Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron: Difference between revisions
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Its fully sequenced genome allows ''B. thetaiotaomicron'' to undergo genetic manipulation. The genome is altered to understand the host-bacteria interaction, and interactions with other microbes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lai |first1=Yong |last2=Hayashi |first2=Naoki |last3=Lu |first3=Timothy K. |date=2022-10-01 |title=Engineering the human gut commensal Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron with synthetic biology |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1367593122000631?fr=RR-2&ref=pdf_download&rr=8d5390f41c827498 |journal=Current Opinion in Chemical Biology |volume=70 |pages=102178 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2022.102178 |pmid=35759819 |issn=1367-5931}}</ref> It was found that ''B. thetaiotaomicron'' could be engineered to maintain long-term storage of responses to environmental conditions. This could lead to the ability to monitor effects of surface polysaccharides, colonization, and overall gut health of the host.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mimee |first1=Mark |last2=Tucker |first2=Alex C. |last3=Voigt |first3=Christopher A. |last4=Lu |first4=Timothy K. |date=2015-07-29 |title=Programming a Human Commensal Bacterium, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, to Sense and Respond to Stimuli in the Murine Gut Microbiota |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S240547121500006X?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=8d5391d5a8d97498 |journal=Cell Systems |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=62–71 |doi=10.1016/j.cels.2015.06.001 |pmid=26918244 |pmc=4762051 |issn=2405-4712}}</ref> Research has also indicated that when exposed to [[bile]], ''B. thetaiotaomicron'' develops physiological adaptations, allowing it to increase its colonization capacity. These bile induced adaptations include enhanced stress tolerance mechanisms and increased production of [[Efflux pump|efflux pumps]] which ultimately provide cross-protection against harmful agents such as [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]]. However, the bile concentration required to enable these adaptions can only be accessed in certain parts of the gut. <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Béchon |first1=Nathalie |last2=Mihajlovic |first2=Jovana |last3=Lopes |first3=Anne-Aurélie |last4=Vendrell-Fernández |first4=Sol |last5=Deschamps |first5=Julien |last6=Briandet |first6=Romain |last7=Sismeiro |first7=Odile |last8=Martin-Verstraete |first8=Isabelle |last9=Dupuy |first9=Bruno |last10=Ghigo |first10=Jean-Marc |date=2022-02-15 |title=Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron uses a widespread extracellular DNase to promote bile-dependent biofilm formation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=119 |issue=7 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11911228B |doi=10.1073/pnas.2111228119 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8851478 |pmid=35145026 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
Its fully sequenced genome allows ''B. thetaiotaomicron'' to undergo genetic manipulation. The genome is altered to understand the host-bacteria interaction, and interactions with other microbes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lai |first1=Yong |last2=Hayashi |first2=Naoki |last3=Lu |first3=Timothy K. |date=2022-10-01 |title=Engineering the human gut commensal Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron with synthetic biology |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1367593122000631?fr=RR-2&ref=pdf_download&rr=8d5390f41c827498 |journal=Current Opinion in Chemical Biology |volume=70 |pages=102178 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2022.102178 |pmid=35759819 |issn=1367-5931}}</ref> It was found that ''B. thetaiotaomicron'' could be engineered to maintain long-term storage of responses to environmental conditions. This could lead to the ability to monitor effects of surface polysaccharides, colonization, and overall gut health of the host.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mimee |first1=Mark |last2=Tucker |first2=Alex C. |last3=Voigt |first3=Christopher A. |last4=Lu |first4=Timothy K. |date=2015-07-29 |title=Programming a Human Commensal Bacterium, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, to Sense and Respond to Stimuli in the Murine Gut Microbiota |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S240547121500006X?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=8d5391d5a8d97498 |journal=Cell Systems |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=62–71 |doi=10.1016/j.cels.2015.06.001 |pmid=26918244 |pmc=4762051 |issn=2405-4712}}</ref> Research has also indicated that when exposed to [[bile]], ''B. thetaiotaomicron'' develops physiological adaptations, allowing it to increase its colonization capacity. These bile induced adaptations include enhanced stress tolerance mechanisms and increased production of [[Efflux pump|efflux pumps]] which ultimately provide cross-protection against harmful agents such as [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]]. However, the bile concentration required to enable these adaptions can only be accessed in certain parts of the gut. <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Béchon |first1=Nathalie |last2=Mihajlovic |first2=Jovana |last3=Lopes |first3=Anne-Aurélie |last4=Vendrell-Fernández |first4=Sol |last5=Deschamps |first5=Julien |last6=Briandet |first6=Romain |last7=Sismeiro |first7=Odile |last8=Martin-Verstraete |first8=Isabelle |last9=Dupuy |first9=Bruno |last10=Ghigo |first10=Jean-Marc |date=2022-02-15 |title=Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron uses a widespread extracellular DNase to promote bile-dependent biofilm formation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=119 |issue=7 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11911228B |doi=10.1073/pnas.2111228119 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8851478 |pmid=35145026 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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''Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron'' has been evaluated as an indicator of fecal pollution.