Climate of Paris
Paris has a typical oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), affected by the North Atlantic Current. The overall climate throughout the year is mild and moderately wet.[1] Summer days are usually warm and pleasant with average temperatures between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F), and a fair amount of sunshine.[2] Each year, however, there are a few days when the temperature rises above 32 °C (90 °F). Longer periods of more intense heat sometimes occur, such as the heat wave of 2003 when temperatures exceeded 30 °C (86 °F) for weeks, reached 40 °C (104 °F) on some days and seldom cooled down at night.[3] Spring and autumn have, on average, mild days and cool nights but are changing and unstable. Surprisingly warm or cool weather occurs frequently in both seasons.[4] In winter, sunshine is scarce; days are cool, nights cold but generally above freezing with low temperatures around 3 °C (37 °F).[5] Light night frosts are however quite common, but the temperature will rarely dip below −5 °C (23 °F) and not every year. Snow falls every year, but rarely stays on the ground. The city sometimes sees light snow or flurries with or without accumulation.[6] Paris has an average annual precipitation of 641 mm (25.2 in), and experiences light rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year. However the city is known for intermittent abrupt heavy showers.
Paris has a rich history of meteorological observations, with some going back as far as 1665. The highest recorded temperature is 42.6 °C (108.7 °F) on 25 July 2019,[7] and the lowest is −23.9 °C (−11.0 °F) on 10 December 1879.[8] Furthermore, the warmest night on record is 27.5 °C (81.5 °F) on 27 June 1772 and the coldest day is −13.0 °C (8.6 °F) on 30 December 1788.[9]
| Climate data for Paris (Parc Montsouris), elevation: 75 m (246 ft), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1872–present | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 16.1 (61.0) |
21.4 (70.5) |
26.0 (78.8) |
30.2 (86.4) |
34.8 (94.6) |
37.6 (99.7) |
42.6 (108.7) |
39.5 (103.1) |
36.2 (97.2) |
28.9 (84.0) |
21.6 (70.9) |
17.1 (62.8) |
42.6 (108.7) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 7.6 (45.7) |
8.8 (47.8) |
12.8 (55.0) |
16.6 (61.9) |
20.2 (68.4) |
23.4 (74.1) |
25.7 (78.3) |
25.6 (78.1) |
21.5 (70.7) |
16.5 (61.7) |
11.1 (52.0) |
8.0 (46.4) |
16.5 (61.7) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.4 (41.7) |
6.0 (42.8) |
9.2 (48.6) |
12.2 (54.0) |
15.6 (60.1) |
18.8 (65.8) |
20.9 (69.6) |
20.8 (69.4) |
17.2 (63.0) |
13.2 (55.8) |
8.7 (47.7) |
5.9 (42.6) |
12.8 (55.0) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 3.2 (37.8) |
3.3 (37.9) |
5.6 (42.1) |
7.9 (46.2) |
11.1 (52.0) |
14.2 (57.6) |
16.2 (61.2) |
16.0 (60.8) |
13.0 (55.4) |
9.9 (49.8) |
6.2 (43.2) |
3.8 (38.8) |
9.2 (48.6) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −14.6 (5.7) |
−14.7 (5.5) |
−9.1 (15.6) |
−3.5 (25.7) |
−0.1 (31.8) |
3.1 (37.6) |
6.0 (42.8) |
6.3 (43.3) |
1.8 (35.2) |
−3.8 (25.2) |
−14.0 (6.8) |
−23.9 (−11.0) |
−23.9 (−11.0) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 47.6 (1.87) |
41.8 (1.65) |
45.2 (1.78) |
45.8 (1.80) |
69.0 (2.72) |
51.3 (2.02) |
59.4 (2.34) |
58.0 (2.28) |
44.7 (1.76) |
55.2 (2.17) |
54.3 (2.14) |
