View source for Unmanned aerial vehicle

{{short description|Aircraft without any human pilot on board}}
{{redirect|UAV|other uses|UAV (disambiguation)}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
[[File:NGP DSC 0364.jpg|300px|thumb|Elbit Systems [[Elbit Hermes 450|Hermes-450]] taking off]]
[[File:Northrop Grumman Bat UAV in flight in June 2014.JPG|300px|thumb|[[Northrop Grumman Bat]] carrying EO/IR and SAR sensors, laser rangefinders, laser designators, infrared cameras]]
[[File:DJI Phantom 2 Vision+ V3 hovering over Weissfluhjoch (cropped).jpg|300px|thumb|A [[DJI (company)|DJI]] [[Phantom (UAV)|Phantom]] [[quadcopter]] UAV for commercial and recreational [[aerial photography]] ]]
[[File:MQ-9 Reaper UAV (cropped).jpg|300px|thumb|A [[General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper]], a hunter-killer surveillance UAV]]
[[File:US Navy 110930-N-JQ696-401 An MQ-8B Fire Scout unmanned aerial vehicle (cropped).jpg|300px|thumb|Although most large military UAVs are [[fixed-wing aircraft]], [[rotorcraft]] designs (i.e., RUAVs) such as this [[Northrop Grumman MQ-8 Fire Scout|MQ-8B Fire Scout]] are also used.]]

An '''unmanned aerial vehicle''' ('''UAV'''), or '''unmanned aircraft system''' ('''UAS'''), commonly known as a '''drone''', is an [[aircraft]] with no human [[Aircraft pilot|pilot]], crew, or passengers on board. UAVs were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions too "dull, dirty or dangerous"<ref>{{cite journal|date=Spring 1991 |journal=Airpower Journal |last=Tice |first=Brian P. |title=Unmanned Aerial Vehicles – The Force Multiplier of the 1990s |url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj91/spr91/4spr91.htm |access-date=6 June 2013 |quote=When used, UAVs should generally perform missions characterized by the three Ds: dull, dirty, and dangerous. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724015052/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj91/spr91/4spr91.htm |archive-date=24 July 2009 }}</ref> for humans, and by the twenty-first, they had become essential assets to most militaries. As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded to many non-military applications.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Alvarado|first=Ed|date=3 May 2021|title=237 Ways Drone Applications Revolutionize Business|url=https://droneii.com/237-ways-drone-applications-revolutionize-business|access-date=11 May 2021|website=Drone Industry Insights|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511113408/https://droneii.com/237-ways-drone-applications-revolutionize-business|url-status=live}}</ref> These include [[aerial photography]], area coverage,<ref name="tits">F.  Rekabi-Bana; Hu, J.; T. Krajník; Arvin, F., "[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/10287148 Unified Robust Path Planning and Optimal Trajectory Generation for Efficient 3D Area Coverage of Quadrotor UAVs]" IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2023.</ref> [[agricultural drone|precision agriculture]], forest fire monitoring,<ref name="ast">Hu, J.; Niu, H.; Carrasco, J.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F., "[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1270963822001687 Fault-tolerant cooperative navigation of networked UAV swarms for forest fire monitoring]" Aerospace Science and Technology, 2022.</ref>   river monitoring,<ref name="ELSEVIER - HEALTH SCIENCE">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1329422815 |title=Remote sensing of the environment using unmanned aerial systems (UAS). |date=2023 |publisher=ELSEVIER - HEALTH SCIENCE |isbn=978-0-323-85283-8 |location=[S.l.] |oclc=1329422815 |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213809/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1329422815 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perks |first1=Matthew T. |last2=Dal Sasso |first2=Silvano Fortunato |last3=Hauet |first3=Alexandre |last4=Jamieson |first4=Elizabeth |last5=Le Coz |first5=Jérôme |last6=Pearce |first6=Sophie |last7=Peña-Haro |first7=Salvador |last8=Pizarro |first8=Alonso |last9=Strelnikova |first9=Dariia |last10=Tauro |first10=Flavia |last11=Bomhof |first11=James |last12=Grimaldi |first12=Salvatore |last13=Goulet |first13=Alain |last14=Hortobágyi |first14=Borbála |last15=Jodeau |first15=Magali |date=2020-07-08 |title=Towards harmonisation of image velocimetry techniques for river surface velocity observations |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/12/1545/2020/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=1545–1559 |doi=10.5194/essd-12-1545-2020 |bibcode=2020ESSD...12.1545P |issn=1866-3516 |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112000531/https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/12/1545/2020/ |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[environmental monitoring]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koparan |first1=Cengiz |last2=Koc |first2=A. Bulent |last3=Privette |first3=Charles V. |last4=Sawyer |first4=Calvin B. |date=March 2020 |title=Adaptive Water Sampling Device for Aerial Robots |journal=Drones |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=5 |doi=10.3390/drones4010005 |doi-access=free | issn=2504-446X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koparan |first1=Cengiz |last2=Koc |first2=Ali Bulent |last3=Privette |first3=Charles V. |last4=Sawyer |first4=Calvin B. |last5=Sharp |first5=Julia L. |author5-link=Julia Sharp|date=May 2018 |title=Evaluation of a UAV-Assisted Autonomous Water Sampling |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=655 |doi=10.3390/w10050655 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koparan |first1=Cengiz |last2=Koc |first2=Ali Bulent |last3=Privette |first3=Charles V. |last4=Sawyer |first4=Calvin B. |date=March 2018 |title=In Situ Water Quality Measurements Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) System |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=264 |doi=10.3390/w10030264 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koparan |first1=Cengiz |last2=Koc |first2=Ali Bulent |last3=Privette |first3=Charles V. |last4=Sawyer |first4=Calvin B. |date=March 2019 |title=Autonomous In Situ Measurements of Noncontaminant Water Quality Indicators and Sample Collection with a UAV |journal=Water |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=604 |doi=10.3390/w11030604 |doi-access=free}}</ref> policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections,  smuggling,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2017/04/17/drones-smuggling-porn-drugs-to-inmates-around-world.html|title=Drones smuggling porn, drugs to inmates around the world|website=[[Fox News]]|date=17 April 2017|access-date=17 April 2017|archive-date=31 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831035314/http://www.foxnews.com/us/2017/04/17/drones-smuggling-porn-drugs-to-inmates-around-world.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Delivery drone|product deliveries]], entertainment, and [[drone racing]].

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==Terminology==
Many terms are used for aircraft which fly without any persons on board.

The term '''drone''' has been used from the early days of [[aviation]], some being applied to remotely flown target [[aircraft]] used for practice firing of a battleship's guns, such as the 1920s [[Fairey III|Fairey Queen]] and 1930s [[De Havilland Tiger Moth#Gunnery target drone|de Havilland Queen Bee]]. Later examples included the [[Airspeed Queen Wasp]] and [[Miles Martinet|Miles Queen Martinet]], before ultimate replacement by the [[GAF Jindivik]].<ref>Note; the term "[[Drone (bee)|drone]]" refers to the male bee that serves only to fertilize the [[queen bee]], hence the use of the name in reference to the DH Queen Bee aerial target.</ref> The term remains in common use.  In addition to the software, autonomous drones also employ a host of advanced technologies that allow them to carry out their missions without human intervention, such as cloud computing, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and thermal sensors.<ref>{{cite web |title=Drones and Artificial Intelligence |url=https://www.droneii.com/drones-and-artificial-intelligence |website=Drone Industry Insights |access-date=11 April 2020 |date=28 August 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917052156/https://www.droneii.com/drones-and-artificial-intelligence |url-status=live }}</ref> For recreational uses, an [[aerial photography]] drone is an aircraft that has first-person video, autonomous capabilities, or both.<ref name="dronesetc">{{cite web|url=https://www.dronesetc.com/blogs/news/21481409-what-is-the-difference-between-a-drone-and-an-rc-plane-or-helicopter|publisher=Drones Etc|title=What is the difference between a drone and an RC plane or helicopter?|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117020459/https://www.dronesetc.com/blogs/news/21481409-what-is-the-difference-between-a-drone-and-an-rc-plane-or-helicopter|archive-date=17 November 2015}}</ref>

An '''unmanned aerial vehicle''' ('''UAV''') is defined as a "powered, aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses [[aerodynamic force]]s to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Unmanned+Aerial+Vehicle|title=unmanned aerial vehicle|work=TheFreeDictionary.com|access-date=8 January 2015|archive-date=8 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108233752/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Unmanned+Aerial+Vehicle|url-status=live}}</ref> UAV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Guilmartin |first1=John F. |title=unmanned aerial vehicle |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/unmanned-aerial-vehicle |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=24 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329092652/https://www.britannica.com/technology/unmanned-aerial-vehicle |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Missile]]s with warheads are generally not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a munition, but certain types of propeller-based missile are often called "[[Loitering munition|kamikaze drones]]" by the public and media. Also, the relation of UAVs to [[Radio-controlled aircraft|remote controlled model aircraft]] is unclear,{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}} UAVs may or may not include remote-controlled model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight; however, the US FAA defines any unmanned flying craft as a UAV regardless of size. {{Citation needed|date=May 2022}} 
A similar term is '''''remotely piloted aerial vehicle''''' ('''RPAV''').

UAVs or RPAVs can also be seen as a component of an '''unmanned aircraft system''' ('''UAS'''), which also includes a ground-based controller and a system of communications with the aircraft.<ref name="ast" /> 
The term UAS was adopted by the [[United States Department of Defense]] (DoD) and the United States [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) in 2005 according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.acq.osd.mil/usd/Roadmap%20Final2.pdf#search=%22Dod%20UAS%20Roadmap%202005%22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002220516/http://www.acq.osd.mil/usd/Roadmap%20Final2.pdf#search=%22Dod%20UAS%20Roadmap%202005%22|title=Unmanned Aircraft Systems Roadmap.|archive-date=2 October 2008}}</ref> The [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) and the [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)|British Civil Aviation Authority]] adopted this term, also used in the European Union's [[SESAR Joint Undertaking|Single European Sky (SES) Air Traffic Management (ATM) Research]] (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title = European ATM Master Plan 2015 {{!}} SESAR|url = http://www.sesarju.eu/newsroom/brochures-publications/european-atm-master-plan-2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160206104147/http://www.sesarju.eu/newsroom/brochures-publications/european-atm-master-plan-2015|archive-date = 6 February 2016|website = www.sesarju.eu|access-date = 3 February 2016}}</ref> This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. Similar terms are '''''unmanned aircraft vehicle system''''' ('''UAVS''') and '''''remotely piloted aircraft system''''' ('''RPAS''').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spatialsource.com.au/unmanned/state-government-gears-autonomous-rpas-mapping|title=State government gears up for autonomous RPAS mapping|date=23 January 2017|access-date=1 February 2017|archive-date=25 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225064802/http://www.spatialsource.com.au/unmanned/state-government-gears-autonomous-rpas-mapping|url-status=live}}</ref> Many similar terms are in use. Under new regulations which came into effect 1 June 2019, the term RPAS has been adopted by the Canadian Government to mean "a set of configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted aircraft, its control station, the command and control links and any other system elements required during flight operation".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lois-laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-96-433/FullText.html#s-900.01|title=Canadian Aviation Regulations|date=1 June 2019|website=Government of Canada – Justice Laws Website|access-date=16 January 2019|archive-date=6 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106213439/https://lois-laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-96-433/FullText.html#s-900.01|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Classification types==
UAVs may be classified like any other [[aircraft]], according to design configuration such as weight or engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy, operational role, etc. According to the [[United States Department of Defense]], UAVs are classified into five categories below:<ref name=uavclassificationA>{{cite web| url=https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog892/node/5| title=UAV classification| access-date=June 10, 2022| archive-date=23 May 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523235132/https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog892/node/5| url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=uavclassificationB>{{cite web| url=https://irp.fas.org/program/collect/uas-army.pdf| title=Eyes of the Army: U.S. Army Roadmap for UAS 2010–2035| access-date=June 10, 2022| archive-date=18 February 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218054255/https://irp.fas.org/program/collect/uas-army.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Group:
! Group 1
! Group 2
! Group 3
! Group 4
! Group 5
|-
 !Size
 | Small
 | Medium
 | Large
 | Larger
 | Largest
|-
 !Max take-off wt
 | < {{convert|20|lb|kg|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | > 20 & < 55
 | > 55 & < 1320
 | >{{convert| 1320|lb|kg|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | >{{convert| 1320|lb|kg|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
|-
 !Operating altitude
 | < {{convert|1,200|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | < {{convert|3,500|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | < {{convert|18,000|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | < {{convert|18,000|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | > {{convert|18,000|ft|m|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
|-
 !Speed
 | < {{convert|100|kn|km/h|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | < {{convert|250|kn|km/h|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | < {{convert|250|kn|km/h|abbr=on|disp=br() }}
 | Any speed
 | Any speed
|}
Other classifications of UAVs include:<ref name=uavclassificationA/>

===Range and endurance===
There are usually five categories when UAVs are classified by range and endurance:<ref name=uavclassificationA/>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Category:
! Very close range UAVs
! Close range UAVs
! Short range UAVs
! Medium range UAVs
! Long range UAVs
|-
 | '''Range (km)''':
 | < 5
 | > 5 & < 50
 | > 50 & < 150
 | > 150 & < 650
 | > 650
|-
 | '''Endurance (hr)''':
 | 0.5 – 0.75 
 | 1–6
 | 8–12
 | 12 – 36 or 48
 | > 36 or 48
|}

===Size===
There are usually four categories when UAVs are classified by size, with at least one of the dimensions (length or wingspan) meet the following respective limits:<ref name=uavclassificationA/>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Category:
! Micro/Very small UAVs
! Mini/Small UAVs
! Medium UAVs
! Large UAVs
|-
 | '''Length/Wingspan''':
 | < 50&nbsp;cm
 | > 50&nbsp;cm & < 2 m
 | 5 –10 m
 | > 10 m 
|}

===Weight===
Based on their weight, drones can be classified into 5 categories—
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Category:
! Nano
! [[Micro air vehicle]]s (MAV)
! [[Miniature UAV]] or Small (SUAV)
! Medium UAVs
! Large UAVs
|-
 | '''Weight''':
 | < 250&nbsp;gm
 | ≥ 250&nbsp;gm & <02 &nbsp;kg
 | ≥ 02&nbsp;kg & <25 &nbsp;kg
 | ≥ 25&nbsp;kg & <150 &nbsp;kg
 | ≥ 150&nbsp;kg
|}
.<ref name=dr1>[https://theprint.in/defence/nano-micro-small-the-different-drone-types-in-india-if-jammu-like-strike-can-be-averted/686158/ "Nano, micro, small: The different drone types in India & if Jammu-like strike can be averted"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629111522/https://theprint.in/defence/nano-micro-small-the-different-drone-types-in-india-if-jammu-like-strike-can-be-averted/686158/ |date=29 June 2021 }}, ''[[ThePrint]]'', 29 June 2021.</ref>

