Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), mostly found in west coast of North America, is a highly un... more Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), mostly found in west coast of North America, is a highly underutilized and lowvalue timber species, partially because of the presence of wet pockets, which makes wood processing challenging, especially when drying and sawing. The present work studies the modification of western hemlock using a hydrothermal process, which induced significant changes in the chemical structure and physical characteristics of the wood. The treatment caused the degradation of hemicellulose and reduced the quantity of adsorbed water and free hydroxyl groups. As a result, the wood became less hygroscopic and exhibited improved dimensional and thermal stability with a darker and more attractive color. The hydrothermally-induced variations in the wood structure also influenced its mechanical properties. Flexural bending tests revealed that the specific modulus of rupture and specific maximum load decreased after treatment, while the specific modulus of elasticity increased. In addition, the hydrothermal process was successful in eliminating case hardening, which is typically caused by residual compression stress during conventional kiln drying of wood. These results reveal that hydrothermal treatment is a promising method to expand utilization and develop value-added wood products using low quality wood, such as western hemlock.
International journal of molecular sciences, Jan 8, 2017
To reduce fire hazards and expand high-value applications of lignocellulosic materials, thin film... more To reduce fire hazards and expand high-value applications of lignocellulosic materials, thin films comprising graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs) and multi-wall carbon nanotubes (CNTs) pre-adsorbed with alkali lignin were deposited by a Meyer rod process. Lightweight and highly flexible papers with increased gas impermeability were obtained by coating a protective layer of carbon nanomaterials in a randomly oriented and overlapped network structure. Assessment of the thermal and flammability properties of papers containing as low as 4 wt % carbon nanomaterials exhibited self-extinguishing behavior and yielded up to 83.5% and 87.7% reduction in weight loss and burning area, respectively, compared to the blank papers. The maximum burning temperature as measured by infrared pyrometry also decreased from 834 °C to 705 °C with the presence of flame retardants. Furthermore, papers coated with composites of GnPs and CNTs pre-adsorbed with lignin showed enhanced thermal stability and superior fir...
Bio-jet fuels are emerging as a valuable alternative to petroleum-based fuels for their potential... more Bio-jet fuels are emerging as a valuable alternative to petroleum-based fuels for their potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependence. In this study, residual woody biomass from slash piles in the U.S. Pacific Northwest is used as a feedstock to produce iso-paraffinic kerosene, through the production of sugar and subsequent patented proprietary fermentation and upgrading. To enhance the economic viability and reduce the environmental impacts of iso-paraffinic kerosene, two co-products, activated carbon and lignosulfonate, are simultaneously produced within the same bio-refinery. A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) is performed for the residual woody biomass-based bio-jet fuel and compared against the cradle-to-grave LCA of petroleum-based jet fuel. This paper also discusses the differences in the environmental impacts of the residual biomass-based bio-jet fuel using two different approaches, mass allocation and system expansion, to partition th...
This study was an update on the 2000 life-cycle inventory data on material and energy inputs asso... more This study was an update on the 2000 life-cycle inventory data on material and energy inputs associated with the production of 1 m 3 of glued-laminated (glulam) timbers produced in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) and the Southeast (SE) regions of the United States. This article looks at the cradle to gate for the entire glulam production processes, which include forest harvest, lamstock production, and glulam beam production. Data collected from glulam beam manufacturers in 2013 allowed for the development of a life-cycle assessment utilizing the product category rules for North American Structural and Architectural Wood Products so that the results from these analyses can be used for the development of environmental product declarations of glulam beams produced in the United States. Comparing the results of this study with the life-cycle assessment based on the 2000 survey data shows 30 percent reductions in global warming potential of glulam beams produced in both the PNW and the SE and reductions in the use of energy derived from fossil fuels by 40 percent in the PNW and SE. The overall net carbon sequestered in 1 m 3 of PNW glulam is equivalent to 938 kg of CO 2 and 1,038 kg of CO 2 in the SE. Utilizing techniques that reduced the use of electricity and minimizing the transportation distances of the raw materials and resins to the mill could help to further reduce the carbon footprint of the glulam beam manufacturing process. * This article is part of a series of nine articles updating and expanding on prior CORRIM (Consortium for Research on Renewable Industrial Materials, www.corrim.org) research by addressing many of the life-cycle assessment issues related to forestry and wood products in the United States. All articles are published in this issue of the Forest
Ethnocentrism Consumer ethnocentrism is defined in the marketing literature as the beliefs held b... more Ethnocentrism Consumer ethnocentrism is defined in the marketing literature as the beliefs held by consumers about the "appropriateness, indeed morality, of purchasing foreign made products" (Shimp and
Life-cycle assessment of redwood decking in the United States with a comparison to three other decking materials
ABSTRACT The goal of the study was to conduct a life-cycle inventory (LCI) of California redwood ... more ABSTRACT The goal of the study was to conduct a life-cycle inventory (LCI) of California redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) decking that would quantify the critical environmental impacts of decking from cradle to grave. Using that LCI data, a life-cycle assessment (LCA) was produced for redwood decking. The results were used to compare the environmental footprint of redwood decking to other decking materials that serve an equivalent function. The other materials examined include plastic (cellular PVC) and wood–plastic composites (WPCs) with recycled content varying from 0% and 100%.
