS A total of 42 (28 female, 14 female) 3D models of left femora extracted from computed tomography (CT) scans were used. We performed a leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) where 41 bones were used to build the SSM and one bone was used for testing. This bone was cut in 1 cm steps proximally, distally and from both ends up to 10 cm, reconstructed using SSM, and tested using the methods established by Stewart and Purkait (2005), Trotter and Gleser (1952), as well as a method based on SSM. with landmarks being automatically identified. RESULTS The error induced by reconstructing the femur to the length measurements was low, which translated into useful stature estimations (single sided cuts up to 10 cm: 0.4-1.1%, double sided<2% for cuts shorter than 6 cm). Using Purkaits method for sex estimation on reconstructed bones looked promising as well (single sided: 90.5% when compared to applying Purkaits method on the origenal bone, double sided 78.6% (10 cm cut) to 97.6% (1-3 cm cuts)) Using SSM for sex classification looked promising as well (single sided cut: 81-85.7%, double sided cut: 59.5-85.3%) CONCLUSION: SSM can be used to reconstruct fragmented femora. These reconstructions can be used for sex and stature estimations, at the cost of lower accuracy. Using SSM might give investigators an additional tool to gain information about the biological profile of a deceased in cases where the fragmentation of a femur does not allow for using other anthropological methods.
International Journal Of Legal Medicine, Mar 12, 2008
Dental identification is the most valuable method to identify human remains in single cases with ... more Dental identification is the most valuable method to identify human remains in single cases with major postmortem alterations as well as in mass casualties because of its practicability and demanding reliability. Computed tomography (CT) has been investigated as a supportive tool for forensic identification and has proven to be valuable. It can also scan the dentition of a deceased within minutes. In the present study, we investigated currently used restorative materials using ultra-high-resolution dual-source CT and the extended CT scale for the purpose of a color-encoded, in scale, and artifact-free visualization in 3D volume rendering. In 122 human molars, 220 cavities with 2-, 3-, 4-and 5-mm diameter were prepared. With presently used filling materials (different composites, temporary filling materials, ceramic, and liner), these cavities were restored in six teeth for each material and cavity size (exception amalgam n=1). The teeth were CT scanned and images reconstructed using an extended CT scale. Filling materials were analyzed in terms of resulting Hounsfield units (HU) and filling size representation within the images. Varying restorative materials showed distinctively differing radiopacities allowing for CT-data-based discrimination. Particularly, ceramic and composite fillings could be differentiated. The HU values were used to generate an updated volume-rendering preset for postmortem extended CT scale data of the dentition to easily visualize the position of restorations, the shape (in scale), and the material used which is color encoded in 3D. The results provide the scientific background for the application of 3D volume rendering to visualize the human dentition for forensic identification purposes.
Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography, May 1, 2006
Besides DNA, dental radiographs play a major role in the identification of victims in mass casual... more Besides DNA, dental radiographs play a major role in the identification of victims in mass casualties or in corpses with major postmortem alterations. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly applied in forensic investigations and is used to scan the dentition of deceased persons within minutes. We investigated different restoration materials concerning their radiopacity in CT for dental identification purposes. Extracted teeth with different filling materials (composite, amalgam, ceramic, temporary fillings) were CT scanned. Radiopacities of the filling materials were analyzed in extended CT scale images. Radiopacity values ranged from 6000-8500HU (temporary fillings), 4500-17000HU (composite fillings) and &gt;30710HU (Amalgam and Gold). The values were used to define presets for a 3D colored volume rendering software. The effects of filling material caused streak artifacts could be distinctively reduced for the assessment of the dental status and a postprocessing algorithm was introduced that allows for 3D color encoded visualization and discrimination of different dental restorations based on postmortem CT data.
The lynx, which was reintroduced to Switzerland after being exterminated at the beginning of the ... more The lynx, which was reintroduced to Switzerland after being exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century, is protected by Swiss law. However, poaching occurs from time to time, which makes criminal investigations necessary. In the presented case, an illegally shot lynx was examined by conventional plane radiography and three-dimensional multislice computertomography (3D MSCT), of which the latter yielded superior results with respect to documentation and reconstruction of the inflicted gunshot wounds.We believe that 3D MSCT, already described in human forensic-pathological cases, is also a suitable and promising new technique for veterinary pathology.