===Degree of autonomy===
Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight operations. ICAO classifies unmanned aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous.<ref name="Percepto Drones">{{cite web |last1=Drones |first1=Percepto |title=The Differences Between UAV, UAS, and Autonomous Drones |url=https://percepto.co/what-are-the-differences-between-uav-uas-and-autonomous-drones/ |website=Percepto |date=3 January 2019 |access-date=18 February 2020 |archive-date=18 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218072255/https://percepto.co/what-are-the-differences-between-uav-uas-and-autonomous-drones/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. For example, a vehicle may be remotely piloted in most contexts but have an autonomous return-to-base operation. Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which may include manned aircraft transformed into manned or Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs). The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control by a human operator, as '''remotely piloted aircraft''' ('''RPA'''), or with various degrees of [[Vehicular automation|autonomy]], such as [[autopilot]] assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human intervention.<ref name="ICAO">{{cite book |last1=Cary |first1=Leslie |url=http://uvs-info.com/phocadownload/05_3a_2011/P112-P115_C&AI_ICAO-Advisory-Circular.pdf |title=2011–2012 UAS Yearbook – UAS: The Global Perspective |last2=Coyne |first2=James |publisher=Blyenburgh & Co |pages=112–115 |contribution=ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328 |access-date=26 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025432/http://uvs-info.com/phocadownload/05_3a_2011/P112-P115_C%26AI_ICAO-Advisory-Circular.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=J. |last2=Lanzon |first2=A. |date=2018 |title=An innovative tri-rotor drone and associated distributed aerial drone swarm control |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921889017308163 |journal=Robotics and Autonomous Systems |volume=103 |pages=162–174 |doi=10.1016/j.robot.2018.02.019}}</ref>

===Altitude===
Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been used at industry events such as [[ParcAberporth]] Unmanned Systems forum:
* Hand-held {{convert|2000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}} altitude, about 2&nbsp;km range
* Close {{convert|5000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}} altitude, up to 10&nbsp;km range
* NATO type {{convert|10000|ft|m|-3|abbr=on}} altitude, up to 50&nbsp;km range
* Tactical {{convert|18000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}} altitude, about 160&nbsp;km range
* [[Medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle|MALE (medium altitude, long endurance)]] up to {{convert|30000|ft|m|-3|abbr=on}} and range over 200&nbsp;km
* [[High-Altitude Long Endurance|HALE (high altitude, long endurance)]] over {{convert|30000|ft|m|abbr=on}} and indefinite range
* Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) {{convert|50000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}} or suborbital altitude, range over 200&nbsp;km
* Orbital low Earth orbit (Mach 25+)
* CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer
* Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs

===Composite criteria===
An example of classification based on the composite criteria is U.S. Military's [[U.S. military UAS groups|unmanned aerial systems]] (UAS) classification of UAVs based on weight, maximum altitude and speed of the UAV component.

=== Power Sources ===
UAVs can be classified based on their power or energy source, which significantly impacts their flight duration, range, and environmental impact. The main categories include:

* '''Battery-powered (Electric):''' These UAVs use rechargeable batteries, offering quiet operation and lower maintenance but potentially limited flight times. The reduced noise levels make them suitable for urban environments and sensitive operations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garrow |first1=Laurie A. |last2=German |first2=Brian J. |last3=Leonard |first3=Caroline E. |date=2021-11-01 |title=Urban air mobility: A comprehensive review and comparative analysis with autonomous and electric ground transportation for informing future research |journal=Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies |volume=132 |pages=103377 |doi=10.1016/j.trc.2021.103377 |issn=0968-090X|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021TRPC..13203377G }}</ref>
* '''Fuel-powered (Internal Combustion):''' Utilizing traditional fuels like gasoline or diesel, these UAVs often have longer flight times but may be noisier and require more maintenance. They are typically used for applications requiring extended endurance or heavy payload capacity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exploring Gas Powered Drones: Uses and Benefits |url=https://www.flyability.com/blog/gas-powered-drone |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=www.flyability.com |language=en}}</ref>
* '''Hybrid:''' Combining electric and fuel power sources, hybrid UAVs aim to balance the benefits of both systems for improved performance and efficiency. This configuration could allow for versatility in mission profiles and adaptability to different operational requirements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Caizhi |last2=Qiu |first2=Yuqi |last3=Chen |first3=Jiawei |last4=Li |first4=Yuehua |last5=Liu |first5=Zhitao |last6=Liu |first6=Yang |last7=Zhang |first7=Jiujun |last8=Hwa |first8=Chan Siew |date=2022-08-01 |title=A comprehensive review of electrochemical hybrid power supply systems and intelligent energy managements for unmanned aerial vehicles in public services |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666546822000283 |journal=Energy and AI |volume=9 |pages=100175 |doi=10.1016/j.egyai.2022.100175 |bibcode=2022EneAI...900175Z |issn=2666-5468|hdl=10356/164036 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* '''Solar-powered:''' Equipped with solar panels, these UAVs can potentially achieve extended flight times by harnessing solar energy, especially at high altitudes. Solar-powered UAVs may be particularly suited for long-endurance missions and environmental monitoring applications.<ref>{{Cite web |last=jenks2026 |date=2024-01-30 |title=Solar-Powered Drones and UAVs |url=https://green.org/2024/01/30/solar-powered-drones-and-uavs/ |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=Green.org |language=en-US}}</ref>
* '''Nuclear-powered:''' While nuclear power has been explored for larger aircraft, its application in UAVs remains largely theoretical due to safety concerns and regulatory challenges. Research in this area is ongoing but faces significant hurdles before practical implementation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fabled Sky Research |date=2024 |title=Revolutionizing UAV Capabilities: Exploring the Potential of Nuclear Propulsion Systems |url=https://figshare.com/articles/preprint/_b_Revolutionizing_UAV_Capabilities_Exploring_the_Potential_of_Nuclear_Propulsion_Systems_b_/26198462/1 |journal=UAV Technologies |pages=219399 Bytes |doi=10.6084/M9.FIGSHARE.26198462.V1}}</ref>
* '''Hydrogen Fuel Cell:''' An emerging technology, hydrogen fuel cells offer the potential for longer flight times with zero emissions, though the technology is still developing for widespread UAV use. The high energy density of hydrogen makes it a promising option for future UAV propulsion systems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Powering Solutions for Your Drone in 2024: New Fuels |url=https://www.commercialuavnews.com/surveying/powering-solutions-for-your-drone-in-2024-new-fuels |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=www.commercialuavnews.com |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of unmanned aerial vehicles}}
[[File:Winston Churchill and the Secretary of State for War waiting to see the launch of a de Havilland Queen Bee radio-controlled target drone, 6 June 1941. H10307.jpg|thumb|right|[[Winston Churchill]] and others waiting to watch the launch of a [[De Havilland Tiger Moth#Gunnery target drone|de Havilland Queen Bee]] [[target drone]], 6 June 1941]]
[[File:Teledyne-Ryan-Firebee-hatzerim-1.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Ryan Firebee]], one of a series of target drones/unpiloted aerial vehicles that first flew in 1951. [[Israeli Air Force Museum]], Hatzerim airbase, Israel, 2006]]
[[File:Last preparation before first tactical mission across Suez canal (1969).jpg|thumb|Last preparations before the first tactical UAV mission across the Suez canal (1969). Standing: Major Shabtai Brill from the Israeli intelligence corps, the innovator of the tactical UAV.]]
[[File:Tadiran-Mastiff-III-hatzerim-1.jpg|thumb|The Israeli [[Tadiran Mastiff]], which first flew in 1975, is seen by many as the first modern battlefield UAV, due to its data-link system, endurance-loitering, and live video-streaming.<ref>The ''Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History: A Political, Social, and Military History'', ABC-CLIO, 12 May 2008, by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts, pages 1054–55 ISBN</ref>]]

===Early drones===
The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 The Future of Drone Use: Opportunities and Threats from Ethical and Legal Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213802/https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 |date=27 February 2023 }}, Asser Press{{snd}} Springer, chapter by Alan McKenna, page 355</ref> with a [[balloon carrier]] (the precursor to the [[aircraft carrier]])<ref name="Kaplan">{{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Philip|title=Naval Aviation in the Second World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDARBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19|year=2013|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-4738-2997-8|page=19|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-date=27 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213802/https://books.google.com/books?id=pDARBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19|url-status=live}}</ref> in the first offensive use of [[air power]] in [[naval aviation]].<ref name="Hallion">{{cite book|last= Hallion|first= Richard P.|title= Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity through the First World War|url= https://archive.org/details/takingflightinve0000hall|url-access= registration|year= 2003|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-028959-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/takingflightinve0000hall/page/66 66]}}</ref><ref name="LaymanFirst">[https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinf00laym <!-- quote=vulcano balloon venice. --> Naval Aviation in the First World War: Its Impact and Influence], R. D. Layman, page 56</ref><ref name="RennerFirst">{{cite book|last=Renner|first=Stephen L.|title=Broken Wings: The Hungarian Air Force, 1918–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HDoJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|year=2016|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-02339-1|page=2|access-date=26 October 2019|archive-date=27 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213803/https://books.google.com/books?id=HDoJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|url-status=live}}</ref> Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 [[incendiary balloon]]s at the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the Austrian ship {{SMS|Vulcano}}. At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship ''Vulcano''.<ref name="Murphy">{{cite book|last= Murphy|first= Justin D.|title= Military Aircraft, Origins to 1918: An Illustrated History of Their Impact|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7pS1QpH8FRgC&pg=PA9|year= 2005|publisher= ABC-CLIO|isbn= 978-1-85109-488-2|pages= 9–10|access-date= 19 August 2019|archive-date= 27 February 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213804/https://books.google.com/books?id=7pS1QpH8FRgC&pg=PA9|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Haydon">{{cite book|last=Haydon|first=F. Stansbury|title= Military Ballooning During the Early Civil War|url= https://archive.org/details/militaryballooni00hayd |url-access= registration|year=2000|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6442-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/militaryballooni00hayd/page/18 18]–20}}</ref><ref name="Mikesh">{{Cite journal |last=Mikesh |first=Robert C. |title=Japan's World War II balloon bomb attacks on North America |year= 1973 |journal=Smithsonian Annals of Flight |issue= 9 |pages=1–85 |location=Washington, DC |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/18679/SAoF-0009-Lo_res.pdf |access-date=12 July 2018|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206005953/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/18679/SAoF-0009-Lo_res.pdf|url-status=live|hdl=10088/18679|doi=10.5479/si.AnnalsFlight.9|issn=0081-0207}}</ref>

The Spanish engineer [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] introduced a radio-based control-system called the [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo#Radio control: the Telekino|''Telekino'']]<ref>[[Tapan K. Sarkar]], '' History of wireless'', John Wiley and Sons, 2006, {{ISBN|0-471-71814-9}}, p. 97.</ref> at the [[Paris Academy of Science]] in 1903, as a way of testing [[airship]]s without risking human life.<ref>[[Biodiversity Heritage Library]]. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31206#page/323/mode/1up ''Mécanique Appliquée. - Sur le télékine. Note de M. L. Torres, présentée par M. Appell''] 3 August 1903, pp. 317-319, Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences.</ref><ref>Randy Alfred, "[https://www.wired.com/2011/11/1107wireless-remote-control/ Nov. 7, 1905: Remote Control Wows Public]", ''Wired'', 7 November 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=H. R. Everett |title=Unmanned Systems of World Wars I and II |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |date=2015 |pages=91–95 |isbn=978-0-262-02922-3}}</ref>

Significant development of drones started in the 1900s, and originally focused on providing practice targets for training [[military personnel]]. The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was [[Archibald Low|A. M. Low]]'s "Aerial Target" in 1916.<ref name="autogenerated1">Taylor, John W. R.. ''Jane's Pocket Book of Remotely Piloted Vehicles''.</ref> Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland's monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system.<ref>Professor A. M. Low FLIGHT, 3 October 1952 page 436 "The First Guided Missile"</ref> Following this successful demonstration in the spring of 1917 Low was transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches [[Coastal Motor Boat|D.C.B.s]] with the Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack shipping and port installations and he also assisted [[Frank Arthur Brock|Wing Commander Brock]] in preparations for the [[Zeebrugge Raid]]. Other [[British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I|British unmanned developments]] followed, leading to the fleet of over 400 [[de Havilland Tiger Moth|de Havilland 82 Queen Bee]] aerial targets that went into service in 1935.

[[Nikola Tesla]] described a fleet of uncrewed aerial combat vehicles in 1915.<ref name="armyeyes">{{cite web |last=Dempsey |first=Martin E.|url= http://www.rucker.army.mil/usaace/uas/US%20Army%20UAS%20RoadMap%202010%202035.pdf |title=Eyes of the Army—U.S. Army Roadmap for Unmanned Aircraft Systems 2010–2035 |publisher=[[U.S. Army]] |date=9 April 2010 |access-date=6 March 2011 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180922052536/http://www.rucker.army.mil/usaace/uas/US%20Army%20UAS%20RoadMap%202010%202035.pdf }}</ref> These developments also inspired the construction of the [[Kettering Bug]] by [[Charles Kettering]] from [[Dayton, Ohio]] and the [[Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane]] – initially meant as an uncrewed plane that would carry an explosive payload to a predetermined target. Development continued during World War I, when the [[Dayton-Wright Airplane Company]] invented a pilotless [[aerial torpedo]] that would explode at a preset time.<ref>{{cite web|last= Says|first= Robert Kanyike|title= History of U.S. Drones|url= http://understandingempire.wordpress.com/2-0-a-brief-history-of-u-s-drones/|date= 21 May 2012|access-date= 17 February 2014|archive-date= 26 September 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190926020824/https://understandingempire.wordpress.com/2-0-a-brief-history-of-u-s-drones/|url-status= live}}</ref>

The film star and [[model-airplane]] enthusiast [[Reginald Denny (actor)|Reginald Denny]] developed the first scaled remote piloted vehicle in 1935.<ref name="autogenerated1" />

Soviet researchers experimented with controlling [[Tupolev TB-1]] bombers remotely in the late 1930s.<ref>{{cite book  |last1            = Andersson  |first1           = Lennart  |title            = Soviet Aircraft and Aviation, 1917–1941  |url              = https://books.google.com/books?id=1lzbAAAAMAAJ  |series           = The Putnam Aviation Series  |year             = 1994  |location         = Annapolis, Maryland  |publisher        = Naval Institute Press  |publication-date = 1994 |page             = 249  |isbn             = 9781557507709  |access-date      = 18 December 2021 |quote            = Experiments with a pilotless drone version of the TB-1 controlled by radio from other aircraft started in 1935 and continued until 1939. |archive-date     = 27 February 2023  |archive-url      = https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213805/https://books.google.com/books?id=1lzbAAAAMAAJ  |url-status       = live }}</ref>

===World War II===
In 1940, Denny started the [[Radioplane Company]] and more models emerged during [[World War II]]{{snd}} used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack-missions. [[Nazi Germany]] produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war, like the [[Argus As 292]] and the [[V-1 flying bomb]] with a [[jet engine]]. [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] developed a specialised drone version of the [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 Sparviero|Savoia-Marchetti SM.79]] flown by remote control, although the Armistice with Italy was enacted prior to any operational deployment.<ref>{{cite book|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fNjgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA318 318]|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|title=Unmanned Systems of World Wars I and II|author=H. R. Everett|year=2015|isbn=9780262029223}}</ref>

===Postwar period===
After World War II development continued in vehicles such as the American [[JB-4]] (using television/radio-command guidance), the Australian [[GAF Jindivik]] and [[Ryan Aeronautical|Teledyne Ryan]] [[Ryan Firebee|Firebee I]] of 1951, while companies like [[Beechcraft]] offered their [[Beechcraft MQM-61 Cardinal|Model 1001]] for the [[U.S. Navy]] in 1955.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the [[Vietnam War]]. In 1959, the [[U.S. Air Force]], concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began planning for the use of uncrewed aircraft.{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p= xi}} Planning intensified after the [[Soviet Union]] [[1960 U-2 incident|shot down a U-2]] in 1960. Within days, a highly [[classified information|classified]] UAV program started under the code name of "Red Wagon".{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p= xi, xii}} The August 1964 [[Tonkin Gulf Incident|clash in the Tonkin Gulf]] between naval units of the U.S. and the [[North Vietnamese Navy]] initiated America's highly classified UAVs ([[Ryan Model 147]], [[Ryan AQM-91 Firefly]], [[Lockheed D-21]]) into their first combat missions of the [[Vietnam War]].{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=xii}} When the Chinese government{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=79}} showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via ''Wide World Photos'',{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=78, 79}} the official U.S. response was "no comment".