<ref name="pmid23078617">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aslan A, Rose JB |title=Evaluation of the host specificity of Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron alpha-1-6, mannanase gene as a sewage marker |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=51–6 |date=January 2013 |pmid=23078617 |doi=10.1111/lam.12013 |url=}}</ref> Fecal pollution poses health risks.<ref name="pmid36680277">{{cite journal |vauthors=Santiago-Rodriguez TM, Hollister EB |title=Viral Metagenomics as a Tool to Track Sources of Fecal Contamination: A One Health Approach |journal=Viruses |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages= |date=January 2023 |pmid=36680277 |pmc=9863393 |doi=10.3390/v15010236 |url=}}</ref> Identifying the origin of fecal matter is the first step in understanding the risk of contact, as well as how to eliminate the threat of contamination. It was found that the specific ''B. thetaiotaomicron'' marker was |
''Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron'' has been evaluated as an indicator of fecal pollution.<ref name="pmid23078617">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aslan A, Rose JB |title=Evaluation of the host specificity of Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron alpha-1-6, mannanase gene as a sewage marker |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=51–6 |date=January 2013 |pmid=23078617 |doi=10.1111/lam.12013 |url=}}</ref> Fecal pollution poses health risks.<ref name="pmid36680277">{{cite journal |vauthors=Santiago-Rodriguez TM, Hollister EB |title=Viral Metagenomics as a Tool to Track Sources of Fecal Contamination: A One Health Approach |journal=Viruses |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages= |date=January 2023 |pmid=36680277 |pmc=9863393 |doi=10.3390/v15010236 |url=}}</ref> Identifying the origin of fecal matter is the first step in understanding the risk of contact, as well as how to eliminate the threat of contamination. It was found that the specific ''B. thetaiotaomicron'' marker was an accurate indicator of fecal contamination.<ref name="pmid38075863"/> The accuracy of the test combined with faster analysis times of identifying ''B. thetaiotaomicron''in samples makes these bacteria – or the [[bacteriophages]] that infect them,<ref name="pmid34638039">{{cite journal |vauthors=Méndez J, García-Aljaro C, Muniesa M, Pascual-Benito M, Ballesté E, López P, Monleón A, Blanch AR, Lucena F |title=Modeling human pollution in water bodies using somatic coliphages and bacteriophages that infect Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron strain GA17 |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=301 |issue= |pages=113802 |date=January 2022 |pmid=34638039 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113802 |url=}}</ref> – a qualifying contender for future fecal pollution identification.<ref name="pmid38075863">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zlender T, Rupnik M |title=An overview of molecular markers for identification of non-human fecal pollution sources |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=14 |issue= |pages=1256174 |date=2023 |pmid=38075863 |pmc=10701406 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2023.1256174 |url=}}</ref> |
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== References == |
== References == |
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Revision as of 14:44, 5 November 2024
| Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron | |
|---|---|
| |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Bacteria |
| Phylum: | Bacteroidota |
| Class: | Bacteroidia |
| Order: | Bacteroidales |
| Family: | Bacteroidaceae |
| Genus: | Bacteroides |
| Species: | B. thetaiotaomicron
|
| Binomial name | |
| Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (Distaso 1912) Castellani and Chalmers 1919
| |
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron is a Gram-negative, obligate anaerobic bacterium and a prominent member of the human gut microbiota, particularly within the large intestine. B. thetaiotaomicron belongs to the Bacteroids genus – a group that is known for its role in the complex microbial community of the gut microbiota. Its proteome, consisting of 4,779 members, includes a system for obtaining and breaking down dietary polysaccharides that would otherwise be difficult to digest for the human body.
The bacterium encodes for enzymes such as glycoside hydrolases and polysaccharide lyases, allowing it to break down dietary fibers, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, into fermentable substrates. This metabolic activity generates short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like acetate and propionate, which are absorbed by the host and provide critical energy sources for colonic cells.