Background: Sugar production via pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic feedstock, i... more Background: Sugar production via pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic feedstock, in this case softwood harvest residues, is a critical step in the biochemical conversion pathway towards drop-in biofuels. Mild bisulfite (MBS) pretreatment is an emerging option for the breakdown and subsequent processing of biomass towards fermentable sugars. An environmental assessment of this process is critical to discern its future sustainability in the ever-changing biofuels landscape. Results: The subsequent cradle-to-gate assessment of a proposed sugar production facility analyzes sugar made from woody biomass using MBS pretreatment across all seven impact categories (functional unit 1 kg dry mass sugar), with a specific focus on potential global warming and eutrophication impacts. The study found that the eutrophication impact (0.000201 kg N equivalent) is less than the impacts from conventional beet and cane sugars, while the global warming impact (0.353 kg CO 2 equivalent) falls within the range of conventional processes. Conclusions: This work discusses some of the environmental impacts of designing and operating a sugar production facility that uses MBS as a method of treating cellulosic forest residuals. The impacts of each unit process in the proposed facility are highlighted. A comparison to other sugar-making process is detailed and will inform the growing biofuels literature.
The United States (US) Lacey Act 2008 amendment (LAA) is a timber legality regulation that requir... more The United States (US) Lacey Act 2008 amendment (LAA) is a timber legality regulation that requires US importers to monitor and minimize the risk of illegally harvested wood products within their supply chains. This paper empirically examines the effect of the LAA on Chinese companies’ export costs to the US. The study uses 138 responses from two surveys in Shanghai, China, in 2013, i.e., 5 years after the LAA was implemented. Given the high proportion of zero export increase indicated by the Chinese companies, a zero-inflated ordered probit model was used to model Chinese companies’ export cost increases to the US. The research results demonstrate that pre-LAA raw material sourcing patterns are primary indicators of the respondents’ export cost increase to the US as a result of the LAA. From the results, it can be inferred that log and lumber importers from suspect regions are taking additional measures, by changing their procurement practices, to ensure the legality of their raw m...
Introduction This report presents the results of a survey of the Ghanaian wood processing industr... more Introduction This report presents the results of a survey of the Ghanaian wood processing industry that was conducted to obtain information related to the marketing of lesser-used tropical timber species. The survey questionnaire was developed in consultation with researchers at the Forestry Research Organization of Ghana who have been involved in evaluating the physical, mechanical, and processing characteristics of Ghanaian lesser-used species. A total of 68 surveys were administered to managers in the forest products industry during 1997 and a total of 48 usable questionnaires were returned. The final response rate for the survey in Ghana was 70.6 percent. Similar surveys were mailed out to importers and wholesalers of tropical hardwood products in the US and the UK/Ireland. The response rate obtained from the US was 68% , while the response rate from the UK/Ireland was 57.8%. This report provides information on the extent of use for fourteen Ghanaian lesser-used species, present...
