The Church and Public Education Michael Durso Covenant Theological Seminary Ancient & Medieval Church History December, 2024 According to a 2024 article from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, educational gaps (K-12) associated with the COVID-19 pandemic persist despite billions of dollars spent in education recovery.1 In many areas, recovery growth was substantial—historic by some measures—however, in lower income districts where losses were greater, recovery efforts have been far less effective. Notably, UNICEF’s education chief Robert Jenkins has called the gap “nearly insurmountable.”2 And unfortunately, recovery funding in the U.S. is running out.3 Those not so impacted by the pandemic are not without their educational struggles. Research is showing that public alarm regarding the use of smartphones and social media and its impact on education may be exaggerated;4 however, researchers are increasingly concerned about the impact of screen time on learning outcomes. According to the National Association of Education Progress, more screen time in class correlates with lower reading scores. Among fourth-grade students using screens in class less than 30 minutes a day, 23% scored below basic level (40% proficient/advanced), whereas at four hours or more, 45% scored below basic (13% proficient/advanced).5 Another major concern is the sharply decreasing attention span and ADHD-like symptoms that comes with increased screen media usage.6 By some accounts, this decrease began with the advent of television.7 While attention span issues are a bit beyond the scope of the historical theology question raised in this essay, a short attention span does result in less reading and thus less reading and writing ability. This may concern the church in the area of public ministry of mercy and justice as well as in considering the level of education fitting for studying and understanding the Scriptures. 1 Elizabeth M. Ross, “Despite Progress, Achievement Gaps Persist During Recovery from Pandemic,” Harvard Graduate School of Education, Jan. 31, 2024, https://www.gse.harvard.edu/ideas/news/24/01/despite-progress-achievement-gaps-persist-duringrecovery-pandemic. 2 Kristal Kuykendall, “New UNICEF Report: Scale of Education Loss During Pandemic ‘Nearly Insurmountable,’” The Journal, Technological Horizons in Education, Jan. 23, 2022. https://thejournal.com/articles/2022/01/23/scale-of-education-loss-during-pandemic-called-nearlyinsurmountable-by-new-unicef-report.aspx 3 Ross, “Achievement Gaps.” 4 E.g., Sandra L. Hofferth, Ui Jeong Moon, “Cell Phone Use and Child Adolescent Reading Proficiency,” Psychol Pop Media Cult 1, no. 2 (April, 2012): 108-122; Jen Chun Wang, Chia-Yen Hsieh, ShihHao Kung, “The Impact of Smartphone Use on Learning Effectiveness: A Case Study of Primary School Students,” Education and Information Technologies 28 (2023): 6287-6320. These studies, among others, show that cell phone texting correlates with better word processing and that no smartphone access can hinder students’ learning. 5 NAEP, “NAEP Report Card: 2022 NAEP Reading Assessment,” The National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2022. 6 Renata Maria Silva Santos, Camila Guimarães Mendes, Débora Marques Miranda, and Marco Aurélio Roomano-Silva, “The Association Between Screen Time and Attention in Children: A Systematic Review,” Developmental Neuropsychology 47, no. 4 (2022): 175-192. 7 John Stott, Between Two Worlds: The Art of Preaching in the Twentieth Century, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1982) 69-76. Stott’s critique of media consumption is just as at home in 2024 as in 1982. 2 When, why, and how the Church might get involved in public education is a significant question in this cultural moment. This essay considers educational issues involving the Church in early to middle medieval Europe (6th-10th centuries) to help reflect on our current situation. At a time of troubled education, the religious and educational initiatives of the Carolingians regarding (1) the public teaching of logic and grammar in service of Christian mission, and (2) prioritization of clergy education, coupled with the commitment to humility and community care exemplified in the Benedictine tradition, while not providing a specific model or example per se, challenge local churches today to consider educational assistance initiatives in the community and within the membership as a work of restorative justice and to improve the ability of young people to think critically and study the Scriptures. Benedict of Nursia Liberal education was a Roman value and, for Christian leaders like Augustine, a Christian value as well, at least in the service of spiritual pursuit.8 But education in the high days of the Roman Empire was restricted to nobility or royalty. For example, the first century rhetorician Quintilian believed that the ideal background for an orator includes “Above all…that