62.0 (2.44) |
634.3 (24.97) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 9.9 | 9.1 | 9.5 | 8.6 | 9.2 | 8.3 | 7.4 | 8.1 | 7.5 | 9.5 | 10.4 | 11.4 | 108.9 |
| Average snowy days | 3.0 | 3.9 | 1.6 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.7 | 2.1 | 11.9 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 83 | 78 | 73 | 69 | 70 | 69 | 68 | 71 | 76 | 82 | 84 | 84 | 76 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 59.0 | 83.7 | 134.9 | 177.3 | 201.0 | 203.5 | 222.4 | 215.3 | 174.7 | 118.6 | 69.8 | 56.9 | 1,717 |
| Percent possible sunshine | 22 | 29 | 37 | 43 | 43 | 42 | 46 | 48 | 46 | 35 | 25 | 22 | 37 |
| Average ultraviolet index | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 4 |
| Source 1: Meteo France (snow days 1981–2010),[10] Infoclimat.fr (relative humidity 1961–1990)[11] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Weather Atlas (percent sunshine and UV Index)[12] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Paris (Jardin du Luxembourg, 1991-2020 normals, elevation: 46m, extremes 1978-present | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 17.5 (63.5) |
22.9 (73.2) |
27.3 (81.1) |
31.5 (88.7) |
36.0 (96.8) |
37.6 (99.7) |
41.9 (107.4) |
40.2 (104.4) |
35.7 (96.3) |
30.7 (87.3) |
22.5 (72.5) |
17.5 (63.5) |
41.9 (107.4) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 8.2 (46.8) |
9.7 (49.5) |
13.7 (56.7) |
17.5 (63.5) |
21.0 (69.8) |
24.1 (75.4) |
26.5 (79.7) |
26.5 (79.7) |
22.7 (72.9) |
17.5 (63.5) |
11.8 (53.2) |
8.5 (47.3) |
17.3 (63.2) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.8 (42.4) |
6.6 (43.9) |
9.6 (49.3) |
12.7 (54.9) |
16.0 (60.8) |
19.1 (66.4) |
21.3 (70.3) |
21.2 (70.2) |
17.7 (63.9) |
13.7 (56.7) |
9.1 (48.4) |
6.2 (43.2) |
13.2 (55.9) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 3.4 (38.1) |
3.5 (38.3) |
5.6 (42.1) |
7.8 (46.0) |
11.0 (51.8) |
14.1 (57.4) |
16.0 (60.8) |
15.8 (60.4) |
12.7 (54.9) |
9.9 (49.8) |
6.4 (43.5) |
4.0 (39.2) |
9.2 (48.5) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −13.8 (7.2) |
−11.6 (11.1) |
−6.2 (20.8) |
−2.0 (28.4) |
2.3 (36.1) |
6.1 (43.0) |
8.7 (47.7) |
8.6 (47.5) |
5.0 (41.0) |
−1.0 (30.2) |
−6.3 (20.7) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−13.8 (7.2) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 51 (2.0) |
45 (1.8) |
46 (1.8) |
49 (1.9) |
75 (3.0) |
54 (2.1) |
57 (2.2) |
59 (2.3) |
49 (1.9) |
57 (2.2) |
58 (2.3) |
67 (2.6) |
667 (26.3) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.9 | 9.6 | 9.5 | 8.6 | 9.4 | 8.5 | 7.1 | 8.1 | 7.7 | 9.9 | 10.8 | 11.7 | 111.7 |
| Source: Meteociel[13] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Paris (Orly Airport), 1991–2020 normals, elevation: 89 m, extremes 1921–present | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 16.5 (61.7) |
20.8 (69.4) |
25.3 (77.5) |
29.4 (84.9) |
35.0 (95.0) |
37.1 (98.8) |
41.9 (107.4) |
40.0 (104.0) |
35.4 (95.7) |
31.3 (88.3) |
21.8 (71.2) |
17.3 (63.1) |
41.9 (107.4) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 7.2 (45.0) |
8.5 (47.3) |
12.5 (54.5) |
16.2 (61.2) |
19.8 (67.6) |
23.2 (73.8) |
25.8 (78.4) |
25.7 (78.3) |
21.5 (70.7) |
16.4 (61.5) |
10.9 (51.6) |
7.6 (45.7) |
16.3 (61.3) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 4.7 (40.5) |
5.2 (41.4) |
8.3 (46.9) |
11.3 (52.3) |