While an opportunistic pathogen, B. thetaiotaomicron may become virulent in immunocompromised individuals. B.thetaiotaomicron has been associated with other commensal bacteria and the induction of regulatory T cells which are essential for maintaining immune tolerance and preventing excessive inflammatory response in the gut mucosa.
Due to its adaptability and interaction with the host immune and metabolic systems, B. thetaiotaomicron serves as a model organism for studying symbiosis, microbial ecology, and gut-host interactions.
History and taxonomy
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron was first described in 1912 under the name Bacillus thetaiotaomicron and moved to the genus Bacteroides in 1919.[1] The specific name derives from the Greek letters theta, iota, and omicron; the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature indicates this as "relating to the morphology of vacuolated forms".[1] The name is used as an example of an "arbitrary" species name in the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes.[2][3]The Bacteroidota bacterial phylum, distinguished by its unique motility, is present in a wide range of ecosystems, habitats, lifestyles, and physiological conditions.[4] The genus Bacteroides represents the most prominent bacteria in the gut of humans, particularly those in western civilizations. Though it is found in abundance in humans, the exact distribution varies between individuals and can be affected by the host's genome, diet, and other factors.[5]
Evolution
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron is a common bacterium in the human gut microbiome that has evolved alongside humans to support digestion and general health. Over time, this bacterium developed the ability to break down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars, which helps us get more energy from the food we eat. B. thetaiotaomicron has a range of specialized enzymes that let it process various plant fibers and other dietary components found in the human gut. Because of these adaptations, it has become an essential part of the gut ecosystem, benefiting both itself and the host by playing a big role in maintaining a balanced microbiome.[6]
The evolution of B. thetaiotaomicron seems to have been shaped by the changing diet and immune systems of its human hosts, which influenced the bacterium’s genetic and functional traits. For example, it has genes that help it detect and respond to different nutrients, which makes it more resilient in the face of dietary changes. It also plays a role in regulating the host’s immune system, reducing inflammation and contributing to a stable gut environment. This relationship reflects a complex co-evolution where both the human host and B. thetaiotaomicron benefit, showing how interconnected the gut microbiome and human health have become.[7][8]
Genome
The genome of B. thetaiotaomicron was sequenced in 2003. It is one circular chromosome of double stranded DNA. It is 6.26 megabases in length, but has a relatively small number of distinct genes. This is due to genes coding for proteins that are unusually large compared to other prokaryotes.[9] This genomic feature is shared with another member of the genus, Bacteroides fragilis.[10] Extensive 16S rRNA count by the Human Microbiome Project (HMP) found the genome contains genes associated with breaking down polysaccharides including glycoside hydrolases(GHs) and polysaccharide lyases(PLs), along with starch binding proteins.[9][10][11]
B. thetaiotaomicron has a starch utilizaiton system (SUS), which allows the bacteria to bind complex polysaccharides to the cell surface and the outer membrane enzymes break them down into simple sugars. The polysaccharides that are digested by B. thetaiotaomicron or through Sus are converted into monosaccharides which can then be absorbed by human cells for metabolism.[12][9] The utilization of SUS allows this bacterium to regulate complex polysaccharide expression that allows an advantage over other bacteria that are unable to regulate their environment.[9]
These genes along with ECF-type sigma factors allow B. thetaiotaomicron to correlate the availability of nutrients with expression of the particular genes.[9] The genome also contains many genes that encode proteins involved in sensing and responding to the extracellular environment, such as sigma factors and two-component systems.[9][13][14] The colocalization of the gene encoding digestive enzymes with extracytoplasmic function sigma factors and signal transduction systems create a mechanism that regulates gene expression based on the availability of nutrients in the environment.[9] The B. thetaiotaomicron genome encodes a large number of small non-coding RNAs, which also play a key role in regulatory processes, though few have been characterized to date.[15] B. thetaiotaomicron has several different types of mobile genetic elements, including a 33 kilobase plasmid, 63 transposases, and four homologs of the conjugative transposon CTnDOT. CTnDOT encodes the resistance to the antibiotics erythromycin and tetracycline, and is horizontally transferred between Bacteroides species as well as other gut microbiota.[9]
Metabolism
