Book Chapters and Journal Articles by Christopher J van der Krogt
Journal for the Academic Study of Religion 33/3 (2020) 311–36, 2020
The Islamic State movement (IS, formerly ISIS) is widely denounced by both Muslims and non-Muslim... more The Islamic State movement (IS, formerly ISIS) is widely denounced by both Muslims and non-Muslims as ‘un-Islamic’, for, among other deeds, attacking fellow Muslims, inciting international terrorism, and taking female captives as sex slaves – all in the name of jihād. IS’s propaganda magazines Dabiq (15 issues) and Rumiyah (13 issues), published between July 2014 and September 2017, sought to justify and explain the movement’s ideology and actions, presenting its credentials as an almost uniquely authentic expression of current Sunnī Islam. Drawing on these magazines, this article constructs a systematic overview of IS’s jihād doctrine, showing its indebtedness to both traditional sources, the Qurʾān, sunna, and fiqh, and to more recent Salafī-Jihādī thought. IS aims to revive the genuine Islam of the Prophet and the first generations of Muslims, rejecting the modernist view of military jihād as purely defensive. While clearly Islamic and heavily indebted to traditional sources, IS’s jihād doctrine is anachronistic, apocalyptic, selective, and sectarian.
The History of Evil in the Medieval Age: 450–1450, edited by Andrew Pinsent, 2018
Among Muslims, the example of Muhammad and his successors, building on
both Arab tradition and th... more Among Muslims, the example of Muhammad and his successors, building on
both Arab tradition and the Qur'an, inspired religious warfare usually referred
to as “striving [jihad] in the cause of Allah”. Crusading was initiated by the
eleventh-century Reform Papacy, drawing on both the Augustinian concept of
just war and the biblically inspired notion of holy war. Both Muslims and
Western Christians developed a sophisticated body of law and theology to
regulate and justify holy war. Latin Christians and Muslims identified their
respective religious and political structures with the will of God, believing that
he required not only the defence but also the extension of his realm. The
purpose of jihad was to subject non-Muslims to Islamic law, and the inevitable
result was a gradual acceptance of Islam by conquered populations. Crusading
as armed pilgrimage to “recover” the Holy Land provided a template for other
wars sanctioned by the papacy against Muslims, heretics, pagans, and
schismatics. It, too, was linked with conversion, though less consistently in the
case of crusades against Muslims, which were invariably fought to recover
territories once ruled by Christians. Jihad was a collective duty undertaken by
both designated warriors and volunteers, while crusading remained, in principle,
voluntary. Mujahidin and crusaders sought material as well as spiritual gain –
which was not necessarily seen as inconsistent since God offered both earthly
and heavenly rewards. Jihad and crusading arose in militant societies that
tended to demonize each other: neither was morally superior.
The Routledge Handbook on Christian-Muslim Relations, edited by David Thomas, 2017
Centuries after the Islamic conquest, despite intermittent attempts to purge them, Christians con... more Centuries after the Islamic conquest, despite intermittent attempts to purge them, Christians continued to hold influential and lucrative positions in government service in Egypt. Commonly accused of abusing their power, they were valued for their skills but expendable. Diverting antagonism towards non-Muslim officials deflected it away from rulers themselves and offered some satisfaction to the aggrieved, especially in times of social distress. Indeed, the pressure to humiliate non-Muslims tended to come primarily from the disadvantaged elements within the populace rather than the ruling élite that was guilty of employing Christian officials. Increasingly, such initiatives were encouraged by Muslim polemicists who reminded readers that reducing the status of dhimmīs vis-à-vis believers was required by the sharīʿa. Occasional outbreaks of persecution, often more violent and destructive than moderate Muslim jurists or rulers countenanced, induced Christians to convert to Islam, and contributed to the decline of Christianity under Islamic rule.
New Zealand Between the Wars, edited by Rachael Bell, 2017
The Citizen: Past and Present, edited by Andrew Brown and John Griffiths, 2017
New Zealand Journal of History 20/2 (2016) 90–121, 2016
In late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century New Zealand, Catholics, mostly of Irish descent, ... more In late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century New Zealand, Catholics, mostly of Irish descent, were greatly over-represented in prisons, industrial schools, reformatories and lunatic asylums. This sustained over-representation of Catholics in criminal and mental health statistics seems to be attributable to five causes operating on the immigrants and their descendants for several generations. First, Catholics were over-represented among labourers and semi-skilled workers, the very occupational categories that were most at risk of arrest for petty crime. Second, some Catholics were immoderate and often public drinkers. Third, high rates of not marrying among Catholics, especially men, led to a lack of social support in times of personal distress. Fourth, the figures for Catholics were inflated by the inclusion of nominal Church members (mostly, no doubt, of Catholic descent) and inmates of Catholic institutions. Fifth, and more speculatively, some Catholics of Irish descent internalized a negative stereotype and perpetuated deviant behaviours that rendered them vulnerable to criminalization and institutionalization. Low socio-economic status, being unmarried, heavy drinking and proneness to institutionalization were part of the Irish-Catholic immigrant culture that was perpetuated in New Zealand. The New Zealand experience, furthermore, should be placed in an international context since the over-representation of Catholics in prison and other institutions – and a tendency for outsiders to blame religion – was not unique to this country.
Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 25/1 (2015) 68–91
Immigration is making religion in New Zealand increasingly diverse even as more and more people a... more Immigration is making religion in New Zealand increasingly diverse even as more and more people are rejecting religious labels. Conservative Christian morality is losing its influence over laws and institutions in favour of liberal Christian views and those of the religiously unaffiliated. Meanwhile, a new consciousness of individual rights and respect for cultural diversity is evident in legislation and in the creation of government agencies to promote it. In addition to accommodating the cultures of recent immigrants, government and society are increasingly responsive to the cultural concerns of the indigenous Maori population, an agenda that may be seen as compromising the even-handed secularity of the state. Successive governments have also had to treat Muslims with particular sensitivity. While the overriding tendency is to regard religion as a cultural phenomenon, thereby limiting its political significance, this perspective has yet to be acknowledged adequately in the country’s schools.
Controversies in Contemporary Religion, edited by Paul Hedges, 2014, Sep 2014
This chapter introduces the concept of religious fundamentalism but also questions the validity a... more This chapter introduces the concept of religious fundamentalism but also questions the validity and usefulness of the concept. After tracing the origins of the term in North America, the chapter discusses earlier research that attempts to define fundamentalism and apply it in other contexts. Particular attention is paid to tradition, authority, politics, and violence. Some of the features attributed to ‘fundamentalism’ are in fact shared by other religious orientations, and some movements have been rather arbitrarily excluded from discussions of fundamentalism. Since the most salient feature of the movements discussed is reactivity against the perceived marginalization of allegedly authentic religion, it is suggested that ‘reactivism’ would be a more useful term. This conclusion is supported by sustained case studies of two very different organizations often characterized as fundamentalist, the Society of St Pius X (Catholic) and al-Qaeda (Sunni Muslim).
Freedom of Speech and Islam, edited by Erich Kolig, 2014
Islam is traditionally understood as a social project based on norms derived from the Qur’an and ... more Islam is traditionally understood as a social project based on norms derived from the Qur’an and the sunna. Muslims are also bound together by a profound love for their Prophet, so any perceived affront to him is seen as a threat to communal identity. These perspectives are illustrated with reference to the traditional biographies of Muhammad, the development of the shari‘a, historic attitudes towards dissent, the status of non-Muslims in Islamic societies, and devotion to the Prophet. Many Muslims continue to show little tolerance for dissenting opinions on matters pertaining to religion because granting individuals freedom to leave Islam or to criticise the religion or its Prophet would challenge both the normative role of the shari‘a and the status of the Prophet. Since the human rights framework that prevails in Western societies and in international relations seeks to maximize individual freedom in matters of religion, efforts to reconcile these two traditions tend to be incomplete and unconvincing.
The Teaching and Study of Islam in Western Universities, edited by Paul Morris et al., 2014, Dec 2014
Introductory accounts of Islam written for students and the wider public, authored by Muslims and... more Introductory accounts of Islam written for students and the wider public, authored by Muslims and non-Muslims, often reflect an apologetic agenda incompatible with the commitment to critical investigation that should characterise university study and teaching. This assessment is demonstrated by examining four sensitive issues: Muhammad’s involvement in warfare, religious toleration, the treatment of women and slaves, and the origins of Islam and of the Qur’an. It is then argued that since Islam is construed differently by varied groups of believers, critical investigators cannot identify a single authentic version of the religion but must recognise and investigate whatever Muslims themselves present as expressions of their religion – including any aspects of it that researchers find distasteful. Avoiding both unnecessary denigration and apologetics, researchers and teachers should investigate and teach about Islam according to the same methods and criteria as any other subject in the humanities and social sciences.
New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 13/2 (2011) 82-89, 2011
Review article discussing Erich Kolig, New Zealand’s Muslims and Multiculturalism.
