Fiber Optic Bragg Grating-Based Sensing

Presented by
Michael D. Todd, Ph.D.
Structural Engineering Department
University of California San Diego

Fiber: Cylindrical Optical Waveguide

If medium 1 index is larger than medium 2 index, and the incident angle is large enough,
then total internal reflection occurs: wave will not transmit into medium 2, and this is
the basis for how an optical waveguide works
Optical fibers are cylindrical dielectric waveguides:
core
glass-based (silica,
fluoride, chalcogenide)
n~1.44 (1.31-1.55 mm)
8-980 mm in diameter

cladding
glass-based or plastic-based
n<1.44
125-1000 mm in diameter

coating/jacketing
plastic (acrylate, polyimide)
for protection, mechanical strength

Optical fibers are characterized by the normalized frequency V:

2 a 2
2
V < 2.405 single mode
V=
ncore ncladding

V > 2.405 multi-mode

Component Integration: General Sensing System

photodetection
optical
source

sensing
mechanism

intensity
modulation
~30 cm
interferometry

Bragg gratings

electronic
processing
(non-optical)

Intrinsic Local Sensor: Bragg Grating

A fiber Bragg grating is region of periodic refractive index perturbation inscribed in the core
of an optical fiber such that it diffracts the propagating optical signal at specific wavelengths.
fiber
core

refractive index modulation period, T

Each time the forward-propagating light encounters a stripe (index mismatch), some is
scattered (diffracted)
Scattered light accrues in certain directions if a phase-matching condition is satisfied:
in particular, at the resonant wavelength given by lr=2nT, light is reflected backward in
phase with previous back-reflections such that a strong reflection mode at wavelength
lr is generated

Bragg Grating Fabrication

optical fiber
outer cladding

coherent ultraviolet beam

at wavelength ref = 244 nm

fiber core
(Ge-doped)

grating period T

modulation of
refraction index
(Bragg grating)

nUV
ref = 2nT =
sin( /2 )
This photosensitivity occurs because electronic absorptions in silica materials are in this UV
regime; this effect is enhanced with Ge-doping through Ge sub-oxide defect production
Defects leads to refraction index change (Kramers-Kronig relations)

Bragg Gratings Act as Optical Notch Filters

cladding

broadband light
inserted here

grating

core
light at wavelength l is reflected
FWHM of the reflection peak is
typically 0.1-0.3 nm

transmission
intensity

l = 2nT

wavelength

reflection
intensity

typical LED source

spectrum (input)

if the fiber is locally stretched or

compressed, T changes, meaning
l changes
gratings may be multiplexed in the
wavelength domain by initially
writing each grating to reflect at a
unique wavelength
sensor system must track individual
wavelength shifts

wavelength

Grating Interrogation: WDM

1550
SLED

Mach-Zehnder
interferometer

piezoelectric
element

4-channel WDM splitter

phase generated carrier/

active homodyne

carrier modulation signal (~20 kHz)

#
4

1550
SLED

Grating Interrogation: Tunable Filters

tunable fiber
Fabry-Perot
filter

photodetector

tunable
acousto-optic
filter

Grating Interrogation: Tunable Filters

photodetector
tunable fiber
Fabry-Perot
filter

tunable
acousto-optic
filter

x
driving signal

d/dt

driving signal

wavelength

VCO
zero-crossing
detector

driving signal

voltage

voltage to
wavelength
conversion

compare

counter

Grating Interrogation: CCD Array

1550
SLED

sensing array
pixel
array

spectrometer

scanning signal

centroid
calculation
linear CCD
collimating lens plane grating
(bulk optics)
(1200 lines/mm)

(a)

FBG
RSG

strain "!!#

800

free vibrations

0
-800

manual beam manipulations

-1600
0

time (s)

12

detector output (V)

radians

6
0
-6

(b)
50

-50

-50

-100
-150
2
0.01

-100
4 6

4 6

0.1
1
frequency (Hz)

0.05

0.10
time (s)

0.15

0.20

10
4

4
0

2
0

-4

-2
-8

-4
-12
0.00

4 6

0.80

0.85

0.90
time (s)

0.95

1.00

demodulated phase (rad)

(d)

(c)

50

spectral density (dB re !!/Hz1/2)

1600

spectral density (dB re rad/Hz1/2)

Key Performance Results

Compensation Performance Results

(a) 30

(c)

60

compensated
o

temperature ( C)

strain !"!#

15
0
-15

40

20

uncompensated
-30
0

10
time (hours)

15

0
250

(b) 300

compensated
compensated
strain !"!#

strain !"!#

150
0

0
uncompensated
-250

-150
uncompensated
-500

-300
0

5
10
time (hours)

15

2
3
time (hours)

Primary FBG System Performance Comparison

Metric

SFP

Dynamic resolution 100

(ne/Hz1/2)
Scanning rate
(Hz)

AOTF

WDM

<200

<5

0-360 0-40K

Muxing capability High

Main advantage

easy
to build

Main disadvantage

filter
limits

3x3
<10

MEMS

CCD

<10

50

100-20K 0-20K 0-100K 0-20K

Med

Low

High High+

High+

scan
rate

noise
floor

overall overall
perf.
perf.

parallel
detection

pass-
band

hard
to mux

drift
comp.

com-
ponents

drift.
comp.