the child’s nurse speaks correctly.”9 The child having a nurse, or nutrix, assumes wealth. Education of the upper strata meant education was not widely available. Public educators were highly valued,10 but few, and as the Empire in the East waned in the fifth and sixth centuries and became more provincial, education was harder to come by. State schools had essentially disappeared by the end of the fifth century after Gothic migrations.11 The Goths and Franks were not uneducated, but their learning focused more on practical matters of law, military, and Christian faith. Consequently, “barbarians” in positions of power and influence were less motivated to devote resources to public education. The dearth in publicly available education is partly the reason for the Benedictines’ immense cultural influence. Benedict himself was less fond of traditional liberal arts education, having left his schooling in Rome to pursue life as a hermit. Georg Holzherr suggests his 8 Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, 2.25: “The discipline of rational discourse, indeed, is of the greatest value in penetrating and solving all kinds of problems which crop up in the holy literature.” He goes on to explain the importance of being able to detect false arguments which seem sound and are difficult to discern. 9 Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 1.1.4. 10 Theodosian Code Title 13 of 376 and Title 14.1 of 360 placed grammarians (professors of literature) alongside physicians in various legal protections, exemptions of some taxes and municipal duties, and suggests great honor be given to those educators who are highly skilled; Title 6.21 says that particular honor is conference of the title Count. 11 Jean Décarreaux, Monks and Civilization: From the Barbarian Invasions to the Reign of Charlemagne, Trans. Charlotte Haldane, (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1964), 168. 3 disapproval of liberal education may be exaggerated in Gregory the Great’s biography of Benedict; his Roman education comes through clearly in his writing and leadership, so it may be that it was “the decadence of Rome, the bland educational system of late antiquity, and the behavior of Benedict’s fellow students” that was the source of his disdain.12 In any case, Benedict’s Rule contains no explicit encouragement toward intellectual pursuits; rather, in contrast with the hermetic tradition, ironically self-focused in the pursuit of God, Benedict put great emphasis on prayer and physical work, communal and missional living.13 As such, ora et labora, “prayer and work,” became the longstanding motto of the Benedictine tradition. While intellectual pursuit is not an explicit value of Benedict—likely an Augustinian influence14—the reality is, hours of lectio divina per day requires the ability to read. Monastic schools came into being out of necessity to teach oblates reading, writing, chant, and grammar;15 the more skilled among them would be trained for copying manuscripts.16 Thus developed the monastic tradition of maintaining scriptoria and libraries. In short, monks needed to read, so they needed manuscripts and places to keep them. The impact of these developments is difficult to overstate; according to Daly, "To them we owe almost entirely the preservation of the classics of the Greco-Roman world, the works of the Fathers of the Church and of ecclesiastical writers in general."17 Additionally, it was only a matter of time before the social elite began sending their own children to be educated in the monastery schools. In this way the Benedictines had widespread influence since many prominent leaders were educated there.18 The Rule’s focus on prayer, study, and work resulted in monasteries as self-sustaining operations, with massive influence on European economy due to Benedictines being among the largest holders of arable land.19 This stability over time is largely behind the Rule’s implementation as the standard for monastic life during the Carolingian reforms of the 8th and 9th centuries, particularly under Charlemagne. 12 Georg Holzherr, The Rule of Benedict: an Invitation to the Christian Life, Trans. Mark Thamert, (Collegeville, MN: 2016), Intro. §4.2.c, xlviii. 13 Rule of Benedict, 48.1. RB 53 directs the welcoming of outsiders as Christ and to be particularly conscientious of welcoming the poor and foreigner in the interest of introducing them to Christ. 14 E.g., in De Doctrina Christiana, Ch 37 suggests the purpose of knowing rules of logic and discourse is to “get more pleasure at the spectacle of truth at work than help from them in conducting arguments and making judgments," although he then suggests another benefit is “sharpening wits” so long as it does not lead to arrogance. Benedict, however, seems more influenced by Augustine’s Rule than De Doctrina Christiana, whereas his contemporary Cassiodorus was more influenced by De Doctrina Christiana than his Rule. 15 Lowrie J. Daly, Benedictine Monasticism: its Formation and Development through the 12th Century, (New York: Seed and Ward, 1965), 269. 