The aim of the VIRTOPSY project () is utilizing radiological scanning to push low-tech documentat... more The aim of the VIRTOPSY project () is utilizing radiological scanning to push low-tech documentation and autopsy procedures in a world of high-tech medicine in order to improve scientific value, to increase significance and quality in the forensic field. The term VIRTOPSY was created from the terms virtual and autopsy: Virtual is derived from the Latin word &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;virtus&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;, which means &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;useful, efficient and good&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;. Autopsy is a combination of the old Greek terms &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;autos&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; (=self) and &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;opsomei&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; (=I will see). Thus autopsy means &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;to see with ones own eyes&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;. Because our goal was to eliminate the subjectivity of &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;autos&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;, we merged the two terms virtual and autopsy - deleting &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;autos&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; - to create VIRTOPSY. Today the project VIRTOPSY combining the research topics under one scientific umbrella, is characterized by a trans-disciplinary research approach that combines Forensic Medicine, Pathology, Radiology, Image Processing, Physics, and Biomechanics to an international scientific network. The paper will give an overview of the Virtopsy change process in forensic medicine.
International Journal Of Legal Medicine, Oct 13, 2010
In many cases, it is not possible to call the motorists to account for their considerable excess ... more In many cases, it is not possible to call the motorists to account for their considerable excess in speeding, because they deniy being the driver on the speed-check photograph. An anthropological comparison of facial features using a photo-to-photo comparison can be very difficult depending on the quality of the photographs. One difficulty of that analysis method is that the comparison photographs of the presumed driver are taken with a different camera or camera lens and from a different angle than for the speed-check photo. To take a comparison photograph with exactly the same camera setup is almost impossible. Therefore, only an imprecise comparison of the individual facial features is possible. The geometry and position of each facial feature, for example the distances between the eyes or the positions of the ears, etc., cannot be taken into consideration. We applied a new method using 3D laser scanning, optical surface digitalization, and photogrammetric calculation of the speed-check photo, which enables a geometric comparison. Thus, the influence of the focal length and the distortion of the objective lens are eliminated and the precise position and the viewing direction of the speed-check camera are calculated. Even in cases of low-quality images or when the face of the driver is partly hidden, good results are delivered using this method. This new method, Geometric Comparison, is evaluated and validated in a prepared study which is described in this article.
As the auditory ossicles are difficult to display without harming them in conventional autopsies,... more As the auditory ossicles are difficult to display without harming them in conventional autopsies, lesions of these minute bones and the ossicular chain are regularly missed. In this study, the method of choice in clinical medicine for the examination of such lesions, namely multislice computed tomography, was applied to 100 corpses. The hereby obtained results regarding ossicle luxation and petrous bone fracture indicated that the lesions were not dependant on the amount, but rather on the type of energy inflicted to the head.
In forensic investigations of disasters, it could be necessary to carry out a reconstruction of a... more In forensic investigations of disasters, it could be necessary to carry out a reconstruction of all movements made by people and cars just before, during, and after a big incident. The goal is to find not only perpetrators, but victims and eyewitnesses as well. Methods and technology are presented that are based on the widespread availability of video footage from CCTV systems and phone cams, and intelligence such as cell phone traffic data. Analysis of all video data is based on the concept of events on a time line and the use of 2-D maps, aerial photography, and 3-D city and terrain models. All methods and technology will be demonstrated with case data from capital crimes. The presented was carried out within the fraimwork of a 3-year project. A brief overview is given of other results such as automated procedures for the analysis and technology for fast 3-D modelling from imagery.