Transducers: Measuring Things Other Than Strain

Fiber interferometers and Bragg gratings may be coupled with mechanical transducers to detect
other measurands besides strain:
interferometric
accelerometers

interferometric
magnetic field sensor

Bragg grating
accelerometer

biological agent
setection sensor

Deployment Examples

I-10 bridge

Norwegian surface-effect ship

I-10 Traffic/Bridge Monitoring

78 sensors
9-month continuous
monitoring
data remote link
1 and 2 sensor
configuration

3 sensor
configuration

underside of top flange

web
(except in 1 sensor config.)

instrumented
span
my rental
car

web

underside of bottom flange

(all configurations)

I-10 Results: Time/Frequency and Modal Analysis

200.0
100.0
0.0
-100.0

2.5 Hz

-200.0
0

10

15

20

25

30

10

15

20

25

30

200.0
100.0
0.0
-100.0

3.68 Hz

-200.0
200.0
100.0
0.0
-100.0

3.92 Hz

-200.0
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

6.00
70

5.00

60
4.00

50
40

3.00

4.72 Hz

30

2.00

20
10

1.00

0.00
0

30

8.2 Hz

I-10 Traffic Monitoring

count

72 day period; Nov. to Jan.

2000

posted speed limit = 55 MPH

load level

vehicle weights

vehicle count

1500

1000

500

0
40

50
60
70
speed (mph)

80
12K-33K lbf

day

count

Instrumentation of Surface-Effect Fast Patrol Boat

Final system deployment

on the KNM Skjold fast patrol boat
56 sensor system
mounted on inner hull and
on waterjet

Surface-effect fast patrol boat

Real-time local strain and

global load monitoring

4000
2000

Wave
slamming
event

0
-2000
-4000
400

410

420
Time (s)

430

Real-Time Hull Loads Display

1000

whipping

strain (microstrain)

A1

T
normal

fa,b,e = (Tnormal)-1E

T
shear

fc,d = (Tshear)-1E

A3
C1

a)
-1000
280

measured
time series

sagg/hogg motion

284

288
292
Time (s)

296

300

wave impact
event

hull planar
strain state

stress
calculations

Other Application Areas

SPIE Smart Structures/NDE Conference (March, San Diego)
always has sessions on composites and aerospace applications
In 2003: 68 papers on fiber optic sensors/applications
In 2004: 76 papers on fiber optic sensors/applications
Composite materials area
measuring crack-bridging forces (EPFI, NC State)
delamination identification (lots of people)
impact load detection/identification (lots of people)
transverse load and strain gradient monitoring (Blue Road,
UK, Sweden)

Other Application Areas (Continued)

Aerospace structures and embedded sensing

corrosion monitoring (China, USA)
CFRP wing monitoring (Airbus, DaimlerChrysler)
MEMS accelerometers, pressure, temperature sensors
(USA, Japan)
FRP aircraft tail monitoring (Airbus, DaimlerChrysler)
composite component process monitoring
These examples taken from these references:

[1] Daniele Inaudi and Eric Udd (eds.), Proc. SPIE Smart Sensor Technology and Measurement Systems,
vol. 4694, Int. Soc. for Optical Engineering (Bellingham, WA), 2002.
[2] Richard Claus and William Sillman, J. (eds.), Proc. SPIE Sensory Phenomena and Measurement Instrumentationfor Smart Structures and Materials, vol. 3986,Int. Soc. for Optical Engineering (Bellingham, WA), 2000.
[3] G. Mignani and H. C. Lefevre (eds.), Proc. 14th Int. Conf. on Optical Fiber Sensors, SPIE vol. 4185, CNR
(Florence, Italy), 2000.

Fiber Sensor Advantages

Fiber is ~125 microns,
adding negligible weight
and space to application

Built-in telemetry
eliminates invasive
wiring

Fiber Sensor Advantages

Fiber sensors are immune to electromagnetic interference and wont create a spark source.

Bragg grating rosette

composite
hull

Resistive gage rosette

Fiber Sensor Disadvantages

lack of commercialization, particularly at the system level
(a stand-alone box thats plug-and-play)
cost per sensor is high for FBGs (~$100 per sensor),
BUT cost per channel is competitive
fiber size (128 micron or even 80 micron) may lead to
possible delamination sites for embedded applications
-56 micron single mode fiber now available!
for FBGs, severe strain gradients over gage length may
cause chirping leading to loss of signal
serialization causes risk: loss of one FBG sensor in an
array leads to loss of all downstream sensors
-can be partially compensated for in design

Further Reading
Jose Miguel Lopez-Higuera (ed.), Handbook of Optical Fibre Sensing Technology,
John Wiley and Sons Ltd. (Chichester, UK), 2002.
Eric Udd (ed.), Fiber Optic Sensors: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers,
Wiley Interscience (New York), 1991.
Alan Kersey et al., Fiber Grating Sensors, Journal of Lightwave Technology, 15,
1442-1463, 1997.
Ken Hill and Gerry Meltz, Fiber Grating Technology Fundamentals and Overview,
Journal of Lightwave Technology, 15, 1263-1276, 1997.
Brian Culshaw and John Dakin (ed.), Inteferometers in Optical Fiber Sensors: Systems
And Applications, Vol. 2, Arctech House (Norwood, MA), 1989.
T. S. Yu and S. Yin (eds.), Fiber Optic Sensors, Marcel Dekker Inc. (New York), 2002.