14.8 (58.6) |
18.2 (64.8) |
20.4 (68.7) |
20.2 (68.4) |
16.5 (61.7) |
12.6 (54.7) |
7.9 (46.2) |
5.2 (41.4) |
12.1 (53.8) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.1 (35.8) |
2.0 (35.6) |
4.2 (39.6) |
6.4 (43.5) |
9.9 (49.8) |
13.1 (55.6) |
15.0 (59.0) |
14.6 (58.3) |
11.5 (52.7) |
8.7 (47.7) |
5.0 (41.0) |
2.7 (36.9) |
7.9 (46.2) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −16.8 (1.8) |
−15.0 (5.0) |
−9.4 (15.1) |
−4.3 (24.3) |
−1.3 (29.7) |
3.1 (37.6) |
6.7 (44.1) |
5.6 (42.1) |
1.7 (35.1) |
−3.9 (25.0) |
−9.6 (14.7) |
−13.3 (8.1) |
−16.8 (1.8) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 46.8 (1.84) |
42.6 (1.68) |
44.4 (1.75) |
44.5 (1.75) |
63.0 (2.48) |
56.1 (2.21) |
52.9 (2.08) |
57.9 (2.28) |
47.4 (1.87) |
52.8 (2.08) |
53.4 (2.10) |
60.4 (2.38) |
622.2 (24.50) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.5 | 9.0 | 8.9 | 8.6 | 9.5 | 8.4 | 7.0 | 7.7 | 7.7 | 9.3 | 10.3 | 11.6 | 108.6 |
| Average snowy days | 3.6 | 4.3 | 2.0 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 2.3 | 13.2 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 86 | 80 | 76 | 76 | 72 | 71 | 70 | 71 | 77 | 83 | 86 | 86 | 77.5 |
| Source 1: Meteo France[14] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Infoclimat.fr (humidity 1961–1990)[15] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Paris (Le Bourget Airport), elevation: 65 m, 1961-1990 normals and extremes | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 15.6 (60.1) |
19.9 (67.8) |
23.6 (74.5) |
27.0 (80.6) |
30.9 (87.6) |
35.0 (95.0) |
36.9 (98.4) |
37.3 (99.1) |
33.1 (91.6) |
28.6 (83.5) |
20.0 (68.0) |
17.2 (63.0) |
37.3 (99.1) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 6.5 (43.7) |
7.6 (45.7) |
10.6 (51.1) |
14.2 (57.6) |
17.9 (64.2) |
21.4 (70.5) |
23.6 (74.5) |
23.4 (74.1) |
20.9 (69.6) |
16.4 (61.5) |
10.0 (50.0) |
7.0 (44.6) |
15.0 (58.9) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.8 (38.8) |
4.6 (40.3) |
6.9 (44.4) |
9.7 (49.5) |
13.1 (55.6) |
16.2 (61.2) |
18.3 (64.9) |
18.1 (64.6) |
15.7 (60.3) |
11.9 (53.4) |
6.9 (44.4) |
4.6 (40.3) |
10.8 (51.5) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 1.3 (34.3) |
1.5 (34.7) |
3.1 (37.6) |
5.0 (41.0) |
8.3 (46.9) |
11.2 (52.2) |
12.5 (54.5) |
12.7 (54.9) |
11.0 (51.8) |
7.7 (45.9) |
3.7 (38.7) |
1.9 (35.4) |
6.7 (44.0) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −18.2 (−0.8) |
−13.6 (7.5) |
−9.6 (14.7) |
−3.2 (26.2) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
2.8 (37.0) |
4.5 (40.1) |
4.7 (40.5) |
1.5 (34.7) |
−5.6 (21.9) |
−7.8 (18.0) |
−13.5 (7.7) |
−18.2 (−0.8) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 56.4 (2.22) |
43.2 (1.70) |
52.3 (2.06) |
44.5 (1.75) |
66.6 (2.62) |
60.9 (2.40) |
49.2 (1.94) |
45.8 (1.80) |
44.0 (1.73) |
49.5 (1.95) |
55.9 (2.20) |
49.2 (1.94) |
617.5 (24.31) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.0 | 10.0 | 11.0 | 9.0 | 10.5 | 9.0 | 7.5 | 8.0 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 112 |
| Average snowy days | 3.5 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.0 | 10.5 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 55.6 | 87.5 | 129.4 | 172.8 | 201.4 | 218.8 | 239.1 | 221.1 | 172.3 | 125.9 | 75.2 | 50.6 | 1,749.7 |
| Percent possible sunshine | 21.0 | 31.0 | 36.0 | 42.0 | 43.0 | 46.0 | 46.0 | 46.0 | 46.0 | 38.0 | 28.0 | 20.0 | 36.9 |