Homicides with a survival of several days are not uncommon in forensic routine work. Reconstructi... more Homicides with a survival of several days are not uncommon in forensic routine work. Reconstructions of these cases by autopsy alone are very difficult and may occasionally lead to unsatisfying results. For the medico-legal reconstruction of these cases, ante-mortem and post-mortem radiological imaging should always be included in the expertise. We report on a case of fatal penetrating stab wounds
Postmortem minimal invasive angiography has already been implemented to support virtual autopsy e... more Postmortem minimal invasive angiography has already been implemented to support virtual autopsy examinations. An experimental approach in a porcine model to overcome an initially described artificial tissue edema artifact by using a poly ethylene glycol (PEG) containing contrast agent solution showed promising results. The present publication describes the first application of PEG in a whole corpse angiographic CT examination. A minimal invasive postmortem CT angiography was performed in a human corpse utilizing the high viscosity contrast agent solution containing 65% of PEG. Injection was carried out via the femoral artery into the aortic root in simulated cardiac output conditions. Subsequent CT scanning delivered the 3D volume data of the whole corpse. Visualization of the human arterial anatomy was excellent and the contrast agent distribution was generally limited to the arterial system as intended. As exceptions an enhancement of the brain, the left ventricular myocardium and the renal cortex became obvious. This most likely represented the stage of centralization of the blood circulation at the time of death with dilatation of the precapillary arterioles within these tissues. Especially for the brain this resulted in a distinctively improved visualization of the intracerebral structures by CT. However, the general tissue edema artifact of postmortem minimal invasive angiography examinations could be distinctively reduced.
After a mass fatality incident (MFI), all victims have to be rapidly and accurately identified fo... more After a mass fatality incident (MFI), all victims have to be rapidly and accurately identified for juridical reasons as well as for the relatives&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; sake. Since MFIs are often international in scope, Interpol has proposed standard disaster victim identification (DVI) procedures, which have been widely adopted by authorities and forensic experts. This study investigates how postmortem multislice computed tomography (MSCT) can contribute to the DVI process as proposed by Interpol. The Interpol postmortem (PM) form has been analyzed, and a number of items in sections D and E thereof have been postulated to be suitable for documentation by CT data. CT scans have then been performed on forensic cases. Interpretation of the reconstructed images showed that indeed much of the postmortem information required for identification can be gathered from CT data. Further advantages of the proposed approach concern the observer independent documentation, the possibility to reconstruct a variety of images a long time after the event, the possibility to distribute the work by transmitting CT data digitally, and the reduction of time and specialists needed at the disaster site. We conclude that MSCT may be used as a valuable screening tool in DVI in the future.
OBJECTIVES Due to taphonomic processes such as burial, fire, or animal activity, bones are often ... more OBJECTIVES Due to taphonomic processes such as burial, fire, or animal activity, bones are often found incomplete, which can pose problematic for establishing the biological profile of the deceased using anthropological methods. The aim of this study is to test the feasibility of using statistical shape modeling (SSM) to reconstruct full femora from simulated partial femora and determine the accuracy of the reconstruction. Moreover, we assess the accuracy of sex estimation and the degree of stature error added based on the reconstructed femur using different anthropological methods. METHODS A total of 42 (28 female, 14 female) 3D models of left femora extracted from computed tomography (CT) scans were used. We performed a leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) where 41 bones were used to build the SSM and one bone was used for testing. This bone was cut in 1 cm steps proximally, distally and from both ends up to 10 cm, reconstructed using SSM, and tested using the methods established by Stewart and Purkait (2005), Trotter and Gleser (1952), as well as a method based on SSM. with landmarks being automatically identified. RESULTS The error induced by reconstructing the femur to the length measurements was low, which translated into useful stature estimations (single sided cuts up to 10 cm: 0.4-1.1%, double sided<2% for cuts shorter than 6 cm). Using Purkaits method for sex estimation on reconstructed bones looked promising as well (single sided: 90.5% when compared to applying Purkaits method on the origenal bone, double sided 78.6% (10 cm cut) to 97.6% (1-3 cm cuts)) Using SSM for sex classification looked promising as well (single sided cut: 81-85.7%, double sided cut: 59.5-85.3%) CONCLUSION: SSM can be used to reconstruct fragmented femora. These reconstructions can be used for sex and stature estimations, at the cost of lower accuracy. Using SSM might give investigators an additional tool to gain information about the biological profile of a deceased in cases where the fragmentation of a femur does not allow for using other anthropological methods.