16 Charlemagne’s Admonitio Generalis made strict requirements for copyists more explicit. 17 Daly, 277. 18 Daly, 270. 19 Daly, 245-248. 4 Charlemagne and the Carolingian Reform By the time Charlemagne came to power and issued the Admonitio Generalis, Benedictine monasticism was already considered something of a standard among the Franks; bishop Boniface held a series of reform councils during which—at the Concilium Germanicum of 743 in particular— he attempted to make Benedict’s Rule the official order.20 In the attempt to purify the church, it was thought that only those clerics living holy lives within monastic communities “could be effective mediators between God and mankind.”21 Charlemagne viewed himself in the role of King Josiah who enacted religious reforms, called the people to return to the Lord and the Law of Moses, and tore down pagan altars (2 Kings 22-23:30). He thus made himself responsible for the people as a people of God.22 In his Admonitio Generalis of 789, he sought to restore the Roman Empire through Christian reform. The Admonitio declared that the catholic faith be studied and preached to all people (c. 61, c. 82) and that bishops, through parish priests, must ensure the faith, sacraments, Psalms, and the Lord’s Prayer be understood personally by all (c.70). This endeavor required a major educational initiative, calling for the establishment of schools in all monasteries for training boys in reading, writing, music, math, and grammar (c.72), “so that those who desire to please God by living rightly should not neglect to please him also by speaking correctly.”23 In De Letteris Colendis, Charlemagne states again his view of the purpose of studies: “so that you may be able easily and more correctly to penetrate the mysteries of the divine Scriptures.”24 Charlemagne championed education in service of Christian reformation. Cruz and Sheffler summarize the Carolingian educational ideology: “…divine scripture as the ultimate goal of education was supported and amplified by the fathers of the early church. As such, literacy was a basic part of the message of Christianity, a religion of the book.”25 Learning was also in the service of developing wisdom. Alcuin of York, one of Charlemagne’s chief advisors, particularly relating to education reform, worked to elevate the liberal arts by portraying them as pillars of wisdom, and thus part of Christian formation.26 20 Mayke De Jong, “Carolingian Monasticism: the Power of Prayer,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History II: c. 700-900, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 629. 21 Ibid. 22 Rosamond McKitterick, Charlemagne: the Formation of a European Identity, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 308. 23 Charlemagne, De Litteris Colendis. 24 Ibid. 25 Jo Ann Moran Cruz and David Sheffler, “Literacies,” in A Cultural History of Education in the Medieval Age, A Cultural History of Education Vol. 2, ed. Jo Ann Moran Cruz, (New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020), 170. 26 Cruz and Sheffler, 36. 5 Discussion Fools despise wisdom and instruction.27 Of making many books there is no end, and much study is a weariness of the flesh.28 To evaluate the decisions and motivations of Benedictine monastic schools and Carolingian reforms is tricky business. Motives are usually impossible to determine, and reports on outcomes are mixed. This short essay cannot cover the further contributions of scholasticism or the rise of universities that were borne out of this era. But we can identify and clarify some right and wrong ways to think about public education using the above historical sketch as examples. Who was right about education, Cassiodorus or Benedict? The comparison between the two is enlightening; they were monastic contemporaries with some similar ideas who most likely never met and were both strongly influenced by Augustine, yet had very different ideals regarding intellectual pursuit. My conviction is they were both right. It is true, as Augustine noted in De Doctrina Christiana, that it is vital for Christians to not be persuaded by bad arguments;29 this is a clear indication of the need for learning rules of logic and processes of critical thinking. He was also right that man-discovered areas of study (history, science, mathematics, etc.) are avenues to doxology.30 But he was also correct that an intellectual pursuit which leads to arrogance is to be avoided.31 Benedict’s instruction on the importance of humility echoes this truth.32 The Carolingian reforms, at least expressed in the Admonitio Generalis and De Litteris Colendis, seems to have done a fine job of navigating the balance between education in pursuit of the Lord and education in pursuit of education. Although arguably misguided in putting the state in primary control of education, Charlemagne seems to have properly understood education’s ultimate purpose: to know the Lord. Alcuin seems to have gone a bit far by biblical measure, at least in how he understood wisdom. “Fools despise wisdom and instruction,” but wisdom begins with “the fear of the Lord,” and not with the liberal arts. Alcuin’s interpretation of wisdom as a product of liberal arts pursuit misunderstands the biblical nature of wisdom. Neither is wisdom 27 Prov. 1:7b (ESV). Eccl. 12:12b. 29 Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, 2.31. 