The Spirit of the Past: Essays on Christianity in New Zealand History, edited by Geoffrey Troughton and Hugh Morrison, 142-55, 229-32. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2011
In interwar New Zealand, Catholic authorities sought to minimize religiously mixed marriages, fea... more In interwar New Zealand, Catholic authorities sought to minimize religiously mixed marriages, fearing for the continued religious practice of the Catholic spouse and the religious upbringing of the children. Clergy in other denominations were also concerned about losses through mixed marriage. The Catholic Church imposed conditions such as requiring the non-Catholic spouse to take instructions on the faith and promise that the children would be brought up as Catholics. Despite such measures and the claim that mixed marriages were only permitted in exceptional circumstances, a third to a half of weddings in Catholic churches involved a non-Catholic partner. The high level of denominational intermarriage indicates that Catholics were well integrated into the wider society, and this integration was indeed perpetuated by the many families involving both Catholics and Protestants.
Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 21/2 (April 2010) 111-26
Despite a common tendency to naively endorse modernist Muslim views and declare militant jihādīs ... more Despite a common tendency to naively endorse modernist Muslim views and declare militant jihādīs to be un-Islamic, this paper argues that the latter do in fact represent a long-standing tradition within Islam. Scholars of religion should not assume the essential goodness of religions and need to give more than the usual lip service to a religious tradition’s heterogeneity.
Pacifica 18/2 (2005) 198-222
Four broad but overlapping areas of spirituality can be identified in Catholic life in New Zealan... more Four broad but overlapping areas of spirituality can be identified in Catholic life in New Zealand in the period between the two world wars: affective devotion to Christ and the saints; active social engagement, whether in the form of charity or the promotion of Christian values; Eucharistic piety, including the extra-liturgical cult of the Eucharist alongside increased reception of the Blessed Sacrament and greater participation in the liturgy; and the intensification of lay spirituality by imitating the religious life through third orders and retreats. Catholic spirituality was dominated by the clergy and based on international models, thereby promoting a distinct religious identity. Protestant antagonism towards Catholic spirituality was limited, however, and the Church’s leaders sought to avoid religious conflict, seeing secular indifference, rather than aggressive Protestantism, as the real threat to Catholic religious commitment and as the primary justification for introducing new forms of spirituality.
Journal of New Zealand Studies NS 2-3 (2003-04) 173-95
Colloquium 29, no. 1 (May 1997): 3-17
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Book Chapters and Journal Articles by Christopher J van der Krogt
both Arab tradition and the Qur'an, inspired religious warfare usually referred
to as “striving [jihad] in the cause of Allah”. Crusading was initiated by the
eleventh-century Reform Papacy, drawing on both the Augustinian concept of
just war and the biblically inspired notion of holy war. Both Muslims and
Western Christians developed a sophisticated body of law and theology to
regulate and justify holy war. Latin Christians and Muslims identified their
respective religious and political structures with the will of God, believing that
he required not only the defence but also the extension of his realm. The
purpose of jihad was to subject non-Muslims to Islamic law, and the inevitable
result was a gradual acceptance of Islam by conquered populations. Crusading
as armed pilgrimage to “recover” the Holy Land provided a template for other
wars sanctioned by the papacy against Muslims, heretics, pagans, and
schismatics. It, too, was linked with conversion, though less consistently in the
case of crusades against Muslims, which were invariably fought to recover
territories once ruled by Christians. Jihad was a collective duty undertaken by
both designated warriors and volunteers, while crusading remained, in principle,
voluntary. Mujahidin and crusaders sought material as well as spiritual gain –
which was not necessarily seen as inconsistent since God offered both earthly
and heavenly rewards. Jihad and crusading arose in militant societies that
tended to demonize each other: neither was morally superior.
both Arab tradition and the Qur'an, inspired religious warfare usually referred
to as “striving [jihad] in the cause of Allah”. Crusading was initiated by the
eleventh-century Reform Papacy, drawing on both the Augustinian concept of
just war and the biblically inspired notion of holy war. Both Muslims and
Western Christians developed a sophisticated body of law and theology to
regulate and justify holy war. Latin Christians and Muslims identified their
respective religious and political structures with the will of God, believing that
he required not only the defence but also the extension of his realm. The
purpose of jihad was to subject non-Muslims to Islamic law, and the inevitable
result was a gradual acceptance of Islam by conquered populations. Crusading
as armed pilgrimage to “recover” the Holy Land provided a template for other
wars sanctioned by the papacy against Muslims, heretics, pagans, and
schismatics. It, too, was linked with conversion, though less consistently in the
case of crusades against Muslims, which were invariably fought to recover
territories once ruled by Christians. Jihad was a collective duty undertaken by
both designated warriors and volunteers, while crusading remained, in principle,
voluntary. Mujahidin and crusaders sought material as well as spiritual gain –
which was not necessarily seen as inconsistent since God offered both earthly
and heavenly rewards. Jihad and crusading arose in militant societies that
tended to demonize each other: neither was morally superior.