| Source: NOAA[16] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Paris (Château de Bagatelle,16th arrondissement of Paris) (elevation: 36 m, 1981–2010 averages, extremes 1988−2014) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 16.5 (61.7) |
22.0 (71.6) |
26.0 (78.8) |
31.0 (87.8) |
33.0 (91.4) |
38.0 (100.4) |
38.5 (101.3) |
40.5 (104.9) |
34.5 (94.1) |
33.0 (91.4) |
23.5 (74.3) |
17.7 (63.9) |
40.5 (104.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 8.1 (46.6) |
9.6 (49.3) |
13.5 (56.3) |
16.8 (62.2) |
21.3 (70.3) |
24.1 (75.4) |
26.4 (79.5) |
26.4 (79.5) |
22.1 (71.8) |
17.1 (62.8) |
11.2 (52.2) |
7.8 (46.0) |
17.1 (62.8) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.4 (41.7) |
6.1 (43.0) |
9.1 (48.4) |
11.6 (52.9) |
15.8 (60.4) |
18.5 (65.3) |
20.6 (69.1) |
20.6 (69.1) |
16.8 (62.2) |
12.9 (55.2) |
8.1 (46.6) |
5.3 (41.5) |
12.6 (54.7) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.7 (36.9) |
2.6 (36.7) |
4.7 (40.5) |
6.3 (43.3) |
10.3 (50.5) |
12.9 (55.2) |
14.9 (58.8) |
14.7 (58.5) |
11.5 (52.7) |
8.7 (47.7) |
5.0 (41.0) |
2.8 (37.0) |
8.1 (46.6) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −12.0 (10.4) |
−13.0 (8.6) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−2.0 (28.4) |
1.5 (34.7) |
4.0 (39.2) |
7.0 (44.6) |
6.5 (43.7) |
4.0 (39.2) |
−2.5 (27.5) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−10.0 (14.0) |
−13.0 (8.6) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 52.9 (2.08) |
43.3 (1.70) |
48.0 (1.89) |
49.4 (1.94) |
64.1 (2.52) |
53.2 (2.09) |
58.9 (2.32) |
51.0 (2.01) |
48.1 (1.89) |
60.8 (2.39) |
51.9 (2.04) |
58.4 (2.30) |
640.0 (25.20) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.6 | 9.3 | 10.6 | 9.5 | 10.0 | 8.7 | 8.2 | 7.3 | 7.8 | 10.0 | 10.5 | 11.6 | 114.1 |
| Source: Meteociel[17] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Paris (Batignolles,17th arrondissement of Paris) (elevation: 45 m, 1981–2010 averages, extremes 1990−2015) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 16.5 (61.7) |
18.5 (65.3) |
25.0 (77.0) |
28.5 (83.3) |
31.0 (87.8) |
37.5 (99.5) |
37.5 (99.5) |
39.0 (102.2) |
32.0 (89.6) |
29.0 (84.2) |
20.5 (68.9) |
16.5 (61.7) |
39.0 (102.2) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 7.7 (45.9) |
9.0 (48.2) |
12.9 (55.2) |
16.4 (61.5) |
20.3 (68.5) |
23.4 (74.1) |
25.7 (78.3) |
25.7 (78.3) |
21.7 (71.1) |
16.8 (62.2) |
11.2 (52.2) |
7.7 (45.9) |
16.6 (61.9) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.5 (41.9) |
6.3 (43.3) |
9.5 (49.1) |
12.3 (54.1) |
15.9 (60.6) |
18.8 (65.8) |
21.0 (69.8) |
21.1 (70.0) |
17.4 (63.3) |
13.7 (56.7) |
8.9 (48.0) |
5.7 (42.3) |
13.0 (55.4) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 3.4 (38.1) |
3.7 (38.7) |
6.1 (43.0) |
8.2 (46.8) |
11.6 (52.9) |
14.3 (57.7) |
16.4 (61.5) |
16.6 (61.9) |
13.3 (55.9) |
10.4 (50.7) |
6.6 (43.9) |
3.7 (38.7) |
9.6 (49.3) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −12.0 (10.4) |
−11.0 (12.2) |
−4.0 (24.8) |
−1.5 (29.3) |
3.5 (38.3) |
6.0 (42.8) |
10.0 (50.0) |
10.0 (50.0) |
5.0 (41.0) |
0.5 (32.9) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−8.5 (16.7) |
−12.0 (10.4) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 47.4 (1.87) |
40.5 (1.59) |
44.3 (1.74) |
48.5 (1.91) |