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron is capable of metabolizing a very diverse range of otherwise indigestible polysaccharides, like amylose, amylopectin, and pullulan.[13] Its complement of enzymes used for hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds is among the largest known in prokaryotes, and is even thought to be capable of hydrolyzing nearly all glycosidic bonds in biological polysaccharides. As the major organism of the human gut flora to break down plant polysaccharides, it can use dietary carbohydrates, as well as those sourced from the host, depending on nutrient availability.[16] Complex plant polysaccharides, unlike simple monosaccharides and disaccharides that are digested and absorbed in the small intestines, are left to be used as a food source in the colon.[12] Complex polysaccharides are fermented in the colon to produce short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like acetate and propionate. These SCFAs serve as energy sources for colonocytes and have anti-inflammatory properties[17] B. thetaiotaomicron also relies on glycolysis, the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway, and fermentation to metabolize sugars. [18]
B. thetaiotaomicron is able to dominate the many other gut bacteria in the human colon by using its superior ability to acquire sufficient nutrients.[12] This is possible due to the combined effects of an increased amount of glycosyl hydrolases that degrade enzymes, membrane binding proteins, and sugar-specific transporters.[12] There are 172 glycosylhydrolases produced by B. thetaiotaomicron which is greater than any other sequenced bacterium, providing to enzymes that contribute products of hydrolysis to the host.[12] All Bacteriodes employ polysaccharide-utilization loci (PULs) whose gene clusters encode systems that target and degrade carbohydrates.[19] A part of these systems are carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) that can very efficiently degrade complex carbohydrates found in the diet. There have been three different PULs identified that use RG-II, a dietary carbohydrate with the most structural complexity, as a substrate. The RG-II degradome contains 23 enzymes that target sequential glycosidic linkage in the RG-II, leading to its disassembly.[19]
B. thetaiotaomicron is aerotolerant and can survive, but not grow, when exposed to oxygen. Oxygen has limited access in eukaryotic host environments, like the human intestines. Generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide may occur, threatening the flora by attacking iron cofactors enzymes widely used in metabolism.[20] To drive the oxygen concentration to lower levels, B. thetaiotaomicron expresses a number of proteins that scavenge ROS such as hydrogen peroxide when exposed to air.[20]
Role in the human microbiome
Members of the genus Bacteroides accounts for about a quarter of the microbial population in an adult human's intestine. In a long-term study of Bacteroides species in clinical samples, B. thetaiotaomicron was the second most common species isolated, behind Bacteroides fragilis.[20] It is crucial to humans, as it is able to digest plant materials that enzymes within the gut cannot.[9]
B. thetaiotaomicron is a commensal, a type of symbiosis, meaning it provides the host with key benefits like digestion.[9][10] B. thetaiotaomicron has far more glycosyl hydrolases, in which 61% are located in the outer membrane or extracellular matrix, suggesting that the digestive capabilities serve the bacteria's host more than anything.[13] The glycosyl hydrolases express 23 specific enzymatic functions that supply the host or even other microbes in the gut flora with the breakdown products of hydrolysis.[12] It also has the ability to regulate epithelial glycan synthesis, a process that involves its ability to sense surrounding nutrient availability, such as in the lumen of the gut. It is able to detect nutrients and deploy host enzymes that build and modify glycans when there are few present in their environment. This regulation mechanism allows for B. thetaiotaomicron to maintain its preferred environmental conditions.[9]
Previous studies show that B. thetaiotaomicron stimulates angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels, during intestinal development following birth. These studies used germ-free mice in order to control the microbiota and inoculated the mice with a specific bacteria, B. thetaiotaomicron. Angiogenesis further benefits the host by increasing the human's ability to absorb the nutrients that the microbe assists in produce.[9]
B. thetaiotaomicron dominates the intestinal microbiome and also aids in another postnatal development of the gut with the formation of the mucosal barrier in the intestine, which plays a major role in maintaining host-microbiota homeostasis.[21][22] The mucosal barrier, located between the intestinal epithelium and microbiota, is semipermeable, allowing the uptake of essential nutrients while restricting the passage of pathogenic molecules.[21][23] Nearly 90% of the bacteria within the gut microbiota, colonizing the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), belongs to the Bacteroidetes or Firmicutes phyla.[21] B. thetaiotaomicron's ability to grow on host-derived polysaccharides in mucus is a major contributor to its persistence in the GIT.[21]
The Bacteroides species has the ability to produce distinct lipopolysaccharides (LPS) that suggests it has the potential to modify innate immunity, as glycolipids are known to communicate with the immune system of mammals, particularly through sensing the surrounding bacteria. These LPS structures exhibit a laddered pattern, indicative of an O antigen; however, B. thetaiotaomicron specifically, produces small lipooligosaccharides (LOS) with the absence of an O antigen. The abundance of these LPS and LOS indicate they could function to allow communication between the host and commensal microbes.[5]
Role in immune response