Extra Slides

Optical Sources: Light-Emitting Diodes

Edge-emitting LED (ELED)

Surface-emitting LED (SLED)
LEDs are semiconductor devices that emit incoherent light, through spontaneous emission,
when electrical current is passed through them
Fabrication materials are typically GaAs and AlGaAs (850 nm) and InGaAsP (1330-1550 nm)
SLEDs used for short-distance (0-3 km), lower bit rate (<250 Mb/s) systems, ELEDs for
large distance, higher bit rate systems
ELEDs more sensitive to temperature fluctuations than SLEDs
1550
optical bandwidth typically 30-70 nm FWHM, Gaussian profile
SLED
max power typically 15 mW - 20 mW (superluminescent)

Photodetector: Light to Volts

photodetectors are devices through which optical power is converted to an electrical signal
via an absorption process
photons are converted to electric charge carriers, and an electric field is applied to the
photodetection region to measure their effect
most common types: PIN and avalanche
photodiodes
APD has higher responsivity (internal
gain) and higher shot noise than PIN
PIN is cheaper, doesnt require thermal
compensation

3-4 cm

typical InGaAs performance:

950-1650 nm operation, 1 A/W, 5 ns response time, 0.2 pW/Hz0.5 noise

Fiber Optic Components: Couplers

used to combine/split optical signals from different
fibers
take advantage of evanescent field coupling: some
of the field extends beyond core

4-5 cm

coupling lengths are usually a few millimeters

input power

transmitted power

L
P1

evanescent field

P2
reflected power

P1 = P1 (0)cos kL
2

P2 = P1 (0)sin 2 kL

coupled power

Fiber Optic Components: Tunable Filters

broad-band light
enters the filter...

6-7 cm

A stepped voltage
drives a piezoelectric
device which controls
the mirror spacing

but only a narrow

wavelength band gets
passed through
the filter

produced for wavelength operation 360-1600 nm

free spectral ranges between 40-60 nm
passband of ~0.1 nm (at 1550 nm)
losses below 3 dB

Interferometric Sensing
An interferometer is a device in which two (or more) optical pathways are compared
A sensor may be realized by coupling one of the optical paths to the measurand (signal
arm) and isolating the other path (reference arm)
If the measurand physically changes the length of the signal arm, then the relative
difference L between the path lengths creates an optical phase change between the
two signals when they are recombined:

2 n
=
L

When this recombined signal is photodetected, its intensity is given by

2 n
I = I 0 [1+ M cos ] = I 0 [1+ M cos(
L)]

where I0 is the mean signal level, M is the visibility of the interferometer, n is the core
refractive index, and l is the wavelength of the light.
The detector signal directly encodes the measurand changes.

Primary Interferometer Configurations

Mach-Zehnder

signal fiber

light in
coupler

coupler

photodetection

reference fiber
Michelson
light in

signal fiber
reflectors
coupler

photodetection

reference fiber

Interferometer Phase Recovery

The phase difference to be extracted is buried inside a modulated waveform at the detector:
what we see is I, but what we want is , and these are related through a cosine function.

detector output

Depending on the initial static

phase difference between the
arms, the output signal varies
in intensity.

time
Homodyne approaches: lock the interferometer in quadrature by forcing the static phase
offset between arms to be at /2+N (piezo stretcher on reference arm + control loop)
Heterodyne approaches: add an active carrier signal to the reference arm or modulate the
optical wavelength and use a phase-locking technique to extract phase

Fiber Optic Connections

ST
keyed bayonet (like BNC)
MMF and SMF

SC
pop in/out connector
with locking tab in
plastic housing
SMF typically
durable and cheap

FC/PC or FC/APC

E2000

position-tunable notch and

threaded receptacle
SMF only
very precise positioning
and < -50 dB reflectivity

shutters provide
protection from
environment and
damage

Typical performance: 0.2-0.5 dB insertion loss, <-40 dB reflectivity, temp. range -20 to 60 oC

Fiber Optic Splicing

Two fibers may be coupled together axially
(spliced) by precise alignment of their cores

cleaver

Requires precise rectangular-edged cleave at

the fiber interfaces
Fusion splicers use an electric arc to weld the
cleaved fiber faces together
Use computer-controlled alignment using outer
fiber contour lines
Losses are about 0.02 dB
Integrated cleaver, splicer, and recoater
commercially available ~$40K

fusion splicer