During the [[War of Attrition]] (1967–1970) in the Middle East, Israeli intelligence tested the first tactical UAVs installed with [[reconnaissance]] cameras, which successfully returned photos from across the Suez Canal. This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed on any short runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs) were developed and tested in battle.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Dunstan | first1 = Simon | title = Israeli Fortifications of the October War 1973 | url = {{google books |plainurl=y |id=CPm8EocIfoQC|page=16}} | publisher = Osprey Publishing | date = 2013 | page = 16 | isbn = 9781782004318 | access-date = 25 October 2015 | quote = The War of Attrition was also notable for the first use of UAVs, or unmanned aerial vehicles, carrying reconnaissance cameras in combat. }}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[Israel]] used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Saxena | first1 = V. K. | author-link1 = Corps of Army Air Defence#Director General | title = The Amazing Growth and Journey of UAV's and Ballistic Missile Defence Capabilities: Where the Technology is Leading to? | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hwWqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 | publisher = Vij Books India Pvt Ltd | date = 2013 | page = 6 | isbn = 9789382573807 | access-date = 25 October 2015 | quote = During the Yom Kippur War the Israelis used Teledyne Ryan 124 R RPVs along with the home-grown Scout and Mastiff UAVs for reconnaissance, surveillance, and as decoys to draw fire from Arab SAMs. This resulted in Arab forces expending costly and scarce missiles on inappropriate targets [...]. | archive-date = 27 February 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213814/https://books.google.com/books?id=hwWqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 | url-status = live }}</ref> After the 1973 Yom Kippur war, a few key people from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first Israeli UAV.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Blum |first1= Howard |title= The eve of destruction: the untold story of the Yom Kippur War |date= 2003 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=9780060013998 |language=en}}</ref>{{Pages needed|date=January 2019}}

In 1973, the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia (Vietnam).{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=202}} Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were [[Missing In Action|missing]] or [[POW|captured]]. The USAF [[100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing]] flew about 3,435 UAV missions during the war{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=200, 212}} at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF [[General]] [[George S. Brown]], Commander, [[Air Force Systems Command]], in 1972, "The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we don't want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit."{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=208}} Later that year, General [[John C. Meyer]], Commander in Chief, [[Strategic Air Command]], stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk flying&nbsp;... the loss rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them&nbsp;...they save lives!"{{sfn|Wagner|1982|p=208}}

During the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], Soviet-supplied [[surface-to-air missile]]-batteries in [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] caused heavy damage to Israeli [[fighter jet]]s. As a result, Israel developed the [[IAI Scout]] as the first UAV with real-time surveillance.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.howstuffworks.com/reaper1.htm | title = A Brief History of UAVs | publisher = Howstuffworks.com | access-date = 8 January 2015 | date = 22 July 2008 | archive-date = 22 May 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130522111255/http://www.howstuffworks.com/reaper1.htm | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htairfo/articles/20090409.aspx | title = Russia Buys A Bunch of Israeli UAVs | publisher = Strategypage.com | access-date = 8 January 2015 | archive-date = 26 October 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131026110814/http://strategypage.com/htmw/htairfo/articles/20090409.aspx | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000691790 | title = Unmanned combat vehicles shaping future warfare | first = Yuval | last = Azoulai | date = 24 October 2011 | work = [[Globes (newspaper)|Globes]] | access-date = 8 January 2015 | archive-date = 3 December 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131203060756/http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000691790
| url-status = live }}</ref> The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to [[Operation Mole Cricket 19|completely neutralize]] the Syrian [[air defense]]s at the start of the [[1982 Lebanon War]], resulting in no pilots downed.<ref name="WSJLevinson">{{cite news | url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB126325146524725387 | title = Israeli Robots Remake Battlefield | first = Charles | last = Levinson | date = 13 January 2010 | work = [[The Wall Street Journal]] | page = A10 | access-date = 13 January 2010 | archive-date = 13 March 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200313163718/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB126325146524725387 | url-status = live }}</ref> In Israel in 1987, UAVs were first used as proof-of-concept of super-agility, post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight simulations that involved tailless, stealth-technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight-control, and jet-steering.<ref>{{cite book |first = Benjamin |last = Gal-Or |title = Vectored Propulsion, Supermaneuverability & Robot Aircraft |publisher = Springer Verlag |year = 1990 |isbn = 978-3-540-97161-0 }}</ref>

===Modern UAVs===
[[File:STM_Kargu.png|thumb|The Turkish [[STM Kargu]] was the first [[lethal autonomous weapon]] to attack enemy combatants in warfare.]]
With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. The U.S. funded the [[Counterterrorism_Mission_Center|Counterterrorism Center]] (CTC) within the CIA, which sought to fight terrorism with the aid of modernized drone technology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fuller |first=Christopher J. |date=2015 |title=The Eagle Comes Home to Roost: The Historical Origins of the CIA's Lethal Drone Program |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02684527.2014.895569 |journal=Intelligence and National Security |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=769–792|doi=10.1080/02684527.2014.895569 |s2cid=154927243 }}</ref> In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to [[AAI Corporation]] along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy bought the [[AAI RQ-2 Pioneer|AAI Pioneer UAV]] that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in the [[1991 Gulf War]]. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting-machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations primarily involved [[surveillance aircraft]], but [[unmanned combat air vehicle|some carried armaments]], such as the [[General Atomics MQ-1 Predator]], that launched [[AGM-114 Hellfire]] [[air-to-ground missile]]s.

[[CAPECON project|CAPECON]], a [[European Union]] [[project]] to develop UAVs,<ref name="Z. Goraj, A. Frydrychewicz, R. Świtkiewicz, B. Hernik, J. Gadomski, T. Goetzendorf-Grabowski, M. Figat, St Suchodolski, W. Chajec">{{cite book |url=http://bulletin.pan.pl/(52-3)173.pdf |author1=Z. Goraj |author2=A. Frydrychewicz |author3=R. Świtkiewicz |author4=B. Hernik |author5=J. Gadomski |author6=T. Goetzendorf-Grabowski |author7=M. Figat |author8=St Suchodolski |author9=W. Chajec |title=report |publisher=Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Technical Sciences, Volume 52. Number 3, 2004 |access-date=9 December 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071427/http://bulletin.pan.pl/(52-3)173.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ran from 1 May 2002 to 31 December 2005.<ref name="CORDIS">{{cite book|url=http://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/63495_en.html|author=Community Research and Development Information Service|title=Civil uav application and economic effectiveness of potential configuration solutions|publisher=published by the Publications Office of the European Union|access-date=9 December 2015|author-link=Community Research and Development Information Service|archive-date=29 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129123521/http://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/63495_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{As of | 2012}}, the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) employed 7,494 UAVs{{snd}} almost one in three USAF aircraft.<ref name="WIRED">{{cite magazine|url= https://www.wired.com/2012/01/drone-report/|title= Almost 1 in 3 U.S. Warplanes Is a Robot|magazine= WIRED|access-date= 8 January 2015|first1= Spencer|last1= Ackerman|first2= Noah|last2= Shachtman|date= 9 January 2012|archive-date= 23 March 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200323171457/https://www.wired.com/2012/01/drone-report/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Singer" /> The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] [[Use of UAVs by the CIA|also operated UAVs]].<ref>{{cite journal|last= Radsan|first= AJ|author2= Murphy|title= Measure Twice, Shoot Once: Higher Care for Cia-Targeted Killing|journal= Univ. Ill. Law Rev.:1201–1241|year= 2011}}</ref> By 2013 at least 50 countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and others designed and built their own varieties. The use of drones has continued to increase.<ref name="sayler">Sayler (2015)</ref> Due to their wide proliferation, no comprehensive list of UAV systems exists.<ref name="Singer">Singer, Peter W. [http://www.brookings.edu/articles/2009/11_robotic_revolution_singer.aspx "A Revolution Once More: Unmanned Systems and the Middle East"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806065520/http://www.brookings.edu/articles/2009/11_robotic_revolution_singer.aspx |date=6 August 2011 }}, [http://www.brookings.edu/ The Brookings Institution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126030757/https://www.brookings.edu/ |date=26 January 2018 }}, November 2009.</ref><ref name="Franke">Franke, Ulrike Esther ["The global diffusion of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or 'drones'"], in Mike Aaronson (ed) Precision Strike Warfare and International Intervention, Routledge 2015.</ref>

The development of smart technologies and improved electrical-power systems led to a parallel increase in the use of drones for consumer and general aviation activities. As of 2021, [[quadcopter]] drones exemplify the widespread popularity of hobby [[radio-controlled aircraft]] and toys, however the use of UAVs in commercial and general aviation is limited by a lack of autonomy{{clarify|date=December 2021}} and by new regulatory environments which require line-of-sight contact with the pilot.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

In 2020, a [[STM Kargu|Kargu 2]] drone hunted down and attacked a human target in [[Libya]], according to a report from the [[UN Security Council]]'s Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021. This may have been the first time an [[:Lethal autonomous weapon|autonomous killer-robot]] armed with lethal weaponry attacked human beings.<ref>{{Cite web|last= Hambling|first= David|title= Drones may have attacked humans fully autonomously for the first time|url= https://www.newscientist.com/article/2278852-drones-may-have-attacked-humans-fully-autonomously-for-the-first-time/|access-date= 2021-05-30|website= New Scientist|language= en-US|archive-date= 30 July 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210730173534/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2278852-drones-may-have-attacked-humans-fully-autonomously-for-the-first-time/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= 2021-05-29 |title= Killer drone 'hunted down a human target' without being told to |url= https://www.foxnews.com/world/killer-drone-hunted-down-a-human-target-without-being-told-to |access-date= 2021-05-30 |website=[[New York Post]] |language= en-US |archive-date= 30 July 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210730173522/https://www.foxnews.com/world/killer-drone-hunted-down-a-human-target-without-being-told-to |url-status= live}}</ref>

Superior drone technology, specifically the Turkish [[Bayraktar TB2]], played a role in Azerbaijan's successes in the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war]] against Armenia.<ref>{{cite news  |last1            = Forestier-Walker  |first1           = Robin  |title            = Nagorno-Karabakh: New weapons for an old conflict spell danger  |url              = https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/10/13/nagorno-karabakh-new-weapons-for-an-old-conflict-spell-danger  |publisher        = Al Jazeera  |publication-date = 13 October 2020  |access-date      = 18 December 2021
 |quote            = [...] battlefield videos and the known military capabilities of the two warring sides suggest Azerbaijan has the technological advantage, especially with its combat drones purchased from Israel and Turkey.  |archive-date     = 13 October 2020
 |archive-url      = https://web.archive.org/web/20201013185319/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/10/13/nagorno-karabakh-new-weapons-for-an-old-conflict-spell-danger  |url-status       = live }}</ref>

[[File:Helicopter Above Perseverance on Mars (cropped).jpg|thumb|Artist's concept of ''[[Ingenuity (helicopter)|Ingenuity]]'' landing on [[Mars]]]]

UAVs are also used in [[NASA]] missions. The ''[[Ingenuity (helicopter)|Ingenuity]]'' helicopter is an autonomous UAV that operated on Mars from 2021 to 2024. Current the [[Dragonfly (Titan space probe)|Dragonfly spacecraft]] is being developed, and is aiming to reach and examine [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]. Its primary goal is to roam around the surface, expanding the amount of area to be researched previously seen by [[Lander (spacecraft)|lander]]s. As a UAV, Dragonfly allows examination of potentially diverse types of soil. The drone is set to launch in 2027, and is estimated to take seven more years to reach the Saturnian system.

Miniaturization is also supporting the development of small UAVs which can be used as individual system or in a fleet offering the possibility to survey large areas, in a relatively small amount of time.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bailon-Ruiz |first1=Rafael |last2=Lacroix |first2=Simon |last3=Bit-Monnot |first3=Arthur |title=2018 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) |chapter=Planning to Monitor Wildfires with a Fleet of UAVs |date=October 2018 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8593859 |location=Madrid |publisher=IEEE |pages=4729–4734 |doi=10.1109/IROS.2018.8593859 |isbn=978-1-5386-8094-0 |s2cid=52970107 |url=https://hal.laas.fr/hal-01852176 |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229172238/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8593859/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to data from [[GlobalData]], the global military uncrewed aerial systems (UAS) market, which forms a significant part of the UAV industry, is projected to experience a compound annual growth rate of 4.8% over the next decade. This represents a near doubling in market size, from $12.5 billion in 2024 to an estimated $20 billion by 2034.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hill |first=John |date=2024-05-07 |title=In data: UAS market projected to nearly double in ten years |url=https://www.army-technology.com/news/in-data-uas-market-projected-to-nearly-double-in-ten-years/ |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=Army Technology |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Design==
[[File:UAV Physical and hardware.jpg|thumb|General physical structure of a UAV]]

Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the [[cockpit]] and [[Environmental control system (aircraft)|environmental control system]] or [[life support system]]s. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments.

Small civilian UAVs have no [[life-critical system]]s, and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the [[quadcopter]] design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.