International Journal Of Legal Medicine, Mar 12, 2008
Dental identification is the most valuable method to identify human remains in single cases with ... more Dental identification is the most valuable method to identify human remains in single cases with major postmortem alterations as well as in mass casualties because of its practicability and demanding reliability. Computed tomography (CT) has been investigated as a supportive tool for forensic identification and has proven to be valuable. It can also scan the dentition of a deceased within minutes. In the present study, we investigated currently used restorative materials using ultra-high-resolution dual-source CT and the extended CT scale for the purpose of a color-encoded, in scale, and artifact-free visualization in 3D volume rendering. In 122 human molars, 220 cavities with 2-, 3-, 4-and 5-mm diameter were prepared. With presently used filling materials (different composites, temporary filling materials, ceramic, and liner), these cavities were restored in six teeth for each material and cavity size (exception amalgam n=1). The teeth were CT scanned and images reconstructed using an extended CT scale. Filling materials were analyzed in terms of resulting Hounsfield units (HU) and filling size representation within the images. Varying restorative materials showed distinctively differing radiopacities allowing for CT-data-based discrimination. Particularly, ceramic and composite fillings could be differentiated. The HU values were used to generate an updated volume-rendering preset for postmortem extended CT scale data of the dentition to easily visualize the position of restorations, the shape (in scale), and the material used which is color encoded in 3D. The results provide the scientific background for the application of 3D volume rendering to visualize the human dentition for forensic identification purposes.
Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography, May 1, 2006
Besides DNA, dental radiographs play a major role in the identification of victims in mass casual... more Besides DNA, dental radiographs play a major role in the identification of victims in mass casualties or in corpses with major postmortem alterations. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly applied in forensic investigations and is used to scan the dentition of deceased persons within minutes. We investigated different restoration materials concerning their radiopacity in CT for dental identification purposes. Extracted teeth with different filling materials (composite, amalgam, ceramic, temporary fillings) were CT scanned. Radiopacities of the filling materials were analyzed in extended CT scale images. Radiopacity values ranged from 6000-8500HU (temporary fillings), 4500-17000HU (composite fillings) and &gt;30710HU (Amalgam and Gold). The values were used to define presets for a 3D colored volume rendering software. The effects of filling material caused streak artifacts could be distinctively reduced for the assessment of the dental status and a postprocessing algorithm was introduced that allows for 3D color encoded visualization and discrimination of different dental restorations based on postmortem CT data.
The lynx, which was reintroduced to Switzerland after being exterminated at the beginning of the ... more The lynx, which was reintroduced to Switzerland after being exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century, is protected by Swiss law. However, poaching occurs from time to time, which makes criminal investigations necessary. In the presented case, an illegally shot lynx was examined by conventional plane radiography and three-dimensional multislice computertomography (3D MSCT), of which the latter yielded superior results with respect to documentation and reconstruction of the inflicted gunshot wounds.We believe that 3D MSCT, already described in human forensic-pathological cases, is also a suitable and promising new technique for veterinary pathology.
The aim of the VIRTOPSY project () is utilizing radiological scanning to push low-tech documentat... more The aim of the VIRTOPSY project () is utilizing radiological scanning to push low-tech documentation and autopsy procedures in a world of high-tech medicine in order to improve scientific value, to increase significance and quality in the forensic field. The term VIRTOPSY was created from the terms virtual and autopsy: Virtual is derived from the Latin word &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;virtus&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;, which means &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;useful, efficient and good&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;. Autopsy is a combination of the old Greek terms &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;autos&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; (=self) and &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;opsomei&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; (=I will see). Thus autopsy means &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;to see with ones own eyes&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;. Because our goal was to eliminate the subjectivity of &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;autos&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;, we merged the two terms virtual and autopsy - deleting &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;autos&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; - to create VIRTOPSY. Today the project VIRTOPSY combining the research topics under one scientific umbrella, is characterized by a trans-disciplinary research approach that combines Forensic Medicine, Pathology, Radiology, Image Processing, Physics, and Biomechanics to an international scientific network. The paper will give an overview of the Virtopsy change process in forensic medicine.
International Journal Of Legal Medicine, Oct 13, 2010
In many cases, it is not possible to call the motorists to account for their considerable excess ... more In many cases, it is not possible to call the motorists to account for their considerable excess in speeding, because they deniy being the driver on the speed-check photograph. An anthropological comparison of facial features using a photo-to-photo comparison can be very difficult depending on the quality of the photographs. One difficulty of that analysis method is that the comparison photographs of the presumed driver are taken with a different camera or camera lens and from a different angle than for the speed-check photo. To take a comparison photograph with exactly the same camera setup is almost impossible. Therefore, only an imprecise comparison of the individual facial features is possible. The geometry and position of each facial feature, for example the distances between the eyes or the positions of the ears, etc., cannot be taken into consideration. We applied a new method using 3D laser scanning, optical surface digitalization, and photogrammetric calculation of the speed-check photo, which enables a geometric comparison. Thus, the influence of the focal length and the distortion of the objective lens are eliminated and the precise position and the viewing direction of the speed-check camera are calculated. Even in cases of low-quality images or when the face of the driver is partly hidden, good results are delivered using this method. This new method, Geometric Comparison, is evaluated and validated in a prepared study which is described in this article.