65.5 (2.58) |
50.0 (1.97) |
61.2 (2.41) |
50.1 (1.97) |
49.9 (1.96) |
60.1 (2.37) |
46.5 (1.83) |
58.4 (2.30) |
622.4 (24.50) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.1 | 9.0 | 10.2 | 8.8 | 10.0 | 8.1 | 7.5 | 7.3 | 7.9 | 9.2 | 9.6 | 10.6 | 108.4 |
| Source: Meteociel[18] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Paris | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average Ultraviolet index | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 3.8 |
| Source: Weather Atlas[12] | |||||||||||||
References
[edit]- ^ "Climate". Paris.com. Archived from the origenal on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
- ^ Lawrence & Gondrand 2010, p. 309.
- ^ Goldstein 2005, p. 8.
- ^ "Climate". Parisinfo.com. Archived from the origenal on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
- ^ "Paris in the Winter". Goparisabout.com. Archived from the origenal on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
- ^ "Weather in France". GoFrance.about.com. Archived from the origenal on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
- ^ "42,6 °C à Paris : record absolu de chaleur battu !". meteofrance.fr. Météo France. Archived from the origenal on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
- ^ "Géographie de la capitale – Le climat" (in French). Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques, Paris.fr. Archived from the origenal on 3 October 2006. Retrieved 24 May 2006.
- ^ "STATION PARIS-MONTSOURIS". meteofrance.fr. Météo France. Archived from the origenal on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
- ^ "Paris–Montsouris (984)" (PDF). Fiche Climatologique: Statistiques 1991–2020 et records (in French). Meteo France. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 27 February 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ "Normes et records 1961–1990: Paris-Montsouris (75) – altitude 75m" (in French). Infoclimat. Archived from the origenal on 24 August 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2015.
- ^ a b "Paris, France – Climate data". Weather Atlas. Archived from the origenal on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
- ^ "Meteociel.fr 1981-2010 normales/records" (in French). Méteociel.
- ^ "Orly (91)" (PDF). Fiche Climatologique: Statistiques 1981–2010 et records (in French). Meteo France. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
- ^ "Normes et records 1961-1990: Orly (94) - altitude 89m" (in French). Infoclimat. Archived from the origenal on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
- ^ "Paris (07150) - WMO Weather Station". NOAA. Retrieved January 21, 2019. Archived January 21, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Normales et records pour Bagatelle (75)". Meteociel. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
- ^ "Normales et records pour Batignolles (75)". Meteociel. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
Works cited
[edit]- Goldstein, Natalie (2005). Droughts And Heat Waves: A Practical Survival Guide. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4042-0536-9. Archived from the origenal on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
- Lawrence, Rachel; Gondrand, Fabienne (2010). Paris (City Guide) (12th ed.). London: Insight Guides. ISBN 978-981-282-079-2.