Control systems for UAVs are often different from crewed craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. [[Autopilot]] software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Design, Simulation and New Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles |url=https://www.mdpi.com/topics/UAV |access-date=2023-03-24 |website=www.mdpi.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nagel |first1=Huub |last2=Bondt |first2=Geert |last3=Custers |first3=Bart |last4=Vergouw |first4=Bas |date=16 July 2016 |title=Drone Technology: Types, Payloads, Applications, Frequency Spectrum Issues and Future Developments |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309184029 |journal=The Future of Drone Use}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=da Silva |first1=F.B |last2=Scott |first2=S.D |last3=Cummings |first3=M.L |date=December 2007 |title=Design Methodology for Unmannded Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Team Coordination |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/46732/HAL2007_05.pdf |journal=Design Methodology for Unmannded Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Team Coordination}}</ref>

===Aircraft configuration===
UAVs can be designed in different configurations than manned aircraft both because there is no need for a cockpit and its windows, and there is no need to optimize for human comfort, although some UAVs are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for optionally piloted modes. [[Air safety]] is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer greater freedom to experiment. Instead, UAVs are typically designed around their onboard payloads and their ground equipment. These factors have led to a great variety of airframe and motor configurations in UAVs.

For conventional flight the [[flying wing]] and [[blended wing body]] offer light weight combined with low [[drag (aerodynamics)|drag]] and [[stealth aircraft|stealth]], and are popular configurations for many use cases. Larger types which carry a variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct [[fuselage]] with a tail for stability, control and trim, although the [[wing configuration]]s in use vary widely.

For uses that require vertical flight or hovering, the tailless [[quadcopter]] requires a relatively simple control system and is common for smaller UAVs. [[Multirotor]] designs with 6 or more rotors is more common with larger UAVs, where redundancy is prioritized.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Torres-Sánchez |first1=Jorge |last2=López-Granados |first2=Francisca |last3=Castro |first3=Ana Isabel De |last4=Peña-Barragán |first4=José Manuel |date=2013-03-06 |title=Configuration and Specifications of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Early Site Specific Weed Management |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=e58210 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058210 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3590160 |pmid=23483997|bibcode=2013PLoSO...858210T |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Torres-Sánchez |first1=Jorge |last2=López-Granados |first2=Francisca |last3=De Castro |first3=Ana Isabel |last4=Peña-Barragán |first4=José Manuel |date=2013 |title=Configuration and specifications of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for early site specific weed management |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=e58210 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058210 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3590160 |pmid=23483997|bibcode=2013PLoSO...858210T |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Propulsion===

Traditional [[internal combustion]] and [[jet engine]]s remain in use for drones requiring long range. However, for shorter-range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over. The distance record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill "in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel" holds this record.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/model-airplane-history-maker-maynard-hill-dies-at-the-age-of-85/2011/06/08/AGcnyQNH_story.html|title=Model airplane history-maker Maynard Hill dies at the age of 85|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-date=4 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704034821/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/model-airplane-history-maker-maynard-hill-dies-at-the-age-of-85/2011/06/08/AGcnyQNH_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Besides the traditional piston engine, the [[Wankel rotary engine]] is used by some drones. This type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration-free running. Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range.{{citation needed|date=May 2021|reason=not cited elsewhere}}

Small drones mostly use [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] (Li-Po), while some larger vehicles have adopted the [[hydrogen fuel cell]]. The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi-engine, multi-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, [[Battery eliminator circuit|battery elimination circuitry]] (BEC) may be used to centralize power distribution and minimize heating, under the control of a [[Microcontroller|microcontroller unit]] (MCU).

=== Ornithopters – wing propulsion ===
Flapping-wing [[ornithopter]]s, imitating birds or insects, have been flown as [[Micro air vehicle|microUAVs]]. Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.

Sub-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to "land" on vertical surfaces.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://micro.seas.harvard.edu/papers/BB14_Chirarattananon.pdf |title=Adaptive control of a millimeter-scale flapping-wing robot |date=22 May 2014 |last1=Chirarattananon |first1=Pakpong |first2=Kevin Y |last2=Ma |first3=J |last3=Wood |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |doi=10.1088/1748-3182/9/2/025004 |pmid=24855052 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=025004 |bibcode=2014BiBi....9b5004C |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416223803/http://micro.seas.harvard.edu/papers/BB14_Chirarattananon.pdf |archive-date=16 April 2016 |citeseerx=10.1.1.650.3728 |s2cid=12799012 }}</ref> Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/03/29/giant-remote-controlled-beetles-could-replace-drones/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401144132/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/03/29/giant-remote-controlled-beetles-could-replace-drones/|archive-date=1 April 2016|title=Giant remote-controlled beetles and 'biobot' insects could replace drones|author1=Sarah Knapton |date=29 March 2016|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]}}</ref>

==Computer control systems==
[[File:AbuseMark AfroFlight Naze 32 Flight Controller rev5 white.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A flight controller run on either CleanFlight or BaseFlight firmware for [[multirotor]] UAVs]]
UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then [[System on a chip|system-on-a-chip]] (SOC) and [[Single-board computer|single-board computers]] (SBC).

Modern system hardware for UAV control is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board (FCB) or autopilot. Common [[UAV-systems hardware chart#Consumer UAV Flight Controller List|UAV-systems control hardware]] typically incorporate a primary microprocessor, a secondary or failsafe processor, and sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and barometers into a single module.

In 2024 EASA agreed on the first certification basis for a UAV flight controller in compliance with the ETSO-C198 for Embention's autopilot. The certification of the UAV flight control systems aims to facilitate the integration of UAVs within the airspace and the operation of drones in critical areas. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Antonio |date=2024-07-11 |title=EASA Approves ETSO Certification Basis for Veronte Autopilot |url=https://www.embention.com/en/news/easa-approves-etso-certification-basis-for-veronte-autopilot/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=Embention |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Architecture===
====Sensors====
Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.<ref name="Nature - Future of sUAVs">{{cite journal|last1=Floreano|first1=Dario|last2=Wood|first2=Robert J.|title=Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones|journal=Nature|date=27 May 2015|volume=521|issue=7553|pages=460–466|doi=10.1038/nature14542|pmid=26017445|bibcode=2015Natur.521..460F|s2cid=4463263|url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757|access-date=26 October 2019|archive-date=26 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026050814/https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/208757|url-status=live}}</ref>

Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fasano|first1=Giancarmine|last2=Accardo|first2=Domenico|last3=Tirri|first3=Anna Elena|last4=Moccia|first4=Antonio|last5=De Lellis|first5=Ettore|date=1 October 2015|title=Radar/electro-optical data fusion for non-cooperative UAS sense and avoid|journal=Aerospace Science and Technology|volume=46|pages=436–450|doi=10.1016/j.ast.2015.08.010|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015AeST...46..436F }}</ref>

Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical [[inertial measurement unit]]{{snd}} IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Arduino Playground – WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF|url = http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF|website = playground.arduino.cc|access-date = 4 February 2016|archive-date = 18 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160218110500/http://playground.arduino.cc/Main/WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF|url-status = live}}</ref>

In addition to the navigation sensors, the UAV (or UAS) can be also equipped with monitoring devices such as: [[RGB color model|RGB]], [[Multispectral imaging|multispectral]], [[Hyperspectral imaging|hyper-spectral]] cameras or [[Lidar|LiDAR]], which may allow providing specific measurements or observations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manfreda |first1=Salvatore |last2=McCabe |first2=Matthew |last3=Miller |first3=Pauline |last4=Lucas |first4=Richard |last5=Pajuelo Madrigal |first5=Victor |last6=Mallinis |first6=Giorgos |last7=Ben Dor |first7=Eyal |last8=Helman |first8=David |last9=Estes |first9=Lyndon |last10=Ciraolo |first10=Giuseppe |last11=Müllerová |first11=Jana |last12=Tauro |first12=Flavia |last13=de Lima |first13=M. |last14=de Lima |first14=João |last15=Maltese |first15=Antonino |date=2018-04-20 |title=On the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Environmental Monitoring |journal=Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=641 |doi=10.3390/rs10040641 |bibcode=2018RemS...10..641M |issn=2072-4292|doi-access=free |hdl=10251/127481 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

====Actuators====
UAV [[actuator]]s include [[Electronic speed control|digital electronic speed controllers]] (which control the [[Revolutions per minute|RPM]] of the motors) linked to motors/[[engine]]s and [[propeller]]s, [[servomotor]]s (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.

====Software====
{{Update section|date=February 2022}}
The software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack. The purpose of the flight stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote-pilot input. An autopilot achieves this by obtaining data from sensors, controlling the motors to make progress along a path, and facilitate communications with ground control and mission planning.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 January 2018|title=Adapting open-source drone autopilots for real-time iceberg observations|url= |journal=MethodsX|language=en|volume=5|pages=1059–1072|doi=10.1016/j.mex.2018.09.003|issn=2215-0161|pmc=6139390|pmid=30225206|last1=Carlson|first1=Daniel F.|last2=Rysgaard|first2=Søren}}</ref>

UAVs are [[Real-time computing|real-time]] systems that require high-frequency to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single-board computers include [[Raspberry Pi]]s, [[BeagleBoard|Beagleboards]], etc. shielded with [[NavIO]], [[PXFMini]], etc. or designed from scratch such as [[NuttX]], preemptive-[[RT Linux]], [[Xenomai]], [[Orocos-Robot Operating System]] or [[DDS-ROS 2.0]].

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Flight stack overview
|-
!Layer
!Requirement
!Operations
!Example
|-
|Firmware
|Time-critical
|From machine code to processor execution, memory access
|ArduCopter-v1, PX4
|-
|Middleware
|Time-critical
|Flight control, navigation, radio management
|PX4, Cleanflight, ArduPilot
|-
|Operating system
|Computer-intensive
|Optical flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, decision-making
|ROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions, Microsoft IOT
|}

Due to the open-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lesko|first1=J.|last2=Schreiner|first2=M.|last3=Megyesi|first3=D.|last4=Kovacs|first4=Levente|title=2019 Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation (MOSATT) |chapter=Pixhawk PX-4 Autopilot in Control of a Small Unmanned Airplane |date=November 2019|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101|location=Kosice, Slovakia|publisher=IEEE|pages=90–93|doi=10.1109/MOSATT48908.2019.8944101|isbn=978-1-7281-5083-3|s2cid=209695691|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=27 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213807/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8944101|url-status=live}}</ref> This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked.

====Loop principles====
[[File:UAV Flight control.jpg|thumb|Typical flight-control loops for a multirotor]]
UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control architectures.

* [[Open-loop controller|Open loop]]{{snd}} This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.
* [[Closed-loop transfer function|Closed loop]]{{snd}} This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The [[PID controller]] is common. Sometimes, [[Feed forward (control)|feedforward]] is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327.pdf|title = The Navigation and Control technology inside the AR.Drone micro UAV|date = 2011|website = IFAC World Congress|author = Pierre-Jean Bristeau|author2 = François Callou|author3 = David Vissière|author4 = Nicolas Petit|access-date = 4 February 2016|archive-date = 27 February 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213841/https://folk.ntnu.no/skoge/prost/proceedings/ifac11-proceedings/data/html/papers/2327.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref>

====Communications====
UAVs use a [[radio]] for control and [[Data link|exchange of video and other data]]. Early UAVs had only [[narrowband]] uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C&C) and [[telemetry]] data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.

In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a [[broadband]] link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage [[quality of service]] techniques and carry [[TCP/IP]] traffic that can be routed over the internet.

The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:

* Ground control – a human operating a [[Transmitter|radio transmitter]]/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a [[UAV ground control station|military ground control station (GCS)]]. 
* Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some [[Armed forces|military powers]]. Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Cellular enables safer drone deployments|url = https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced-pro/cellular-drone-communication|website = Qualcomm|access-date = 9 May 2018|archive-date = 9 May 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180509151213/https://www.qualcomm.com/invention/technologies/lte/advanced-pro/cellular-drone-communication|url-status = live}}</ref>
* Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station{{snd}} military manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T).<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510.pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160206104148/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565510.pdf|url-status = live|archive-date = 6 February 2016|title = Identifying Critical Manned-Unmanned Teaming Skills for Unmanned Aircraft System Operators|date = September 2012|website = U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences}}</ref>

Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra-reliable and low-latency communications.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s)|url=https://www.itu.int/pub/R-REP-M.2410-2017|access-date=8 October 2020|website=www.itu.int|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806202716/https://www.itu.int/pub/R-REP-M.2410-2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

UAV-to-UAV coordination supported by [[Remote ID]] communication technology. Remote ID messages (containing the UAV coordinates) are broadcast and can be used for collision-free navigation.<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Vinogradov| first1 = Evgenii| last2 = Kumar| first2 = A. V. S. Sai Bhargav| last3 = Minucci| first3 = Franco| last4 = Pollin| first4 = Sofie| last5 = Natalizio| first5 = Enrico| chapter = Remote ID for separation provision and multi-agent navigation| title = 2023 IEEE/AIAA 42nd Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC)| year = 2023| pages = 1–10| doi = 10.1109/DASC58513.2023.10311133| arxiv = 2309.00843| isbn = 979-8-3503-3357-2}}</ref>

=== Autonomy ===
{{main|Autonomous aircraft}}
[[File:Degrees of autonomy.jpg|thumb|UAV's degrees of autonomy]]
The level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely. UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations, such as:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Automated Vehicles for Safety {{!}} NHTSA|url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology-innovation/automated-vehicles-safety|access-date=2021-10-08|website=www.nhtsa.gov|language=en|archive-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007021013/https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology-innovation/automated-vehicles-safety|url-status=live}}</ref>

* Self-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.
* Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and/or GPS data. 
* Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using [[GNSS]] or inertial sensors.
* Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the vehicle's axes. 
* Care-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally
* Take-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground-based sensors and systems; see also "[[autoland]]")
* Failsafe: automatic landing or return-to-home upon loss of control signal
* Return-to-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).
* Follow-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, [[image recognition]] or homing beacon.
* GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path.
* Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow-me but continuously circle a target.
* Pre-programmed [[aerobatics]] (such as rolls and loops)
* Pre-programmed delivery ( delivery drones)

One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on [[OODA loop|OODA]] terminology, as suggested by a 2002 US [[Air Force Research Laboratory]] report, and used in the table on the right.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA515926|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200924155100/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA515926|url-status = live|archive-date = 24 September 2020|title = Metrics, Schmetrics! How The Heck Do You Determine A UAV's Autonomy Anyway?|date = August 2002|website = US Air Force Research Laboratory|last = Clough|first = Bruce}}</ref>

[[File:X-47B receives fuel from an Omega K-707 tanker while operating in the Atlantic Test Ranges.jpg|thumb|A [[Northrop Grumman X-47B]] unmanned combat aircraft demonstrator of the US Navy refuels in flight from a tanker aircraft.]]
Full autonomy is available for specific tasks, such as [[airborne refueling]]<ref>{{Cite news|title = Watch a step in Navy history: an autonomous drone gets refueled mid-air|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/04/23/watch-a-step-in-aviation-history-an-autonomous-drone-getting-refueled-mid-air/|newspaper = The Washington Post|date = 23 April 2015|access-date = 3 February 2016|issn = 0190-8286|first = Christian|last = Davenport|archive-date = 20 January 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160120103200/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/04/23/watch-a-step-in-aviation-history-an-autonomous-drone-getting-refueled-mid-air/|url-status = live}}</ref> or ground-based battery switching.