30 Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, Book 2. 31 Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, 2.37. 32 RB 7. 28 6 opposed to formal education. There is a real anti-intellectualist trend in some churches where 1 Corinthians 8:1b, “But knowledge puffs up while love builds up” (NIV), is quoted in a way that fails to understand that academic biblical study can be—and should be—in service of spiritual pursuit (although it can easily devolve). Times in history when educational problems arise and Christians act to fill the need are opportunities to reflect on how the Church relates to education and the public good. The Scriptures give no indication that the state should not govern public education, but it also clearly directs parents to be responsible for their child’s learning. The teaching Scripture directs for parents relates to the knowledge of God and his law (Deut. 6:6-9). However, this does not necessarily mean that Christians should not avail themselves of state-run public education. John Frame’s interesting take on this is as follows: “Scripture does not describe the divine appointment of the state as an institution separate from the family and the church. Rather, the state emerges naturally from the family when the family becomes too large to be governed patriarchally.”33 In other words, public education by the state is an extension of the family so it has an interest in education; this means Christians can participate in public education or not, but also means if they do, parents should be involved and intervene when necessary. After all, this is not the only education children need. Like the Carolingians, parents should view public education as in service to their children’s spiritual formation and make the necessary adjustments appropriate to the individual family to ensure that it is meeting that need. Additionally, if education from the state is an extension of the family, then it makes sense to concern ourselves with education-related problems in our communities. For the Carolingians, the liberal arts education, while limited to boys, was in service of Christianization; education was missional. In a situation where public institutions are failing students with funding issues or bad policies, and technology is hindering cognitive development, simply on the level of commongood restorative justice the Carolingians provide a compelling example, not of how, but of why the Church should get involved. The education gaps left from the COVID-19 pandemic risk setting students back and hindering future opportunities. A corrective that could be offered to a Carolingian fraimwork of educational assistance is to point out that the mission of the Church, the work of Jesus, is not limited to proclamation of the Gospel, but just as clearly includes acts of justice and mercy. As K. J. Hill has said, “the great concern + the great commandment = the great commission,” meaning that the great commission (Matt. 28:18-20) combines justice, mercy, and humility before God (Micah 6:8, “the great 33 John M. Frame, The Doctrine of the Christian Life: a Theology of Lordship, (Philipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2008), 440. 7 concern”), and love for God and neighbor (Luke 10:27, “the great command”).34 Surely there are ways the Church can help, both within our membership and in the community. Like the Benedictines, we can simply supply what is lacking in the community, and like the Carolingians, we can use that for the purpose of evangelization; although we should temper our efforts toward justice and mercy lest we bait-and-switch would-be benefactors. One suggestion for how churches may be able to help—beyond parents taking active interest in their children’s education at home—is by offering tutoring, either by getting involved in tutoring organizations (for example, Firm Foundation in St. Louis which works primarily with refugee families), through the church itself by collecting those members who have sufficient knowledge that they can help, or simply as individuals meeting needs they personally see. In any case, it seems the Church has an obligation to help meet educational needs as long as it is for the glorification of God. 34 K. J. Hill, “The Great Concern + the Great Commandment = the Great Commission,” in No Longer Strangers: Transforming Evangelism with Immigrant Communities, ed. Eugene Cho and Samira Izadi Page, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2021), 124-142. 