B. thetaiotaomicron is a prominent member of the human gut microbiota, and its role in the immune response is complex. The interaction between B. thetaiotaomicron and the immune system contributes to the maintenance of gut homeostasis and the development of an immune system. The anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory characteristics of extracellular vesicles generated by the prevalent human gut bacteria B. thetaiotaomicron are evident, along with the identification of the molecular mechanisms governing their interaction with innate immune cells.[24] B.thetaiotaomicron has been associated with other commensal bacteria and the induction of regulatory T cells which are essential for maintaining immune tolerance and preventing excessive inflammatory response.[25][26]
The outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) not only aid in protecting B. thetaiotaomicron from degradation, but also play a major role in promoting regulatory dendritic cell responses. OMVs of B. thetaiotaomicron in a healthy gut stimulate colonic dendritic cells (DC) to express IL-10. T-cells are stimulated by IL-10 and is expressed via the innate immune system through macrophages and DC. B. thetaiotaomicron OMVs in individuals with ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD) are unable to stimulate IL-10 expression, resulting in a loss of regulatory DC. In these diseases, B. thetaiotaomicron OMVs also cause a significantly lower amount of DC to be expressed. These results were also observed in patients with the inactive diseases, signifying that the defects in immune response are intrinsic in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).[27][better source needed]
Pathology
B. thetaiotaomicron is also an opportunistic pathogen and can infect tissues exposed to gut flora.[20] While contained in the gut, B. thetaiotaomicron generally maintains a beneficial relationship with its host. However, it can present harmful effects if it is introduced to other areas of the body that are not equipped to effectively interact with this type of bacteria. In the case of a rupture in the gastrointestinal tract, B. thetaiotaomicron as well as other gut bacteria can be released from the intestines. [28] This can lead to diseases like bacteremia, which is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. B. thetaiotaomicron can also cause bacterial infection in tissue which elicits an immune response and promotes abscess formation.
Due to its polysaccharide-metabolizing abilities, B. thetaiotaomicron contributes to the food source of other components in the gut microbiome. For example, the bacteria express sialidase enzymes, but they cannot catabolize sialic acid. Consequently, their presence increases the amount of available sialic acid in the gut that can be utilized by other organisms for energy. This specific ability allows for the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as Clostridioides difficile, which uses sialic acid as a carbon source.[29] Similarly, B. thetaiotaomicron has been shown to exacerbate pathogenic E. coli infection due to its ability to enrich the availability of nutrients for pathogens such as E. coli .[30] B. thetaiotaomicron's enzymatic properties enable it to further thrive in the competitive environment of the human intestine.
Research
Due to its ability to break down complex polysaccharides, particularly those found in the dietary fibers that humans cannot digest properly, B. thetaiotaomicron has become a model microbe to understand the microbiota in the human gut.[31] B. thetaiotaomicron plays a notable role in gut health, specially regarding its anti-inflammatory properties, which are important in conditions like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and Crohn's disease.[32] Research on colitis, a form of IBD, has shown that B. thetaiotaomicron enhances the mucosal barrier, modulates the immune response of the gut microbiota, and counteracts the dysbiosis typically observed in IBD patients, highlighting the role of B. thetaiotaomicron in preventing chronic inflammation.[30]
Its fully sequenced genome allows B. thetaiotaomicron to undergo genetic manipulation. The genome is altered to understand the host-bacteria interaction, and interactions with other microbes.[33] It was found that B. thetaiotaomicron could be engineered to maintain long-term storage of responses to environmental conditions. This could lead to the ability to monitor effects of surface polysaccharides, colonization, and overall gut health of the host.[34] Research has also indicated that when exposed to bile, B. thetaiotaomicron develops physiological adaptations, allowing it to increase its colonization capacity. These bile induced adaptations include enhanced stress tolerance mechanisms and increased production of efflux pumps which ultimately provide cross-protection against harmful agents such as antibiotics. However, the bile concentration required to enable these adaptions can only be accessed in certain parts of the gut. [35]
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron has been evaluated as an indicator of fecal pollution.[36] Fecal pollution poses health risks.[37] Identifying the origin of fecal matter is the first step in understanding the risk of contact, as well as how to eliminate the threat of contamination. It was found that the specific B. thetaiotaomicron marker was an accurate indicator of fecal contamination.[38] The accuracy of the test combined with faster analysis times of identifying B. thetaiotaomicronin samples makes these bacteria – or the bacteriophages that infect them,[39] – a qualifying contender for future fecal pollution identification.[38]
References
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- ^ Oren A, Vandamme P, Schink B (June 2016). "Notes on the use of Greek word roots in genus and species names of prokaryotes". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 66 (6): 2129–2140. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.001063. PMID 27055242.
