Œ÷­÷áâ¥àá⢮ ®á¢÷⨠â 

­ ãª¨ “ªà ù­¨
 æ÷®­ «ì­¨© â¥å­÷ç­¨© ã­÷¢¥àá¨â¥â “ªà ù­¨

ýŠ¨ù¢á쪨© ¯®«÷â¥å­÷ç­¨© ÷­áâ¨âãâ ÷¬. ö£®àï ‘÷ª®àá쪮£®þ

ö­áâ¨âã⠯ਪ« ¤­®£® á¨á⥬­®£®  ­ «÷§ã

 ¢ç «ì­¨© ¯®á÷¡­¨ª
Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨
¤® ஧à åã­ª®¢¨å ஡÷â § ¤¨á樯«÷­¨
„¨áªà¥â­  ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª 

Š¨ù¢ 2017
 Œ÷­÷áâ¥àá⢮ ®á¢÷â¨ â  ­ ãª¨ “ªà ù­¨
 æ÷®­ «ì­¨© â¥å­÷ç­¨© ã­÷¢¥àá¨â¥â “ªà ù­¨

ýŠ¨ù¢á쪨© ¯®«÷â¥å­÷ç­¨© ÷­áâ¨âãâ ÷¬. ö£®àï ‘÷ª®àá쪮£®þ

ö­áâ¨âã⠯ਪ« ¤­®£® á¨á⥬­®£®  ­ «÷§ã

 ¢ç «ì­¨© ¯®á÷¡­¨ª
Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨
¤® ஧à åã­ª®¢¨å ஡÷â § ¤¨á樯«÷­¨
„¨áªà¥â­  ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª 
„«ï áâ㤥­â÷¢ ᯥæ÷ «ì­®á⥩:

124 ‘¨á⥬­¨©  ­ «÷§, 122 Š®¬¯'îâ¥à­÷ ­ ãª¨

¥ª®¬¥­¤®¢ ­®

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­®î à ¤®î ã­÷¢¥àá¨â¥âã

ïª ­ ¢ç «ì­¨© ¯®á÷¡­¨ª

ƒà¨ä ­ ¤ ­® Œ¥â®¤¨ç­®î

à ¤®î Šö ÷¬. ö£®àï ‘÷ª®àá쪮£®

(¯à®â®ª®« ü ¢÷¤ ¦®¢â­ï 2017 பã)

§  ¯®¤ ­­ï¬ ‚祭®ù à ¤¨

ö­áâ¨âãâ㠯ਪ« ¤­®£® á¨á⥬­®£®

 ­ «÷§ã

(¯à®â®ª®« ü 8 ¢÷¤ 25 ¦®¢â­ï 2017 பã)

Š¨ù¢ 2017
 Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨ ¤® ஧à åã­ª®¢¨å ஡÷â § ¤¨á樯«÷­¨ ý„¨áªà¥â­ 

¬ â¥¬ â¨ª þ. “ª« ¤ ç÷: ö.Ÿ. ‘¯¥ªâ®àá쪨©, Ž.‚. ‘âãáì, ‚.Œ. ‘â âª¥¢¨ç.

{ Š.: ’““ ýŠö ÷¬. ö£®àï ‘÷ª®àá쪮£®þ, ö‘€, 2017. { 84 á.

 ¢ç «ì­¥ ¢¨¤ ­­ï

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨
¤® ஧à åã­ª®¢¨å ஡÷â § ¤¨á樯«÷­¨
„¨áªà¥â­  ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª 

„«ï áâ㤥­â÷¢ ᯥæ÷ «ì­®á⥩:

124 ‘¨á⥬­¨©  ­ «÷§, 122 Š®¬¯'îâ¥à­÷ ­ ãª¨

“ª« ¤ ç÷: ‘¯¥ªâ®àá쪨© ö£®à Ÿª®¢¨ç

‘âãáì Ž«¥ªá ­¤à ‚÷ªâ®à®¢¨ç

‘â âª¥¢¨ç ‚÷â «÷© Œ¨å ©«®¢¨ç

‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ «ì­¨© । ªâ®à: ®£¤ ­á쪨© žà÷© ‚÷ªâ®à®¢¨ç

¤. ä.-¬. ­., ¯à®ä.