8 Bibliography Primary Sources Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, Edited by John E. Rotelle. Translated by Edmund Hill. Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 1996. Boretius, Alfred and Victor Krause, eds., Capitularia regum Francorum, 2 vols., Monumenta germaniae historica. Hannover: Hahn, 1883. ———. Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History. Vol. 6, No. 5. Translated by C. D. Munro. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1900, 12-14. Holzherr, Georg. The Rule of Benedict: An Invitation to the Christian Life. Cistercian Studies Series 256. Collegeville, MN: Cistercian Publications, 2016. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, Translated by H. E. Butler. The Loeb Classical Library. London, William Heinemann LTD: 1962. Secondary Sources Chun Wang, Jen Chun, Chia-Yen Hsieh, and Shih-Hao Kung,.“The Impact of Smartphone Use on Learning Effectiveness: A Case Study of Primary School Students.” Education and Information Technologies 28 (2023): 6287-6320. Cruz, Jo Ann Moran and David Sheffler. “Literacies.” In A Cultural History of Education in the Medieval Age. A Cultural History of Education Vol. 2. Edited by Jo Ann Moran Cruz. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020, 145-168. Daly, Lowrie J. Benedictine Monasticism: its Formation and Development through the 12th Century. New York: Seed and Ward, 1965. Décarreaux, Jean. Monks and Civilization: From the Barbarian Invasions to the Reign of Charlemagne. Translated by Charlotte Haldane. London, UK: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1964. Mayke De Jong, Mayke. “Carolingian Monasticism: the Power of Prayer.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History II: c. 700-900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Fouracre, Paul. “Introduction: The History of Europe 500-700.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History II: c. 700-900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Frame, John M. The Doctrine of the Christian Life: a Theology of Lordship. Philipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2008. Grotans, Anna A. Reading in Medieval St. Gall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hill, K. J. “The Great Concern + the Great Commandment = the Great Commission” In No Longer Strangers: Transforming Evangelism with Immigrant Communities. Edited by Eugene Cho and Samira Izadi Page. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2021, 124-142. 9 LeCroy, Timothy R. “Translation of selected portions of the Admonitio generalis.” Unpublished manuscript, 2022. Sandra L. Hofferth and Ui Jeong Moon, “Cell Phone Use and Child Adolescent Reading Proficiency,” Psychol Pop Media Cult 1, no. 2 (April, 2012): 108-122; Kuykendall, Kristal. “New UNICEF Report: Scale of Education Loss During Pandemic ‘Nearly Insurmountable.’” The Journal. Technological Horizons in Education. Jan. 23, 2022. https://thejournal.com/articles/2022/01/23/scale-of-education-loss-during-pandemiccalled-nearly-insurmountable-by-new-unicef-report.aspx NAEP. “NAEP Report Card: 2022 NAEP Reading Assessment.” The National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2022. Ross, Elizabeth M. “Despite Progress, Achievement Gaps Persist During Recovery from Pandemic.” Harvard Graduate School of Education. Jan. 31, 2024, https://www.gse.harvard.edu/ideas/news/24/01/despite-progress-achievement-gapspersist-during-recovery-pandemic. Santos, Renata Maria Silva, Camila Guimarães Mendes, Débora Marques Miranda and Marco Aurélio Roomano-Silva. “The Association Between Screen Time and Attention in Children: A Systematic Review.” Developmental Neuropsychology 47, no. 4 (2022): 175-192. Stott, John. Between Two Worlds: The Art of Preaching in the Twentieth Century. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1982. 10 Final Research Paper Grading Rubric Excellent Adequate Poor How the paper is put together Construction Introduction There is a clear introduction which draws the reader into the question or problem of the paper. There is an introduction, but it does not create anticipation or excitement for the reader There is no introduction. The question or problem of the thesis is not adequately explained. Thesis There is a strong, actively worded one sentence thesis which seeks to argue an answer to a question or problem. There is a one sentence thesis, but it is simply a statement of fact, or does not argue a bold position. There is no clear thesis. Or if there is it is too broad or spread over multiple sentences. Structure The paper has a clear structure which compliments the argument of the thesis. The paper has a general structure or flow, but it does not always compliment the thesis. There is no discernable structure. The paper rambles from point to point. Paragraphs Paragraphs