The trade of softwood lumber between the US and Canada has historically been a contentious issue ... more The trade of softwood lumber between the US and Canada has historically been a contentious issue between the two countries. Since 1987, a variety of strategies have been implemented to regulate the trade of softwood lumber between the US and Canada and these regulatory efforts have usually contributed to increased lumber prices in the US (Fig. 1). The most recent of these bi-national agreements, the Softwood Lumber Agreement between the US and Canada, expired March 31 st , 2001. On April 2 nd the Coalition for Fair Lumber Imports (CFLI) filed two cases with the US Department of Commerce (USDOC) and the International Trade Commission (ITC) requesting that a 40% countervailing duty (CVD)as well as a 28%-38% antidumping duty (AD) be applied to all Canadian softwood lumber exports into the US. By May 2002 (announced on March 22 nd and implemented on May 22 nd), with its investigations complete, Commerce announced that the final CVD and AD duties would be set at 18.8% and 8.4% (anti-dumping duties ranged from 2.18% to 12.44%). Thus, as of May 22 nd , 2002 the total import duty imposed against Canadian softwood lumber was 27.2%. In response, Canada has to date filed a total of seven appeals against the softwood lumber duties; three using the dispute resolution process established within the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and four before the World Trade Organization (WTO). The remainder of this discussion paper will provide an update of the status of the NAFTA and WTO appeals as well as the status of negotiations between the US and Canada.
The forest estate in the Philippines has declined from approximately 52% of the total land area t... more The forest estate in the Philippines has declined from approximately 52% of the total land area to less than twenty percent over the past fifty years. In addition to the serious environmental and ecological implications that this trend presents, the loss of forest area has severely impacted the wood processing sector in the Philippines. Timber harvests have declined from 11 million m3 in 1970 to just 865,000 m3 in 1995. The resulting impact on the forest products industry has been rising lumber prices, raw material supply shortages, and a consolidation of the timber processing industry that has resulted in the loss of over 25,000 jobs since 1990. Over the past five years the Philippines has gone from being an exporter of primary forest products to a net importer. However, two recent developments that have tremendous potential for the forest products industry are: 1) the current focus on the establishment of industrial tree plantations and 2) the recognition that lesser-used tropical...
he unique characteristics of US softwood species are well suited to the demands of the Japanese m... more he unique characteristics of US softwood species are well suited to the demands of the Japanese market in general and Japanese post & beam home builders in particular.
Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), mostly found in west coast of North America, is a highly un... more Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), mostly found in west coast of North America, is a highly underutilized and lowvalue timber species, partially because of the presence of wet pockets, which makes wood processing challenging, especially when drying and sawing. The present work studies the modification of western hemlock using a hydrothermal process, which induced significant changes in the chemical structure and physical characteristics of the wood. The treatment caused the degradation of hemicellulose and reduced the quantity of adsorbed water and free hydroxyl groups. As a result, the wood became less hygroscopic and exhibited improved dimensional and thermal stability with a darker and more attractive color. The hydrothermally-induced variations in the wood structure also influenced its mechanical properties. Flexural bending tests revealed that the specific modulus of rupture and specific maximum load decreased after treatment, while the specific modulus of elasticity increased. In addition, the hydrothermal process was successful in eliminating case hardening, which is typically caused by residual compression stress during conventional kiln drying of wood. These results reveal that hydrothermal treatment is a promising method to expand utilization and develop value-added wood products using low quality wood, such as western hemlock.
International journal of molecular sciences, Jan 8, 2017
To reduce fire hazards and expand high-value applications of lignocellulosic materials, thin film... more To reduce fire hazards and expand high-value applications of lignocellulosic materials, thin films comprising graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs) and multi-wall carbon nanotubes (CNTs) pre-adsorbed with alkali lignin were deposited by a Meyer rod process. Lightweight and highly flexible papers with increased gas impermeability were obtained by coating a protective layer of carbon nanomaterials in a randomly oriented and overlapped network structure. Assessment of the thermal and flammability properties of papers containing as low as 4 wt % carbon nanomaterials exhibited self-extinguishing behavior and yielded up to 83.5% and 87.7% reduction in weight loss and burning area, respectively, compared to the blank papers. The maximum burning temperature as measured by infrared pyrometry also decreased from 834 °C to 705 °C with the presence of flame retardants. Furthermore, papers coated with composites of GnPs and CNTs pre-adsorbed with lignin showed enhanced thermal stability and superior fir...