Other functions available or under development include; collective flight, real-time [[Collision avoidance system|collision avoidance]], wall following, corridor centring, simultaneous localization and mapping and [[Swarm robotics|swarming]], [[cognitive radio]] and [[machine learning]]. In this context, [[computer vision]] can play an important role for automatically ensuring flight safety.

== Performance considerations ==

===Flight envelope===
UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on inclined surfaces,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Teaching tiny drones how to fly themselves|url = https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2012/11/a-beautiful-robotic-mind/1/|website = Ars Technica|access-date = 4 February 2016|date = 27 November 2012|archive-date = 5 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205171813/http://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2012/11/a-beautiful-robotic-mind/1/|url-status = live}}</ref> and then to climb toward better communication spots.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bdml.stanford.edu/Main/MultiModalRobots|title=Biomimetics and Dextrous Manipulation Lab – MultiModalRobots|website=bdml.stanford.edu|access-date=21 March 2016|archive-date=23 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323135154/http://bdml.stanford.edu/Main/MultiModalRobots|url-status=live}}</ref> Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation,<ref>{{Cite web|title = The astounding athletic power of quadcopters|url = http://www.ted.com/talks/raffaello_d_andrea_the_astounding_athletic_power_of_quadcopters#t-1461|website = www.ted.com|access-date = 4 February 2016|first = Raffaello|last = D'Andrea| date=11 June 2013 |archive-date = 5 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205181354/http://www.ted.com/talks/raffaello_d_andrea_the_astounding_athletic_power_of_quadcopters#t-1461|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Design of Flight Control System for a Small Unmanned Tilt Rotor Aircraft|journal = Chinese Journal of Aeronautics|date = 1 June 2009|pages = 250–256|volume = 22|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/S1000-9361(08)60095-3|first1 = Song|last1 = Yanguo|first2 = Wang|last2 = Huanjin|doi-access = free| bibcode=2009ChJAn..22..250Y }}</ref> such as VTOL designs.

UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The device, designed for landing UAV helicopter type on a flat vertical surface|url = https://patents.google.com/patent/RU160508U1/en?inventor=%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87+%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE|website = patents.google.com|access-date = 6 November 2016|archive-date = 7 March 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170307103055/https://patents.google.com/patent/RU160508U1/en?inventor=%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87+%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE|url-status = live}}</ref>

===Endurance===
[[File:UAV-741-F.jpg|thumb|UEL UAV-741 Wankel engine for UAV operations]]
[[File:Flight time against mass of small drones.svg|thumb|Flight time against mass of small (less than 1&nbsp;kg) drones<ref name="Nature - Future of sUAVs"/>]]
UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.

Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, [[Wankel rotary engines]] are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.

Proper drone cooling is essential for long-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper-cooling-drone-performance|title=The Importance of Proper Cooling and Airflow for Optimal Drone Performance|website=Pelonis Technologies|access-date=22 June 2018|archive-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622220335/https://www.pelonistechnologies.com/blog/proper-cooling-drone-performance|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Hydrogen fuel cells]], using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Flying on Hydrogen: Georgia Tech Researchers Use Fuel Cells to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle {{!}} Georgia Tech Research Institute|url = http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying-hydrogen|website = www.gtri.gatech.edu|access-date = 4 February 2016|archive-date = 3 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160203120006/http://www.gtri.gatech.edu/casestudy/flying-hydrogen|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Hydrogen-powered Hycopter quadcopter could fly for 4 hours at a time|url = http://www.gizmag.com/horizon-energy-systems-hycopter-fuel-cell-drone/37585/|website = www.gizmag.com|access-date = 4 February 2016|date = 20 May 2015|archive-date = 4 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160204194507/http://www.gizmag.com/horizon-energy-systems-hycopter-fuel-cell-drone/37585/|url-status = live}}</ref>

Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower [[Reynolds number]].<ref name="Nature - Future of sUAVs"/>

Solar-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.

Solar-powered atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20&nbsp;km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than [[low Earth orbit]] satellites. Likely applications include [[weather drone]]s for [[Weather reconnaissance|weather monitoring]], [[Emergency management#Recovery|disaster recovery]], [[Earth imaging]] and communications.

Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-087-DFRC.html|title=NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Beamed Laser Power for UAVs|last=Gibbs|first=Yvonne|date=31 March 2015|work=NASA|access-date=22 June 2018|language=en|archive-date=5 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405021645/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-087-DFRC.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to "stare" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Lengthy endurance flights
|-
! UAV !! Flight time<br />hours:minutes !! Date !! Notes
|-
| [[Boeing Condor]] || 58:11 || 1989 || The aircraft is currently in the [[Hiller Aviation Museum]].
<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3.pdf |title=Vertical Challenge: "Monsters of the sky" |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911145056/http://www.hiller.org/files/docs/2003Q3.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| [[General Atomics Gnat]] || 40:00 || 1992 ||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html|title=General Atomics Gnat|publisher=Designation-systems.net|access-date=8 January 2015|archive-date=11 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211063639/http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/app4/gnat.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav_12.html |title=UAV Notes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730032004/http://www.vectorsite.net/twuav_12.html |archive-date=30 July 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| [[The Spirit of Butts Farm|TAM-5]] || 38:52 || 11 August 2003 || Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tam.plannet21.com/|title=Trans atlantic Model|publisher=Tam.plannet21.com|access-date=8 January 2015|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522211703/http://tam.plannet21.com/|archive-date=22 May 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[QinetiQ Zephyr]] Solar Electric || 54:00 || September 2007 || <ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news_releases_homepage/2007/3rd_quarter/qinetiq_s_zephyr_uav.html |date=10 September 2007 |publisher=QinetiQ |title=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV exceeds official world record for longest duration unmanned flight
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423162325/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news_releases_homepage/2007/3rd_quarter/qinetiq_s_zephyr_uav.html |archive-date=23 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=  Tom |last=Simonite |url=https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar-flyer-en-route-to-everlasting.html |title=New Scientist Technology Blog: Solar plane en route to everlasting flight |work=New Scientist |access-date=8 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402090342/http://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/09/solar-flyer-en-route-to-everlasting.html|archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref>
|-
| [[RQ-4 Global Hawk]] || 33:06 || 22 March 2008 || Set an endurance record for a full-scale, operational uncrewed aircraft.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop_Grumman_Global_Hawk_Unmanned_Aircraft_Sets_33_Hour_Flight_Endurance_Record_999.html |title=Northrop Grumman's Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33-Hour Flight Endurance Record |publisher=Spacewar.com |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-date=1 July 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130701060609/http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop_Grumman_Global_Hawk_Unmanned_Aircraft_Sets_33_Hour_Flight_Endurance_Record_999.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| [[QinetiQ Zephyr]] Solar Electric || 82:37 || 28–31 July 2008 || <ref>{{cite press release|publisher=QinetiQ|date=24 August 2008
|url=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news_releases_homepage/2008/3rd_quarter/qinetiq_s_zephyr_uav.html |title=QinetiQ's Zephyr UAV flies for three and a half days to set unofficial world record for longest duration unmanned flight |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524020631/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news_releases_homepage/2008/3rd_quarter/qinetiq_s_zephyr_uav.html |archive-date=24 May 2011}}</ref>
|-
| [[Airbus Zephyr|QinetiQ Zephyr 7]] || 336:22 || 9–23 July 2010 || Solar electric powered. Remained aloft for 14 days. Also filed for FAI altitude record of 70,740&nbsp;ft (21,561 m)<ref name="qinetiq.com">{{cite press release | url=http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news_releases_homepage/2010/3rd_quarter/qinetiq_files_for.html | title=QinetiQ files for three world records for its Zephyr Solar powered UAV | work=QinetiQ | date=24 August 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924231501/http://www.qinetiq.com/home/newsroom/news_releases_homepage/2010/3rd_quarter/qinetiq_files_for.html | archive-date=24 September 2010}}</ref>
|}

The delicacy of the British [[PHASA-35]] military drone (at a late stage of development) is such that traversing the first turbulent twelve miles of atmosphere is a hazardous endeavor. It has, however, remained on station at 65,000 feet for 24 hours. Airbus' Zephyr in 2023 has attained 70,000 feet and flown for 64 days; 200 days aimed at. This is sufficiently close enough to [[Kármán line|near-space]] for them to be regarded in "pseudo-satellites" as regards to their operational capabilities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/drones-reach-stratospheric-heights-in-race-to-fly-higher-longer-a29ceea3|title=Drones Reach Stratospheric Heights in Race to Fly Higher, Longer|first=Alistair|last=MacDonald|newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=14 July 2023|via=www.wsj.com}}</ref>

===Reliability===
Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using [[Resilience (engineering and construction)|resilience engineering]] and [[fault tolerance]] techniques.

Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.aerospacelab-journal.org/sites/www.aerospacelab-journal.org/files/AL08-02_0.pdf|title = Towards Modular and Certified Avionics for UAV|date = December 2014|website = Aerospacelab Journal|last = Boniol|access-date = 4 February 2016|archive-date = 4 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160204200527/http://www.aerospacelab-journal.org/sites/www.aerospacelab-journal.org/files/AL08-02_0.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref> Besides, dynamic assessment of [[flight envelope]] allows damage-resilient UAVs, using [[Nonlinear system|non-linear analysis]] with ad hoc designed loops or neural networks.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://enu.kz/repository/2009/AIAA-2009-5736.pdf|title = A Comparison Study of Several Adaptive Control Strategies for Resilient Flight Control|date = 2009|website = AIAA Guidance, Navigation andControl Conference|last = D. Boskovic and Knoebel|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160204191326/http://enu.kz/repository/2009/AIAA-2009-5736.pdf|archive-date = 4 February 2016|df = dmy-all}}</ref> UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of [[avionics software|crewed avionics software]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.naefrontiers.org/File.aspx?id=25848|title = Certifiable Autonomous Flight Management for Unmanned Aircraft Systems|website = University of Michigan|last = Atkins|access-date = 4 February 2016|archive-date = 5 March 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170305144615/https://www.naefrontiers.org/File.aspx?id=25848|url-status = live}}</ref>

Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit failures.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dre.vanderbilt.edu/~gokhale/WWW/papers/EASe14_AutonomousDnC.pdf |title=Key Considerations for a Resilient and Autonomous Deployment and Configuration Infrastructure for Cyber-Physical Systems |date=2013 |website=Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Vanderbilt University, Nashville |author=Subhav Pradhan |author2=William Otte |author3=Abhishek Dubey |author4=Aniruddha Gokhale |author5=Gabor Karsai |access-date=4 February 2016 |archive-date=4 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204194114/http://www.dre.vanderbilt.edu/~gokhale/WWW/papers/EASe14_AutonomousDnC.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Applications==
{{Main|List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications}}

In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they can fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS)<ref>{{cite web |title=How Autonomous Drone Flights Will Go Beyond Line of Sight |url=https://www.nanalyze.com/2019/12/autonomous-drone-flights/ |website=Nanalyze |date=31 December 2019 |access-date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=20 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520194214/https://www.nanalyze.com/2019/12/autonomous-drone-flights/ |url-status=live }}</ref> while maximizing production, reducing costs and risks, ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance,<ref>{{cite web |last1=McNabb |first1=Miriam |title=Drones Get the Lights Back on Faster for Florida Communities |url=https://dronelife.com/2020/02/28/drones-get-the-lights-back-on-faster-for-florida-communities/ |website=DRONELIFE |date=28 February 2020 |access-date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312063842/https://dronelife.com/2020/02/28/drones-get-the-lights-back-on-faster-for-florida-communities/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and protecting the human workforce in times of a pandemic.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peck |first1=Abe |title=Coronavirus Spurs Percepto's Drone-in-a-Box Surveillance Solution |url=https://insideunmannedsystems.com/unintended-consequences-coronavirus-spurs-perceptos-drone-in-a-box-surveillance-solution/ |website=Inside Unmanned Systems |date=19 March 2020 |access-date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=24 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324195138/https://insideunmannedsystems.com/unintended-consequences-coronavirus-spurs-perceptos-drone-in-a-box-surveillance-solution/ |url-status=live }}</ref> They can also be used for consumer-related missions like package delivery, as demonstrated by [[Amazon Prime Air]], and critical deliveries of health supplies.

There are numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs.<ref name=":0" /> These include:

;General: [[Recreation]], [[disaster relief]], [[Archaeology|archeology]], conservation of [[Conservation biology|biodiversity]] and [[Habitat conservation|habitat]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Valle |first=Roberto G. |date=January 2022 |title=Rapid drone semi-automated counts of wintering Greater Flamingos ( Phoenicopterus roseus ) as a tool for amateur researchers |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ibi.12993 |journal=Ibis |language=en |volume=164 |issue=1 |pages=320–328 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12993 |s2cid=237865267 |issn=0019-1019 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013125343/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ibi.12993 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[law enforcement]], [[crime]], and [[terrorism]]. 
;Commercial: [[Surveillance aircraft|Aerial surveillance]], [[filmmaking]],<ref name="Mademlis2019"/> [[journalism]], [[Scientific method|scientific research]], [[surveying]], [[Freight transport|cargo transport]], [[mining]], [[manufacturing]], [[forestry]], [[Photovoltaic power station|solar farming]], [[Thermal power station|thermal energy]], [[port]]s and [[agriculture]].