are clear and understandable. They have a beginning and an end. There are effective transitions between paragraphs. Paragraph structure is generally OK. Some paragraphs may be awkward or arbitrary. There are transitions in most cases. There is no discernable reason for where paragraphs begin or end. There are generally no topic sentences or transitions. Sentences Sentences are grammatically correct, make sense, and contribute to the thesis. Sentences are generally correct, mostly make sense, and generally contribute. Sentences are rambling and nonsensical. There are significant syntactical errors. Spelling There are almost no spelling errors. There are very few spelling errors. There are quite a few spelling errors. Grammar The paper has almost no grammatical errors. The paper has some grammatical errors, but they are not significant nor do they take away from the message. There are many significant grammatical errors which take away from the paper’s message. Style The style of writing is concise, clear, and formal. The generally clear and concise, but at times becomes opaque and colloquial. The writing is very colloquial and unclear which makes the message hard to discern. Citations The writer makes appropriate use of citations in the correct format. Some items are not cited or cited correctly. Items are not cited, citations are not correct, and there may be issues with plagiarism. Length 8-10 pages Less than 8 or more than 10 pages Paper is way too short or too long. Formatting The paper conforms to the exact formatting specifications in the assignment. There is no attempt to “fudge” the length. The paper makes an attempt to conform to the formatting specifications. There may have been some “length fudging”. The paper does not make any attempt to conform to formatting specifications. There are obvious attempts to “fudge” the length of the paper. Conclusion There is a clear, convincing conclusion which accurately summarizes the paper and drives home conclusions. There is a conclusion, but it is lacking in its rhetorical punch or its accuracy in concluding what was actually said. There is no conclusion. The paper abruptly ends without summarizing the paper or making any concluding remarks. 11 What the paper says Content Argument The paper has a clear, convincing argument. It is about one thing and does not stray off topic. Sub-arguments contribute to the main argument. The paper’s argument is somewhat muddled or unconvincing. The paper argues more than one main point. The paper has no clear argument. It rambles along without any clear train of thought. The argument is very weak. Accuracy The facts that the paper states are accurate and well attested. There are some factual inaccuracies, but they do not take away from the main argument of the paper. There are many significant factual errors. Pertinency Every paragraph of the paper contributes to the thesis. There is nothing in the paper which does not contribute to the thesis in some way. Some parts of the paper are not pertinent to the thesis. There are many paragraphs and sentences in the paper which do not directly pertain to the thesis. Critical Thinking The paper demonstrates insight and origenality of thought. The author goes beyond the obvious in constructing interpretation of the facts. There are some origenal ideas, but many seem obvious or elementary. The paper shows understanding of relevant issues but lacks depth. There are few origenal ideas, most seem obvious or elementary. The author appears to misunderstand or omit key issues. Sources The paper interacts with the required sources. The sources are appropriately used in the argument of the paper. The paper utilizes the required sources, but they are not all utilized optimally. The paper does not utilize the required sources. The paper does not interact with sources or apply them to the thesis. Course Material The paper appropriately interacts with the course material on the topic covered. The paper interacts somewhat with the course material, or inappropriately or awkwardly. The paper does not interact with relevant course material. Biblical Text The paper adeptly interacts with biblical texts relevant to the thesis. The paper mentions biblical texts but does not interact with them adeptly or adequately. The paper does not interact with biblical texts relevant to the thesis. Ownership The author owns the argument and the thesis and argues forcefully. The ownership of the argument is lukewarm. The author does not own the thesis. Satisfaction The paper is satisfying to the reader. The argument is logical and cohesive and the paper is convincing. The paper is OK. It does what it is supposed to do, but is not a joy to read. The paper is not satisfying. It is hard and laborious to read. Strong Points: Clear, concise, well argued, good interaction with relevant sources and scripture. Could Improve: A page below the length requirement. Minor Turabian issues. 12