Bio-jet fuels are emerging as a valuable alternative to petroleum-based fuels for their potential... more Bio-jet fuels are emerging as a valuable alternative to petroleum-based fuels for their potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel dependence. In this study, residual woody biomass from slash piles in the U.S. Pacific Northwest is used as a feedstock to produce iso-paraffinic kerosene, through the production of sugar and subsequent patented proprietary fermentation and upgrading. To enhance the economic viability and reduce the environmental impacts of iso-paraffinic kerosene, two co-products, activated carbon and lignosulfonate, are simultaneously produced within the same bio-refinery. A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) is performed for the residual woody biomass-based bio-jet fuel and compared against the cradle-to-grave LCA of petroleum-based jet fuel. This paper also discusses the differences in the environmental impacts of the residual biomass-based bio-jet fuel using two different approaches, mass allocation and system expansion, to partition th...
This study was an update on the 2000 life-cycle inventory data on material and energy inputs asso... more This study was an update on the 2000 life-cycle inventory data on material and energy inputs associated with the production of 1 m 3 of glued-laminated (glulam) timbers produced in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) and the Southeast (SE) regions of the United States. This article looks at the cradle to gate for the entire glulam production processes, which include forest harvest, lamstock production, and glulam beam production. Data collected from glulam beam manufacturers in 2013 allowed for the development of a life-cycle assessment utilizing the product category rules for North American Structural and Architectural Wood Products so that the results from these analyses can be used for the development of environmental product declarations of glulam beams produced in the United States. Comparing the results of this study with the life-cycle assessment based on the 2000 survey data shows 30 percent reductions in global warming potential of glulam beams produced in both the PNW and the SE and reductions in the use of energy derived from fossil fuels by 40 percent in the PNW and SE. The overall net carbon sequestered in 1 m 3 of PNW glulam is equivalent to 938 kg of CO 2 and 1,038 kg of CO 2 in the SE. Utilizing techniques that reduced the use of electricity and minimizing the transportation distances of the raw materials and resins to the mill could help to further reduce the carbon footprint of the glulam beam manufacturing process. * This article is part of a series of nine articles updating and expanding on prior CORRIM (Consortium for Research on Renewable Industrial Materials, www.corrim.org) research by addressing many of the life-cycle assessment issues related to forestry and wood products in the United States. All articles are published in this issue of the Forest
Ethnocentrism Consumer ethnocentrism is defined in the marketing literature as the beliefs held b... more Ethnocentrism Consumer ethnocentrism is defined in the marketing literature as the beliefs held by consumers about the "appropriateness, indeed morality, of purchasing foreign made products" (Shimp and
Life-cycle assessment of redwood decking in the United States with a comparison to three other decking materials
ABSTRACT The goal of the study was to conduct a life-cycle inventory (LCI) of California redwood ... more ABSTRACT The goal of the study was to conduct a life-cycle inventory (LCI) of California redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) decking that would quantify the critical environmental impacts of decking from cradle to grave. Using that LCI data, a life-cycle assessment (LCA) was produced for redwood decking. The results were used to compare the environmental footprint of redwood decking to other decking materials that serve an equivalent function. The other materials examined include plastic (cellular PVC) and wood–plastic composites (WPCs) with recycled content varying from 0% and 100%.
Background: Sugar production via pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic feedstock, i... more Background: Sugar production via pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic feedstock, in this case softwood harvest residues, is a critical step in the biochemical conversion pathway towards drop-in biofuels. Mild bisulfite (MBS) pretreatment is an emerging option for the breakdown and subsequent processing of biomass towards fermentable sugars. An environmental assessment of this process is critical to discern its future sustainability in the ever-changing biofuels landscape. Results: The subsequent cradle-to-gate assessment of a proposed sugar production facility analyzes sugar made from woody biomass using MBS pretreatment across all seven impact categories (functional unit 1 kg dry mass sugar), with a specific focus on potential global warming and eutrophication impacts. The study found that the eutrophication impact (0.000201 kg N equivalent) is less than the impacts from conventional beet and cane sugars, while the global warming impact (0.353 kg CO 2 equivalent) falls within the range of conventional processes. Conclusions: This work discusses some of the environmental impacts of designing and operating a sugar production facility that uses MBS as a method of treating cellulosic forest residuals. The impacts of each unit process in the proposed facility are highlighted. A comparison to other sugar-making process is detailed and will inform the growing biofuels literature.