=== Warfare ===
{{Main|Unmanned combat aerial vehicle|Drone warfare|Loitering munition|Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle|Miniature UAV|Micro air vehicle|Target drone}}
[[File:Bayraktar TB2 of UAF, 2020, 09.jpg|thumb|A [[Baykar Bayraktar TB2]] of the [[Ukrainian Air Force]] armed with [[MAM (Smart Micro Munition)|MAM-L]]; two [[UAV ground control station|ground control stations]] in the background]]

As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032725|doi-access=free|title=Do Emerging Military Technologies Matter for International Politics?|year=2020|last1=Horowitz|first1=Michael C.|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=23|issue=1 |pages=385–400}}</ref> The first five countries producing domestic UAV designs are the United States, China, Israel, Iran and Turkey.<ref name="Strengthening Turkish Policy on Drone Exports">{{cite web |url= https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/strengthening-turkish-policy-on-drone-exports-pub-86183 |title= Strengthening Turkish Policy on Drone Exports |publisher= Carnegie Endowment for International |access-date= 17 March 2022 |archive-date= 23 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220323025634/https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/strengthening-turkish-policy-on-drone-exports-pub-86183 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Turkey's defense industry targets more than $4 billion in exports this year: Official">{{cite web |url= https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkeys-defense-industry-targets-more-than-4-billion-in-exports-this-year-official-172005 |title= Turkey's defense industry targets more than $4 billion in exports this year: Official |publisher= Hürriyet Daily News |date= 6 March 2022 |access-date= 17 March 2022 |archive-date= 17 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220317015136/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkeys-defense-industry-targets-more-than-4-billion-in-exports-this-year-official-172005 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.intelligent-aerospace.com/unmanned/article/14199662/china-military-drones-uav-unmanned|title=Combat drones in China are coming to a conflict near you|website=www.intelligent-aerospace.com|date=19 March 2021 |access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=7 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607015056/https://www.intelligent-aerospace.com/unmanned/article/14199662/china-military-drones-uav-unmanned|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ch">{{cite web|url=https://insideunmannedsystems.com/market-military-drones-will-surge/ |title=Market for Military Drones will Surge|date=27 October 2016|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219152237/http://insideunmannedsystems.com/market-military-drones-will-surge/|url-status=live}}</ref>  Top military UAV manufactures are including [[General Atomics]], [[Lockheed Martin]], [[Northrop Grumman]], [[Boeing]], [[Baykar]],<ref name="Turkish defence industry grows as Akinci UCAV signs first export deal">{{cite web|url= https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish-defence-industry-grows-as-akinci-ucav-signs-first-export-deal-53987|title= Turkish defence industry grows as Akinci UCAV signs first export deal|publisher= TRTWORLD|date= 23 January 2022|access-date= 17 March 2022|archive-date= 30 January 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220130161059/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish-defence-industry-grows-as-akinci-ucav-signs-first-export-deal-53987|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Turkey's defense industry targets more than $4 billion in exports this year: Official"/> [[Turkish Aerospace Industries|TAI]], [[Iran Aviation Industries Organization|IAIO]], [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]] and [[Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group|CAIG]].<ref name="ch"/> China has established and expanded its presence in military UAV market<ref name="ch"/> since 2010. In the early 2020s, Turkey also established and expanded its presence in the military UAV market.<ref name="Strengthening Turkish Policy on Drone Exports"/><ref name="ch"/><ref name="Turkey's defense industry targets more than $4 billion in exports this year: Official"/><ref name="Turkish defence industry grows as Akinci UCAV signs first export deal"/>

In the early 2010s, Israeli companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV systems, and by the number of drones, Israel exported 60.7% (2014) of UAVs on the market while the United States exported 23.9% (2014).<ref name="Guardian report 2015">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/mar/16/numbers-behind-worldwide-trade-in-drones-uk-israel |title=The numbers behind the worldwide trade in UAVs |date=16 March 2015 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |last1=Arnett |first1=George |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=19 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219153019/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/mar/16/numbers-behind-worldwide-trade-in-drones-uk-israel |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 2010 and 2014, there were 439 drones exchanged compared to 322 in the five years previous to that, among these only small fraction of overall trade – just 11 (2.5%) of the 439 are armed drones.<ref name="Guardian report 2015"/> The US alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014; among them more than 7000 are [[AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven|RQ-11 Raven]] [[miniature UAV]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/01/02/pentagon-plans-for-cuts-to-drone-budgets/|title=Pentagon Plans for Cuts to Drone Budgets|work=DoD Buzz|access-date=17 March 2022|date=2014-01-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108232952/http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/01/02/pentagon-plans-for-cuts-to-drone-budgets/|archive-date=8 January 2015}}</ref> Since 2010, Chinese drone companies have begun to export large quantities of drones to the global military market. Of the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 and 2019, the top 12 all purchased their drones from China.<ref name="ch" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://chinapower.csis.org/china-drones-unmanned-technology/ |title=Is China at the Forefront of Drone Technology? |website=Center for Strategic and Internation Studies |date=29 May 2018 }}</ref> The shift accelerated in the 2020s due to China's advancement in drone technologies and manufacturing, compounded by market demand from the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and the [[2023 Israel–Hamas war|Israel-Gaza conflict]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3242630/drone-tech-gives-china-edge-middle-east-arms-sales-israel-gaza-war-brings-risks-analysts |title=Drone tech gives China an edge in Middle East arms sales, but Israel-Gaza war brings risks: analysts |website=South China Morning Post |date=25 November 2023 |author=Seong Hyeon Choi }}</ref><ref name="wsj_drone">{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/politics/national-security/chinese-americanit-doesnt-matter-israel-wants-inexpensive-drones-339a1355?mod=mhp |title=Chinese, American—It Doesn't Matter. Israel Wants Inexpensive Drones. |website=The Wall Street Journal |date=9 November 2023 |first=Heather |last=Somerville }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2024/04/uk-eyes-chinese-drone-parts-ukraine/396211/ |title=UK eyes Chinese drone parts for Ukraine |date=1 May 2024 |website=Defense One |first=Sam |last=Skove }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/02/chinas-military-advancements-in-the-2010s-air-and-ground/ |title=China's Military Advancements in the 2010s: Air and Ground |website=The Diplomat |date=5 February 2020 |first=Rick |last=Joe }}</ref>

For intelligence and reconnaissance missions, the inherent stealth of [[Micro air vehicle|micro UAV]] flapping-wing [[ornithopter]]s, imitating birds or insects, offers potential for covert surveillance and makes them difficult targets to bring down.

[[Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle]] are used for [[reconnaissance]], [[Offensive (military)|attack]], [[demining]], and [[target practice]].

Following the 2022 [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] a dramatic increase in UAV development took place with Ukraine creating the [[Brave1]] platform to promote rapid development of innovative systems.

=== Civil ===
[[File:Zipline Drone Launch.jpg|thumb|[[Zipline (drone delivery company)|Zipline's]] aircraft being launched from a base in Rwanda to deliver blood products]]
The civilian (commercial and general) drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese manufacturer [[DJI (company)|DJI]] alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no other company accounting for more than 5%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/01/in-race-to-dominate-drone-space-west-is-no-match-for-chinas-dji.html|title=China drone maker DJI: Alone atop the unmanned skies|last=Bateman|first=Joshua|date=1 September 2017|work=News Ledge|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219151200/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/01/in-race-to-dominate-drone-space-west-is-no-match-for-chinas-dji.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The companies continue to hold over 70% of global market share by 2023, despite under increasing scrutinies and sanctions from the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/08/worlds-largest-drone-maker-dji-is-unfazed-by-challenges-like-us-blacklist.html |title=World's largest drone maker is unfazed — even if it's blacklisted by the U.S. |website=CNBC |date=7 February 2023  |first=Nessa |last= Anwar }}</ref> The US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign-made UAVs.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Friedman|first1=Lisa|last2=McCabe|first2=David|date=29 January 2020|title=Interior Dept. Grounds Its Drones Over Chinese Spying Fears|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/interior-chinese-drones.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129191125/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/interior-chinese-drones.html |archive-date=2020-01-29 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=17 November 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Miller|first=Maggie|date=8 October 2020|title=DOJ bans use of grant funds for certain foreign-made drones|url=https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/520269-justice-department-issues-policy-banning-use-of-grant-funds-for-certain|access-date=17 November 2020|website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|language=en|archive-date=28 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128001142/https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/520269-justice-department-issues-policy-banning-use-of-grant-funds-for-certain|url-status=live}}</ref> 
DJI is followed by American company [[3D Robotics]], Chinese company [[Yuneec International|Yuneec]], [[Autel Robotics]], and French company [[Parrot SA|Parrot]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = DJI market share: here's exactly how rapidly it has grown in just a few years|url = http://thedronegirl.com/2018/09/18/dji-market-share/|website = Emberify Blog| date=18 September 2018 |access-date = 18 September 2018|archive-date = 24 September 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180924033312/http://thedronegirl.com/2018/09/18/dji-market-share/|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://consortiq.com/uas-resources/5-major-drone-manufacturers-powering-the-industry |title=5 Major Drone Manufacturers Powering the Industry |website=Consortiq |date=2021 |first=David |last=Daly }}</ref>

As of May 2021, 873,576 UAVs had been registered with the US [[FAA]], of which 42% were categorized as commercial and 58% as recreational.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UAS by the Numbers|url=https://www.faa.gov/uas/resources/by_the_numbers/|access-date=24 May 2021|website=www.faa.gov|language=en-us|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517144023/https://www.faa.gov/uas/resources/by_the_numbers/|url-status=live}}</ref> 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500+ and $1000+ market segments.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newsledge.com/consumer-drones-2018-numbers/|title=Consumer Drones By the Numbers in 2018 and Beyond {{!}} News Ledge|date=4 April 2017|work=News Ledge|access-date=13 October 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=14 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014010203/https://www.newsledge.com/consumer-drones-2018-numbers/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early-stage startups have received support and funding from investors, as is the case in the United States, and from government agencies, as is the case in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/companies/sounds-like-a-drone/135174/|title=Skylark Drones set to raise its first round of funding to boost expansion|date=14 September 2015|access-date=28 August 2016|archive-date=14 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914170336/http://www.financialexpress.com/industry/companies/sounds-like-a-drone/135174/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees.<ref>{{Cite news|title = States are competing to be the Silicon Valley of drones|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/08/19/states-are-competing-to-be-the-silicon-valley-of-drones/|newspaper = The Washington Post|date = 19 August 2013|access-date = 4 February 2016|issn = 0190-8286|first = Andrea|last = Peterson|archive-date = 13 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160213121946/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/08/19/states-are-competing-to-be-the-silicon-valley-of-drones/|url-status = live}}</ref> Private entities also provide online and in-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dronebusinessmarketer.com/drone-training/|title=Drone Training Courses – The Complete List|website=Drone Business Marketer|access-date=1 December 2016|archive-date=16 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116112235/http://dronebusinessmarketer.com/drone-training/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Consumer drones are widely used by police and military organizations worldwide because of the cost-effective nature of consumer products. Since 2018, the Israeli military have used DJI UAVs for light reconnaissance missions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/71456/idf-buying-mass-market-dji-drones|title=IDF buying mass-market DJI drones|website=Jane's 360|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211053504/http://www.janes.com/article/71456/idf-buying-mass-market-dji-drones|archive-date=11 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Greenwood |first=Faine |date=2017-08-16 |title=The U.S. Military Shouldn't Use Commercial Drones |language=en-US |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |url=https://slate.com/technology/2017/08/the-u-s-military-shouldnt-use-commercial-drones.html |access-date=2023-06-02 |issn=1091-2339 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417154848/http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2017/08/the_u_s_military_shouldn_t_use_commercial_drones.html |archive-date=17 April 2018 }}</ref><ref name="wsj_drone" /> DJI drones have been used by Chinese police in [[Xinjiang]] since 2017<ref>{{Cite news|date=26 March 2020|title=DJI Won the Drone Wars, and Now It's Paying the Price|language=en|work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]]|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-03-26/dji-s-drone-supremacy-comes-at-a-price|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=19 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119092847/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-03-26/dji-s-drone-supremacy-comes-at-a-price|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=24 December 2017|title=大疆创新与新疆自治区公安厅结为警用无人机战略合作伙伴|url=https://www.youuav.com/news/detail/201712/19315.html|website=YouUAV.com|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218075733/https://www.youuav.com/news/detail/201712/19315.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[American police]] departments nationwide since 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://slate.com/technology/2018/06/axon-and-dji-are-teaming-up-to-make-surveillance-drones-and-the-possibilities-are-frightening.html|title=The Next Frontier of Police Surveillance Is Drones|date=2018-06-07|website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|language=en|access-date=2019-12-10|archive-date=2019-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211090916/https://slate.com/technology/2018/06/axon-and-dji-are-teaming-up-to-make-surveillance-drones-and-the-possibilities-are-frightening.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pogo.org/analysis/2018/09/these-police-drones-are-watching-you/|title=These Police Drones are Watching You|date=2018-09-25|newspaper=[[Project On Government Oversight]]|access-date=2019-12-10|archive-date=2019-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211163002/https://www.pogo.org/analysis/2018/09/these-police-drones-are-watching-you/|url-status=live}}</ref> Both Ukraine and Russia used commercial DJI drones extensively during the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="dji_usage_uk">{{cite web |url=https://www.eastmojo.com/recent-top-news/2022/12/25/ukraine-has-an-unlikely-ally-in-fight-against-russia-dji-drones/ |title=Ukraine has an unlikely ally in fight against Russia: DJI drones |website=East Mojo |date=25 December 2022 |first=Mike |last=Sangma |access-date=26 December 2022 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220104418/https://www.eastmojo.com/recent-top-news/2022/12/25/ukraine-has-an-unlikely-ally-in-fight-against-russia-dji-drones/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These civilian DJI drones were sourced by governments, hobbyists, international donations to Ukraine and Russia to support each side on the battlefield, and were often flown by drone hobbyists recruited by the armed forces. The prevalence of DJI drones was attributable to their market dominance, affordability, high performance, and reliability.<ref name="fp_2302">{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/16/ukraine-russia-war-drone-warfare-china/ |title=The Drone War in Ukraine Is Cheap, Deadly, and Made in China |date=16 February 2023 |first=Faine |last=Greenwood |access-date=6 March 2023 |archive-date=26 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926141016/https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/16/ukraine-russia-war-drone-warfare-china/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Entertainment ====
{{See also|Drone art|Drone racing}}
Drones are also used in nighttime [[Drone display|displays]] for artistic and advertising purposes with the main benefits are that they are safer, quieter and better for the environment than fireworks. They can replace or be an adjunct for fireworks displays to reduce the financial burden of festivals. In addition they can complement fireworks due to the ability for drones to carry them, creating new forms of artwork in the process.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drone Light Shows Powered by Intel|url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/technology-innovation/aerial-technology-light-show.html|access-date=2021-06-28|website=Intel|language=en|archive-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623231138/https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/technology-innovation/aerial-technology-light-show.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-07-01 |title=Fireworks Have a New Competitor: Drones |work=The New York Times |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/01/business/dealbook/fourth-of-july-fireworks-drones.html |access-date=2023-08-10 |last1=Hirsch |first1=Lauren }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last= |date=2023-05-01 |title=Fireworks and Drones Combine to Create Amazing Long Exposure Images |url=https://mossandfog.com/fireworks-and-drones-combine-to-create-amazing-long-exposure-images/ |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=Moss and Fog |language=en-US}}</ref>

Drones can also be used for racing, either with or without VR functionality.

==== Aerial photography ====
{{see also|Drone journalism}}
Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and are widely used for this purpose.<ref name="Mademlis2019">{{cite journal |last1=Mademlis |first1=Ioannis |last2=Nikolaidis |first2=Nikos |last3=Tefas |first3=Anastasios |last4=Pitas |first4=Ioannis |last5=Wagner |first5=Tilman |last6=Messina |first6=Alberto |title=Autonomous UAV Cinematography: A Tutorial and a Formalized Shot-Type Taxonomy |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10.1145/3347713 |journal=ACM Computing Surveys |date=2019 |volume=52 |issue=5 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |doi=10.1145/3347713 |s2cid=202676119 |access-date=3 November 2022 |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103190017/https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10.1145/3347713 |url-status=live }}</ref> Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles. Big drones with professional cine cameras usually have a drone pilot and a camera operator who controls camera angle and lens. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in film production in big blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newtonnordic.com/aerigon-cinema-drone/|title=AERIGON cinema drone (UAV) pioneering in film production|access-date=26 August 2021|archive-date=26 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826200035/https://newtonnordic.com/aerigon-cinema-drone/|url-status=live}}</ref> Drones provide access to dangerous, remote or otherwise inaccessible sites.