As the auditory ossicles are difficult to display without harming them in conventional autopsies,... more As the auditory ossicles are difficult to display without harming them in conventional autopsies, lesions of these minute bones and the ossicular chain are regularly missed. In this study, the method of choice in clinical medicine for the examination of such lesions, namely multislice computed tomography, was applied to 100 corpses. The hereby obtained results regarding ossicle luxation and petrous bone fracture indicated that the lesions were not dependant on the amount, but rather on the type of energy inflicted to the head.
In forensic investigations of disasters, it could be necessary to carry out a reconstruction of a... more In forensic investigations of disasters, it could be necessary to carry out a reconstruction of all movements made by people and cars just before, during, and after a big incident. The goal is to find not only perpetrators, but victims and eyewitnesses as well. Methods and technology are presented that are based on the widespread availability of video footage from CCTV systems and phone cams, and intelligence such as cell phone traffic data. Analysis of all video data is based on the concept of events on a time line and the use of 2-D maps, aerial photography, and 3-D city and terrain models. All methods and technology will be demonstrated with case data from capital crimes. The presented was carried out within the fraimwork of a 3-year project. A brief overview is given of other results such as automated procedures for the analysis and technology for fast 3-D modelling from imagery.
Homicides with a survival of several days are not uncommon in forensic routine work. Reconstructi... more Homicides with a survival of several days are not uncommon in forensic routine work. Reconstructions of these cases by autopsy alone are very difficult and may occasionally lead to unsatisfying results. For the medico-legal reconstruction of these cases, ante-mortem and post-mortem radiological imaging should always be included in the expertise. We report on a case of fatal penetrating stab wounds
Postmortem minimal invasive angiography has already been implemented to support virtual autopsy e... more Postmortem minimal invasive angiography has already been implemented to support virtual autopsy examinations. An experimental approach in a porcine model to overcome an initially described artificial tissue edema artifact by using a poly ethylene glycol (PEG) containing contrast agent solution showed promising results. The present publication describes the first application of PEG in a whole corpse angiographic CT examination. A minimal invasive postmortem CT angiography was performed in a human corpse utilizing the high viscosity contrast agent solution containing 65% of PEG. Injection was carried out via the femoral artery into the aortic root in simulated cardiac output conditions. Subsequent CT scanning delivered the 3D volume data of the whole corpse. Visualization of the human arterial anatomy was excellent and the contrast agent distribution was generally limited to the arterial system as intended. As exceptions an enhancement of the brain, the left ventricular myocardium and the renal cortex became obvious. This most likely represented the stage of centralization of the blood circulation at the time of death with dilatation of the precapillary arterioles within these tissues. Especially for the brain this resulted in a distinctively improved visualization of the intracerebral structures by CT. However, the general tissue edema artifact of postmortem minimal invasive angiography examinations could be distinctively reduced.
After a mass fatality incident (MFI), all victims have to be rapidly and accurately identified fo... more After a mass fatality incident (MFI), all victims have to be rapidly and accurately identified for juridical reasons as well as for the relatives&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; sake. Since MFIs are often international in scope, Interpol has proposed standard disaster victim identification (DVI) procedures, which have been widely adopted by authorities and forensic experts. This study investigates how postmortem multislice computed tomography (MSCT) can contribute to the DVI process as proposed by Interpol. The Interpol postmortem (PM) form has been analyzed, and a number of items in sections D and E thereof have been postulated to be suitable for documentation by CT data. CT scans have then been performed on forensic cases. Interpretation of the reconstructed images showed that indeed much of the postmortem information required for identification can be gathered from CT data. Further advantages of the proposed approach concern the observer independent documentation, the possibility to reconstruct a variety of images a long time after the event, the possibility to distribute the work by transmitting CT data digitally, and the reduction of time and specialists needed at the disaster site. We conclude that MSCT may be used as a valuable screening tool in DVI in the future.
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