The United States (US) Lacey Act 2008 amendment (LAA) is a timber legality regulation that requir... more The United States (US) Lacey Act 2008 amendment (LAA) is a timber legality regulation that requires US importers to monitor and minimize the risk of illegally harvested wood products within their supply chains. This paper empirically examines the effect of the LAA on Chinese companies’ export costs to the US. The study uses 138 responses from two surveys in Shanghai, China, in 2013, i.e., 5 years after the LAA was implemented. Given the high proportion of zero export increase indicated by the Chinese companies, a zero-inflated ordered probit model was used to model Chinese companies’ export cost increases to the US. The research results demonstrate that pre-LAA raw material sourcing patterns are primary indicators of the respondents’ export cost increase to the US as a result of the LAA. From the results, it can be inferred that log and lumber importers from suspect regions are taking additional measures, by changing their procurement practices, to ensure the legality of their raw m...
Introduction This report presents the results of a survey of the Ghanaian wood processing industr... more Introduction This report presents the results of a survey of the Ghanaian wood processing industry that was conducted to obtain information related to the marketing of lesser-used tropical timber species. The survey questionnaire was developed in consultation with researchers at the Forestry Research Organization of Ghana who have been involved in evaluating the physical, mechanical, and processing characteristics of Ghanaian lesser-used species. A total of 68 surveys were administered to managers in the forest products industry during 1997 and a total of 48 usable questionnaires were returned. The final response rate for the survey in Ghana was 70.6 percent. Similar surveys were mailed out to importers and wholesalers of tropical hardwood products in the US and the UK/Ireland. The response rate obtained from the US was 68% , while the response rate from the UK/Ireland was 57.8%. This report provides information on the extent of use for fourteen Ghanaian lesser-used species, present...
The trade of softwood lumber between the US and Canada has historically been a contentious issue ... more The trade of softwood lumber between the US and Canada has historically been a contentious issue between the two countries. Since 1987, a variety of strategies have been implemented to regulate the trade of softwood lumber between the US and Canada and these regulatory efforts have usually contributed to increased lumber prices in the US (Fig. 1). The most recent of these bi-national agreements, the Softwood Lumber Agreement between the US and Canada, expired March 31 st , 2001. On April 2 nd the Coalition for Fair Lumber Imports (CFLI) filed two cases with the US Department of Commerce (USDOC) and the International Trade Commission (ITC) requesting that a 40% countervailing duty (CVD)as well as a 28%-38% antidumping duty (AD) be applied to all Canadian softwood lumber exports into the US. By May 2002 (announced on March 22 nd and implemented on May 22 nd), with its investigations complete, Commerce announced that the final CVD and AD duties would be set at 18.8% and 8.4% (anti-dumping duties ranged from 2.18% to 12.44%). Thus, as of May 22 nd , 2002 the total import duty imposed against Canadian softwood lumber was 27.2%. In response, Canada has to date filed a total of seven appeals against the softwood lumber duties; three using the dispute resolution process established within the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and four before the World Trade Organization (WTO). The remainder of this discussion paper will provide an update of the status of the NAFTA and WTO appeals as well as the status of negotiations between the US and Canada.
The forest estate in the Philippines has declined from approximately 52% of the total land area t... more The forest estate in the Philippines has declined from approximately 52% of the total land area to less than twenty percent over the past fifty years. In addition to the serious environmental and ecological implications that this trend presents, the loss of forest area has severely impacted the wood processing sector in the Philippines. Timber harvests have declined from 11 million m3 in 1970 to just 865,000 m3 in 1995. The resulting impact on the forest products industry has been rising lumber prices, raw material supply shortages, and a consolidation of the timber processing industry that has resulted in the loss of over 25,000 jobs since 1990. Over the past five years the Philippines has gone from being an exporter of primary forest products to a net importer. However, two recent developments that have tremendous potential for the forest products industry are: 1) the current focus on the establishment of industrial tree plantations and 2) the recognition that lesser-used tropical...
he unique characteristics of US softwood species are well suited to the demands of the Japanese m... more he unique characteristics of US softwood species are well suited to the demands of the Japanese market in general and Japanese post & beam home builders in particular.
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