==== Environmental monitoring ====

UASs or UAVs offer the great advantage for environmental monitoring to generate a new generation of survey at very-high or ultra-high resolution both in space and time. This gives the opportunity to bridge the existing gap between satellite data and field monitoring. This has stimulated a huge number of activities in order to enhance the description of natural and agricultural ecosystems. Most common applications are:

*Topographic surveys<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ferreira |first1=Edgar |last2=Chandler |first2=Jim |last3=Wackrow |first3=Rene |last4=Shiono |first4=Koji |date=April 2017 |title=Automated extraction of free surface topography using SfM-MVS photogrammetry |journal=Flow Measurement and Instrumentation |language=en |volume=54 |pages=243–249 |doi=10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2017.02.001 |s2cid=56307390 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017FloMI..54..243F }}</ref> for the production of orthomosaics, digital surface models and 3D models;
*Monitoring of natural ecosystems for biodiversity monitoring,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reddy |first1=C. Sudhakar |last2=Kurian |first2=Ayushi |last3=Srivastava |first3=Gaurav |last4=Singhal |first4=Jayant |last5=Varghese |first5=A. O. |last6=Padalia |first6=Hitendra |last7=Ayyappan |first7=N. |last8=Rajashekar |first8=G. |last9=Jha |first9=C. S. |last10=Rao |first10=P. V. N. |date=January 2021 |title=Remote sensing enabled essential biodiversity variables for biodiversity assessment and monitoring: technological advancement and potentials |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10531-020-02073-8 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1007/s10531-020-02073-8 |bibcode=2021BiCon..30....1R |s2cid=254281346 |issn=0960-3115 |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214346/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-020-02073-8 |url-status=live }}</ref> habitat mapping,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gonçalves |first1=João |last2=Henriques |first2=Renato |last3=Alves |first3=Paulo |last4=Sousa-Silva |first4=Rita |last5=Monteiro |first5=António T. |last6=Lomba |first6=Ângela |last7=Marcos |first7=Bruno |last8=Honrado |first8=João |date=January 2016 |editor-last=Rocchini |editor-first=Duccio |title=Evaluating an unmanned aerial vehicle-based approach for assessing habitat extent and condition in fine-scale early successional mountain mosaics |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/avsc.12204 |journal=Applied Vegetation Science |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=132–146 |doi=10.1111/avsc.12204 |bibcode=2016AppVS..19..132G |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112235908/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/avsc.12204 |url-status=live }}</ref> detection of [[Invasive species|invasive alien species]]<ref>{{cite journal 
 | author1 = Barbizan Sühs, R.
 | author2 = Ziller, S. R.
 | author3 = Dechoum, M.
 | year = 2023
 | title = Is the use of drones cost-effective and efficient in detecting invasive alien trees? A case study from a subtropical coastal ecosystem
 | journal = Biological Invasions
 | volume = 26
 | issue = 2
 | pages = 357–363
 | doi = 10.1007/s10530-023-03190-5
| s2cid = 265016887
 }}</ref> and study of ecosystem degradation due to invasive species or disturbances;
*Precision agriculture<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Chunhua |last2=Kovacs |first2=John M. |date=December 2012 |title=The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture: a review |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11119-012-9274-5 |journal=Precision Agriculture |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=693–712 |doi=10.1007/s11119-012-9274-5 |bibcode=2012PrAgr..13..693Z |s2cid=254938502 |issn=1385-2256 |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214348/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11119-012-9274-5 |url-status=live }}</ref> which exploits all available technologies including UAV in order to produce more with less (e.g., optimisation of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation);
*River monitoring several methods have been developed to perform flow monitoring using image velocimetry methods which allow to properly describe the 2D flow velocity fields.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perks |first1=Matthew T. |last2=Russell |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Large |first3=Andrew R. G. |date=2016-10-05 |title=Technical Note: Advances in flash flood monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/4005/2016/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=20 |issue=10 |pages=4005–4015 |doi=10.5194/hess-20-4005-2016 |bibcode=2016HESS...20.4005P |issn=1607-7938 |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112235910/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/4005/2016/ |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*Structural integrity of any type of structure whether it be a dam, railway or other dangerous, inaccessible or massive locations for building monitoring.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Jianguo |last2=He |first2=Linshu |last3=Luo |first3=Haitao |date=2023-03-19 |title=Real-Time Positioning Method for UAVs in Complex Structural Health Monitoring Scenarios |journal=Drones |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=212 |doi=10.3390/drones7030212 |issn=2504-446X |doi-access=free }}</ref>

These activities can be completed with different measurements, such as [[photogrammetry]], thermography, multispectral images, 3D field scanning, and [[normalized difference vegetation index]] maps.

==== Geological hazards ====
UAVs have become a widely used tool for studying [[Geohazard|geohazards]] such as [[Landslide|landslides]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Jianwei |last2=Yuan |first2=Guoqin |last3=Song |first3=Laiyun |last4=Zhang |first4=Hongwen |date=January 2024 |title=Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Landslide Investigation and Monitoring: A Review |journal=Drones |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=30 |doi=10.3390/drones8010030 |doi-access=free |issn=2504-446X}}</ref> Various sensors, including radar, optical, and thermal, can be mounted on UAVs to monitor different properties. UAVs enable the capture of images of various [[landslide]] features, such as transverse, radial, and longitudinal cracks, ridges, scarps, and surfaces of rupture, even in inaccessible areas of the sliding mass.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dai |first1=Keren |last2=Li |first2=Zhiyu |last3=Xu |first3=Qiang |last4=Tomas |first4=Roberto |last5=Li |first5=Tao |last6=Jiang |first6=Liming |last7=Zhang |first7=Jianyong |last8=Yin |first8=Tao |last9=Wang |first9=Hao |date=2023-07-01 |title=Identification and evaluation of the high mountain upper slope potential landslide based on multi-source remote sensing: the Aniangzhai landslide case study |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10346-023-02044-4 |journal=Landslides |language=en |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=1405–1417 |doi=10.1007/s10346-023-02044-4 |bibcode=2023Lands..20.1405D |issn=1612-5118}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yuchuan |last2=Wang |first2=Xiaobo |last3=Jin |first3=Wei |last4=Cao |first4=Jiayun |last5=Cheng |first5=Baogen |last6=MaosenXiong |last7=Zhou |first7=Shunwen |last8=ChaoZhang |date=2019-10-01 |title=Characteristics analysis of the reservoir landslides base on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) scanning technology at the Maoergai Hydropower Station, Southwest China |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=349 |issue=1 |pages=012009 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/349/1/012009 |bibcode=2019E&ES..349a2009Y |issn=1755-1307|doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, processing the optical images captured by UAVs also allows for the creation of [[Point cloud|point clouds]] and 3D models, from which these properties can be derived.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tomás |first1=Roberto |last2=Pinheiro |first2=Marisa |last3=Pinto |first3=Pedro |last4=Pereira |first4=Eduardo |last5=Miranda |first5=Tiago |date=2023-05-31 |title=Preliminary analysis of the mechanisms, characteristics, and causes of a recent catastrophic structurally controlled rock planar slide in Esposende (northern Portugal) |journal=Landslides |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=1657–1665 |doi=10.1007/s10346-023-02082-y |bibcode=2023Lands..20.1657T |issn=1612-510X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Comparing [[Point cloud|point clouds]] obtained at different times allows for the detection of changes caused by landslide deformation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Jiawen |last2=Jiang |first2=Nan |last3=Li |first3=Congjiang |last4=Li |first4=Haibo |date=2024-02-09 |title=A landslide monitoring method using data from unmanned aerial vehicle and terrestrial laser scanning with insufficient and inaccurate ground control points |journal=Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=4125–4140 |doi=10.1016/j.jrmge.2023.12.004 |issn=1674-7755|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peterman |first=V. |date=2015-08-26 |title=Landslide Activity Monitoring with the Help of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle |url=https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XL-1-W4/215/2015/ |journal=The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences |language=English |volume=XL-1-W4 |pages=215–218 |doi=10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-1-W4-215-2015 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015ISPAr.XL1..215P |issn=1682-1750}}</ref>

==== Agriculture, forestry and environmental studies====
{{main|Agricultural drone}}
[[File:Drone crop fertilizer.jpg|thumb|[[Agricultural drone]] on trailer setup]]
As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-agriculture-drones-robots-market-101300454.html|title= Global Agriculture Drones and Robots Market Analysis & Forecast, 2018-2028 - ResearchAndMarkets.com|website= finance.yahoo.com|language= en-US|access-date= 23 May 2019|archive-date= 7 July 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190707150807/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-agriculture-drones-robots-market-101300454.html|url-status= live}}</ref> Agricultural drones have been used to help build sustainable agriculture all over the world leading to a new generation of agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.droneaddicts.net/africa-farming-problems-aided-with-drone-technology/|title= Africa Farming Problems Aided With Drone Technology|date= 12 March 2018|website= Drone Addicts|language= en-US|access-date= 23 May 2019|archive-date= 29 June 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180629235733/https://www.droneaddicts.net/africa-farming-problems-aided-with-drone-technology/|url-status= dead}}</ref> In this context, there is a proliferation of innovations in both tools and methodologies which allow precise description of vegetation state and also may help to precisely distribute nutrients, pesticides or seeds over a field.<ref name="ELSEVIER - HEALTH SCIENCE"/>

The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires, whether through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start [[Controlled burn|backfires]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/08/03/488477317/drones-that-launch-flaming-balls-are-being-tested-to-help-fight-wildfires|title=Drones That Launch Flaming Balls Are Being Tested To Help Fight Wildfires|website=NPR.org|access-date=5 April 2018|archive-date=25 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425164411/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/08/03/488477317/drones-that-launch-flaming-balls-are-being-tested-to-help-fight-wildfires|url-status=live}}</ref>

UAVs are also now widely used to survey wildlife such as nesting seabirds, seals and even wombat burrows.<ref>Old JM, Lin S H, Franklin MJM (2019). Mapping out bare-nosed wombat (''Vombatus ursinus'') burrows with the use of a drone. BMC Ecology. 19:39. DOI: 10.1186/s12898-019-0257-5</ref>

==== Law enforcement ====
{{main|Use of UAVs in law enforcement}}
[[Police]] can use drones for applications such as [[search and rescue]] and [[traffic monitoring]].<ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Faust
 | first1 = Daniel R.
 | title = Police Drones
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Hp9hDwAAQBAJ
 | edition = 1
 | location = New York
 | publisher = The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc
 | date = 2015
 | isbn = 9781508145028
 | access-date = 20 February 2020
 | archive-date = 27 February 2023
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214353/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hp9hDwAAQBAJ
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref>

==== Humanitarian Aid ====
{{see also|Delivery drone}}
Drones are increasingly finding their application in humanitarian aid and disaster relief, where they are used for a wide range of applications such as delivering food, medicine and essential items to remote areas or image mapping before and following disasters <ref>{{

cite web |last=Sindi & Zarei |date=15 September 2023 |title=Drones in humanitarian aid – Can they be a game-changer?|url= https://blogs.coventry.ac.uk/researchblog/drones-in-humanitarian-aid-can-they-be-a-game-changer/}}</ref>

== Safety and security ==
{{see also|List of UAV-related incidents|Unmanned combat aerial vehicle}}

[[File:USDA Drone poster.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|US Department of Agriculture poster warning about the risks of flying UAVs near wildfires]]

===Threats===
==== Nuisance ====
UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft, deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers. The first incident of a drone-airplane collision occurred in mid-October 2017 in Quebec City, Canada.<ref>{{cite news | last =Dent | first =Steve | title =Drone hits a commercial plane for the first time in Canada | language =en | publisher =Engadget | date =16 October 2017 | url =https://finance.yahoo.com/news/drone-hits-commercial-plane-first-134300420.html | access-date =16 October 2017 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20171016170044/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/drone-hits-commercial-plane-first-134300420.html | archive-date =16 October 2017 | df =dmy-all }}</ref> The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a [[hot air balloon]] occurred on 10 August 2018 in [[Driggs, Idaho]], United States; although there was no significant damage to the balloon nor any injuries to its 3 occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the [[National Transportation Safety Board]], stating that "I hope this incident helps create a conversation of respect for nature, the airspace, and rules and regulations".<ref>{{cite news |last=Tellman |first=Julie |date=28 September 2018 |title=First-ever recorded drone-hot air balloon collision prompts safety conversation |url=https://www.postregister.com/news/local/first-ever-recorded-drone-hot-air-balloon-collision-prompts-safety/article_7cc41c24-6025-5aa6-b6dd-6d1ea5e85961.html |work=Teton Valley News |publisher=Boise Post-Register |location=Boise, Idaho, United States |access-date=3 October 2018 |archive-date=3 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003220947/https://www.postregister.com/news/local/first-ever-recorded-drone-hot-air-balloon-collision-prompts-safety/article_7cc41c24-6025-5aa6-b6dd-6d1ea5e85961.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Unauthorized UAV flights into or near major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of commercial flights.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/01/26/drones-need-to-be-encouraged-and-people-protected|title=Drones need to be encouraged, and people protected|date=26 January 2019|id={{ProQuest|2171135630}}|magazine=The Economist|access-date=28 June 2020|archive-date=27 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627180313/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/01/26/drones-need-to-be-encouraged-and-people-protected|url-status=live}}</ref>

Drones caused [[Gatwick Airport drone incident|significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018]], needing the deployment of the British Army.<ref name="2018-12-01-j-post">{{cite news |last1=Halon |first1=Eytan |title=Israeli anti-drone technology brings an end to Gatwick Airport chaos – International news – Jerusalem Post |url=https://www.jpost.com/International/Israeli-anti-drone-technology-brings-an-end-to-Gatwick-Airport-chaos-575054 |access-date=22 December 2018 |work=jpost.com |date=21 December 2018 |archive-date=22 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222131417/https://www.jpost.com/International/Israeli-anti-drone-technology-brings-an-end-to-Gatwick-Airport-chaos-575054 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="2018-12-20-guardian">{{cite news |author=Matthew Weaver |author2=Damien Gayle |author3=Patrick Greenfield |author4=Frances Perraudin |title=Military called in to help with Gatwick drone crisis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/dec/19/gatwick-flights-halted-after-drone-sighting |access-date=22 December 2018 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=20 December 2018 |archive-date=22 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222023943/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/dec/19/gatwick-flights-halted-after-drone-sighting |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the United States, flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine. Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015, firefighting air support in California was hindered on several occasions, including at the [[Lake Fire]]<ref name="atc">{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2015/07/24/425652212/in-the-heat-of-the-moment-drones-are-getting-in-the-way-of-firefighters|title=In The Heat of the Moment, Drones Are Getting in the Way of Firefighters|website=NPR.org|access-date=5 April 2018|archive-date=5 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305155859/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2015/07/24/425652212/in-the-heat-of-the-moment-drones-are-getting-in-the-way-of-firefighters|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[North Fire]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/18/us/california-freeway-fire/index.html|title=Drones visit California wildfire, angering firefighters|author1=Michael Martinez|author2=Paul Vercammen|author3=Ben Brumfield|date=18 July 2015 |publisher=[[CNN]]|access-date=22 August 2016|archive-date=8 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108102742/http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/18/us/california-freeway-fire/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/20/us/hobby-drones-hinder-california-firefighting-efforts.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721041118/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/20/us/hobby-drones-hinder-california-firefighting-efforts.html |archive-date=2015-07-21 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Chasing Video With Drones, Hobbyists Imperil California Firefighting Efforts|first=Jennifer|last=Medina|work=The New York Times |date=19 July 2015|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref> In response, California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted airspace.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-anti-drone-legislation-20150721-story.html|title=Attack on the drones: Legislation could allow California firefighters to take them down|first=Veronica|last=Rocha|date=21 July 2015|via=LA Times|access-date=22 August 2016|archive-date=28 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828153646/http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-anti-drone-legislation-20150721-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The FAA later required registration of most UAVs.