- ^ Trüper HG (April 1999). "How to name a prokaryote?: Etymological considerations, proposals and practical advice in prokaryote nomenclature". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 23 (2): 231–249. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.1999.tb00397.x.
- ^ Hahnke RL, Meier-Kolthoff JP, García-López M, Mukherjee S, Huntemann M, Ivanova NN, et al. (2016-12-20). "Genome-Based Taxonomic Classification of Bacteroidetes". Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 2003. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.02003. PMC 5167729. PMID 28066339.
- ^ a b Jacobson, Amy N.; Choudhury, Biswa P.; Fischbach, Michael A. (2018-05-02). Relman, David A. (ed.). "The Biosynthesis of Lipooligosaccharide from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron". mBio. 9 (2). Yi Tang, Pieter Dorrestein. doi:10.1128/mBio.02289-17. ISSN 2161-2129. PMC 5850320. PMID 29535205.
- ^ Comstock, L. E., & Coyne, M. J. (2003). "Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron: A dynamic, niche-adapted human symbiont." BioEssays, 25(10), 926-929.
- ^ Hooper, L. V., et al. (2002). "Molecular analysis of commensal host-microbial relationships in the intestine." Science, 292(5519), 1115-1118.
- ^ Xu, J., et al. (2003). "A genomic view of the human-Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron symbiosis." Science, 299(5615), 2074-2076.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Xu J, Bjursell MK, Himrod J, Deng S, Carmichael LK, Chiang HC, et al. (March 2003). "A genomic view of the human-Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron symbiosis". Science. 299 (5615): 2074–2076. Bibcode:2003Sci...299.2074X. doi:10.1126/science.1080029. PMID 12663928. S2CID 34071235.
- ^ a b c Wexler HM (October 2007). "Bacteroides: the good, the bad, and the nitty-gritty". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 20 (4): 593–621. doi:10.1128/CMR.00008-07. PMC 2176045. PMID 17934076.
- ^ Ye M, Yu J, Shi X, Zhu J, Gao X, Liu W (2021). "Polysaccharides catabolism by the human gut bacterium -Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron: advances and perspectives". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 61 (21): 3569–3588. doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1803198. PMID 32779480.
- ^ a b c d e f Comstock LE, Coyne MJ (October 2003). "Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron: a dynamic, niche-adapted human symbiont". BioEssays. 25 (10): 926–929. doi:10.1002/bies.10350. PMID 14505359.
- ^ a b c Xu J, Chiang HC, Bjursell MK, Gordon JI (January 2004). "Message from a human gut symbiont: sensitivity is a prerequisite for sharing". Trends in Microbiology. 12 (1): 21–28. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2003.11.007. PMID 14700548.
- ^ Flint HJ, Bayer EA, Rincon MT, Lamed R, White BA (February 2008). "Polysaccharide utilization by gut bacteria: potential for new insights from genomic analysis". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 6 (2): 121–131. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1817. PMID 18180751. S2CID 10400358.
- ^ Ryan D, Jenniches L, Reichardt S, Barquist L, Westermann AJ (July 2020). "A high-resolution transcriptome map identifies small RNA regulation of metabolism in the gut microbe Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 3557. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.3557R. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17348-5. PMC 7366714. PMID 32678091.
- ^ Sonnenburg JL, Xu J, Leip DD, Chen CH, Westover BP, Weatherford J, et al. (March 2005). "Glycan foraging in vivo by an intestine-adapted bacterial symbiont". Science. 307 (5717): 1955–1959. Bibcode:2005Sci...307.1955S. doi:10.1126/science.1109051. PMID 15790854. S2CID 13588903.
- ^ Lovegrove, A. (2015). "Role of Polysaccharides in Food, Digestion, and Health". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 57 (2). National Library of Medicine: 237–253. doi:10.1080/10408398.2014.939263. PMC 5152545. PMID 25921546.
- ^ Oliphant, K., Allen-Vercoe, E. Macronutrient metabolism by the human gut microbiome: major fermentation by-products and their impact on host health. Microbiome 7, 91 (2019).[1]
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