==== Security vulnerabilities ====
By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/11/15/564272346/prisons-work-to-keep-out-drug-smuggling-drones|title=Prisons Work To Keep Out Drug-Smuggling Drones|website=NPR.org|access-date=19 January 2018|archive-date=19 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119175506/https://www.npr.org/2017/11/15/564272346/prisons-work-to-keep-out-drug-smuggling-drones|url-status=live}}</ref>

The interest in UAVs cybersecurity has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream hijacking incident in 2009,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/US/12/17/drone.video.hacked/|title=Iraqi insurgents hacked Predator drone feeds, U.S. official indicates|website=CNN.com|author1=Mike Mount|author2=Elaine Quijano|access-date=6 December 2016|archive-date=5 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305082148/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/US/12/17/drone.video.hacked/|url-status=live}}</ref> where Islamic militants used cheap, off-the-shelf equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV. Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight. Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@swalters/how-can-drones-be-hacked-the-updated-list-of-vulnerable-drones-attack-tools-dd2e006d6809|title=How Can Drones Be Hacked? The updated list of vulnerable drones & attack tools|last=Walters|first=Sander|date=29 October 2016|website=Medium|access-date=6 December 2016|archive-date=23 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723003615/https://medium.com/@swalters/how-can-drones-be-hacked-the-updated-list-of-vulnerable-drones-attack-tools-dd2e006d6809|url-status=live}}</ref> At a workshop on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the [[Federal Trade Commission]] showed they were able to hack into three different consumer [[quadcopter]]s and noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the Wi-Fi signal and adding password protection.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Glaser|first1=April|title=The U.S. government showed just how easy it is to hack drones made by Parrot, DBPower and Cheerson|url=http://www.recode.net/2017/1/4/14062654/drones-hacking-security-ftc-parrot-dbpower-cheerson|work=Recode|access-date=6 January 2017|date=4 January 2017|archive-date=5 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105190345/http://www.recode.net/2017/1/4/14062654/drones-hacking-security-ftc-parrot-dbpower-cheerson|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Aggression ====
Many UAVs have been loaded with dangerous payloads, and/or crashed into targets. Payloads have included or could include explosives, chemical, radiological or biological hazards. UAVs with generally non-lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious purposes. Counter-UAV systems (C-UAS), from detection to electronic warfare to UAVs designed to destroy other UAVs, are in development and being deployed by states to counter this threat.

Such developments have occurred despite the difficulties. As J. Rogers stated in a 2017 interview to A&T, "There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs, whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2017/03/anti-drone-technology-to-be-test-flown-on-uk-base-amid-terror-fears/|title=Anti-drone technology to be test flown on UK base amid terror fears|date=6 March 2017|access-date=9 May 2017|archive-date=7 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507230433/https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2017/03/anti-drone-technology-to-be-test-flown-on-uk-base-amid-terror-fears/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Countermeasures===
==== Counter unmanned air system ====
[[File:Italian Army - 17th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment "Sforzesca" troops with CPM-Drone Jammer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Italian Army]] soldiers of the 17th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment "Sforzesca" with a portable drone jammer in [[Rome]]]]
[[File:Cannon support of anti-drone complex "Rat`h" on the SBA-70K2 chassis (front view).jpg|thumb|Cannon anti-drone system]]

{{further|Electronic warfare}}
The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of [[Anti-aircraft warfare#Anti-UAV defences|counter unmanned air system]] (C-UAS) technologies. Automatic tracking and detection of UAVs from commercial cameras have become accurate thanks to the development of deep learning based machine learning algorithms.<ref name="issacmedina21unmanned">{{cite conference |last1=Isaac-Medina |first1=Brian K. S. |last2=Poyser |first2=Matthew |last3=Organisciak |first3=Daniel |last4=Willcocks |first4=Chris G. |last5=Breckon |first5=Toby P. |last6=Shum |first6=Hubert P. H. |title=Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Visual Detection and Tracking using Deep Neural Networks: A Performance Benchmark |date=2021 |pages=1223–1232 |arxiv=2103.13933 }}</ref> It is also possible to automatically identify UAVs across different cameras with different view points and hardware specification with re-identification methods.<ref name="organisciak22uavreid">{{cite conference |last1=Organisciak |first1=Daniel |last2=Poyser |first2=Matthew |last3=Alsehaim |first3=Aishah |last4=Hu |first4=Shanfeng |last5=Isaac-Medina |first5=Brian K. S. |last6=Breckon |first6=Toby P. |last7=Shum |first7=Hubert P. H. |title=Proceedings of the 17th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications |chapter=UAV-ReID: A Benchmark on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Re-identification in Video Imagery |date=2022 |pages=136–146 |doi=10.5220/0010836600003124 |isbn=978-989-758-555-5 |publisher=SciTePress |arxiv=2104.06219 }}</ref>  Commercial systems such as the Aaronia [[AARTOS]] have been installed on major international airports.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/uv-online/heathrows-picks-new-c-uas-combat-drone-disruption/ |title=Heathrow picks C-UAS to combat drone disruption |access-date=13 March 2019 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109111036/https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/uv-online/heathrows-picks-new-c-uas-combat-drone-disruption/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unmannedairspace.info/counter-uas-systems-and-policies/muscat-international-airport-install-usd10-million-aaronia-counter-uas-system/ |title=Muscat International Airport to install USD10 million Aaronia counter-UAS system |date=21 January 2019 |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109111704/https://www.unmannedairspace.info/counter-uas-systems-and-policies/muscat-international-airport-install-usd10-million-aaronia-counter-uas-system/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Once a UAV is detected, it can be countered with kinetic force (missiles, projectiles or another UAV) or by non-kinetic force (laser, microwaves, communications jamming).<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://unidir.org/publication/uncrewed-aerial-systems-primer|title = Uncrewed Aerial Systems: A Primer|date = 19 October 2022|website = United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research|last1 = Grand-Clément|first1 = Sarah|last2 = Bajon|first2 = Theò|access-date = 5 January 2023|archive-date = 5 January 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230105181006/https://unidir.org/publication/uncrewed-aerial-systems-primer|url-status = bot: unknown}}</ref> Anti-aircraft missile systems such as the [[Iron Dome]] are also being enhanced with C-UAS technologies. Utilising a smart UAV swarm to counter one or more hostile UAVs is also proposed.<ref name="hartley21formation">{{cite journal |last1=Hartley |first1=John |last2=Shum |first2=Hubert P. H. |last3=Ho |first3=Edmond S. L. |last4=Wang |first4=He |last5=Ramamoorthy |first5=Subramanian |title=Formation Control for UAVs Using a Flux Guided Approach |journal=Expert Systems with Applications |date=2022 |volume=205 |page=117665 |doi=10.1016/j.eswa.2022.117665 |issn=0957-4174 |publisher=Elsevier |arxiv=2103.09184 |s2cid=232240581 }}</ref>

=== Regulation ===
{{Main|Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles}}
Regulatory bodies around the world are developing [[unmanned aircraft system traffic management]] solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is unmanned traffic management? |url=https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/stories/what-is-unmanned-traffic-management-utm.html |website=Airbus |access-date=28 January 2021 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208195828/https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/stories/what-is-unmanned-traffic-management-utm.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the [[civil aviation authority|civil aviation authorities]] of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone size and use. The [[International Civil Aviation Organization|International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)]] began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a 2011 report.<ref>{{cite book | last1 =Cary | first1 =Leslie | last2 =Coyne | first2 =James | title =2011–2012 UAS Yearbook – UAS: The Global Perspective | publisher =Blyenburgh & Co | pages =112–115 | contribution =ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328 | url =http://uvs-info.com/phocadownload/05_3a_2011/P112-P115_C&AI_ICAO-Advisory-Circular.pdf | access-date =26 February 2022 | archive-date =4 March 2016 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025432/http://uvs-info.com/phocadownload/05_3a_2011/P112-P115_C%26AI_ICAO-Advisory-Circular.pdf }}</ref> France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] and the [[European Aviation Safety Agency|EASA]] quickly followed suit.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Boedecker|first=Hendrik|title=The 2021 Drone Regulation – What is new? What is planned?|url=https://droneii.com/the-2021-drone-regulation-what-is-new-what-is-planned|access-date=17 May 2021|website=Drone Industry Insights|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517121444/https://droneii.com/the-2021-drone-regulation-what-is-new-what-is-planned|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially used UAVs and all UAVs regardless of intent weighing 250 g or more to participate in [[Remote ID]], which makes drone locations, controller locations, and other information public from takeoff to shutdown; this rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit ''[[RaceDayQuads v. FAA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UAS Remote Identification Overview|url=https://www.faa.gov/uas/getting_started/remote_id/|access-date=29 May 2021|website=www.faa.gov|language=en-us|archive-date=27 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527012153/https://www.faa.gov/uas/getting_started/remote_id/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=FAA Legal Battle – Challenging Remote ID|url=https://www.racedayquads.com/pages/faa-legal-battle-to-save-fpv|access-date=29 May 2021|website=RaceDayQuads|language=en|archive-date=27 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527012139/https://www.racedayquads.com/pages/faa-legal-battle-to-save-fpv|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== EU Drone Certification - Class Identification Label ====
The implementation of the [https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas-class-label/ Class Identification Label] serves a crucial purpose in the regulation and operation of drones.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UAS Class Label|url=https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas-class-label/|access-date=21 February 2023|website=www.eudronport.com|date=August 2022 |language=en|archive-date=5 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005144734/https://eudroneport.com/blog/uas-class-label/|url-status=live}}</ref>  The label is a verification mechanism designed to confirm that drones within a specific class meet the rigorous standards set by administrations for design and manufacturing.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official Journal of the European Union|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019R0945&from=EN#d1e643-1-1|access-date=20 February 2023|website=www.eur-lex.europa.eu|language=en|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101082610/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019R0945&from=EN#d1e643-1-1|url-status=live}}</ref> These standards are necessary to ensure the safety and reliability of drones in various industries and applications.

By providing this assurance to customers, the Class Identification Label helps to increase confidence in drone technology and encourages wider adoption across industries. This, in turn, contributes to the growth and development of the drone industry and supports the integration of drones into society.

====Export controls====
The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500&nbsp;kg payload at least 300&nbsp;km is restricted in many countries by the [[Missile Technology Control Regime]].

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[List of unmanned aerial vehicles]]
* [[Delivery drone]]
* [[Drone in a Box]]
* [[Glide bomb]]
* [[International Aerial Robotics Competition]]
* [[List of films featuring drones]]
* [[List of military electronics of the United States]]
* [[MARSS Interceptor]]
* [[Micromechanical Flying Insect]]
* [[ParcAberporth]]
* [[Quadcopter]]
* [[Radio-controlled aircraft]]
* [[Autonomous aircraft]]
* [[Optionally piloted vehicle]]
* [[Sypaq Corvo Precision Payload Delivery System]]
* [[Satellite Sentinel Project]]
* [[Tactical Control System]]
* [[UAV ground control station]]
* [[Unmanned underwater vehicle]]{{div col end}}
{{Portal bar|Aviation|Systems science|Engineering|Telecommunication}}
{{clear}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*Axe, David. ''Drone War Vietnam.'' Pen & Sword, Military. Great Britain. (2021). ISBN 978 1 52677 026 4
* {{Cite web|url = http://www.cnas.org/sites/default/files/publications-pdf/CNAS%20World%20of%20Drones_052115.pdf|title = A world of proliferated drones: a technology primer|date = June 2015|website = Center for a New American Security|last = Sayler|first = Kelley|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160306050607/http://www.cnas.org/sites/default/files/publications-pdf/CNAS%20World%20of%20Drones_052115.pdf|archive-date = 6 March 2016|df = dmy-all}}
* {{citation |last=Wagner |first=William |title=Lightning Bugs and other Reconnaissance Drones; The can-do story of Ryan's unmanned spy planes |year=1982 |publisher=Armed Forces Journal International : Aero Publishers |isbn=978-0-8168-6654-0}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |last1=Cahill |first1=Bill |title=Lightning Bugs & Buffalo Hunters: The Ryan Model 147 Drone in Vietnam|journal=The Aviation Historian |date=April 2022 |issue=39 |pages=18–27 |issn=2051-1930}}
* Hill, J., & Rogers, A. (2014). ''[[hdl:10613/2480|The rise of the drones: From The Great War to Gaza]]''. ''Vancouver Island University Arts & Humanities Colloquium Series''.
* {{Cite web|url = http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/research/papers/files/2016/garcia-bernardo2016a.pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160206104147/http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/research/papers/files/2016/garcia-bernardo2016a.pdf|archive-date = 6 February 2016|title = Quantitative patterns in drone wars|date = 2016|website = Science direct |author=Javier Garcia-Bernardoa |author2=Peter Sheridan Dodds |author3=Neil F. Johnson}}
* Rogers, A., & Hill, J. (2014).  ''Unmanned: Drone warfare and global security''. Between the Lines. {{ISBN|9781771131544}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Unmanned aerial vehicles}}
<nowiki/>{{Wikiquote|Drones}}
* [https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/how-intelligent-drones-are-shaping-the-future-of-warfare-w471703 How Intelligent Drones Are Shaping the Future of Warfare] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502113749/https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/how-intelligent-drones-are-shaping-the-future-of-warfare-w471703 |date=2 May 2018 }}, ''Rolling Stone Magazine''
{{Lists of aircraft}}
{{Stealth aircraft}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Unmanned Aerial Vehicle}}
[[Category:Unmanned aerial vehicles| ]]
[[Category:Wireless]]
[[Category:Avionics]]
[[Category:Robotics]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]