¥æ¥­§¥­â: ö«ìõ­ª® €­¤à÷© ®à¨á®¢¨ç

ª. ä.-¬. ­., ¤®æ.

 ‡¬÷áâ
‚áâ㯠. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.1. €ªá÷®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩ . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2. Œ®¤¥«ì­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩ . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.3. ®§¢'易­­ï á¨á⥬¨ à÷¢­ï­ì . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2. ’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.1. „®á«÷¤¦¥­­ï ¢« á⨢®á⥩ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï . . . . . . . . 20

2.2. Ž¯¥à æ÷ù ­ ¤ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬¨ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.3. Ž¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­¨ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3. Š®¬¡÷­ â®à¨ª  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1. ‚¨¡÷à ­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨å ®¡'õªâ÷¢ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.2. ‚¨¡÷à ­¥­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨å ®¡'õªâ÷¢ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4. ’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æì . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.1. ‚¨§­ ç¥­­ï £à㯨 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.2. ƒà㯨 ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢®ª . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.3. ƒ®¬®¬®àä÷§¬¨ £à㯠ª« á÷¢ «¨èª÷¢ . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.4. Œã«ì⨯«÷ª â¨¢­  £à㯠 ª÷«ìæï . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ â  à¥è÷⪨ . . . . . . . . . 49

5.1. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨. ‚¥àå­÷ â  ­¨¦­÷

¬¥¦÷ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.2. ¥è÷⪠ ¤÷«ì­¨ª÷¢ ­ âãà «ì­®£® ç¨á«  . . . . . . . . 56

6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

6.1. „¨§'⨢­÷ â  ª®­'⨢­÷ ­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨ . . 60

6.2. ”ã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­  ¯®¢­®â  ­ ¡®àã ¡ã«¥¢¨å äã­ªæ÷© . . 73

7. €¢â®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï ⥮६ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

7.1. „®¢¥¤¥­­ï § £ «ì­®§­ çãé®áâ÷ ä®à¬ã«¨ . . . . . . . 78

8. ¥ç÷âª÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3
 ‡¬÷áâ

8.1. ‚÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï ­¥ç÷âª¨å ¬­®¦¨­ . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

¥ª®¬¥­¤®¢ ­  «÷â¥à âãà  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4
 ‚áâã¯
„¨á樯«÷­  ý„¨áªà¥â­  ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª þ õ ®¤­÷õî § ®á­®¢­¨å äã­¤ ¬¥­-

â «ì­¨å ¤¨á樯«÷­ ã § £ «ì­®­ ãª®¢÷© ¯÷¤£®â®¢æ÷ áâ㤥­â÷¢ §  ¬ â¥¬ -

â¨ç­¨¬¨ ÷ â¥å­÷ç­¨¬¨ ᯥæ÷ «ì­®áâﬨ, §®ªà¥¬  { §  ᯥæ÷ «ì­®áâﬨ

124 ‘¨á⥬­¨©  ­ «÷§ ÷ 122 Š®¬¯'îâ¥à­÷ ­ ãª¨.

‡­ ç­ã ç á⨭㠤¨áªà¥â­®ù ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª¨ ïª ãç¡®¢®ù ¤¨á樯«÷­¨ áâ -

­®¢«ïâì ⨯®¢÷ § ¤ ç÷, ¤«ï ஧¢'易­­ï 直å ÷á­ãîâì áâ ­¤ àâ­÷ ¬¥â®¤¨.

„ ­¨© ¯®á÷¡­¨ª ¬ õ ¤®¯®¬®£â¨ áâ㤥­â ¬ ã § á¢®õ­­÷ ®á­®¢­¨å ¯®­ïâì

ªãàáã â  ®¯ ­ã¢ ­­÷ ®á­®¢­¨å ¬¥â®¤÷¢ ஧¢'易­­ï ⨯®¢¨å § ¤ ç.

®á÷¡­¨ª ¬÷áâ¨âì § ¤ ç÷ ¯® ஧¤÷« å ý’¥®à÷ï ¬­®¦¨­þ, ý’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤-

­®è¥­ìþ, ýŠ®¬¡÷­ â®à¨ª þ, ý’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æìþ, ý— á⪮¢® ¢¯®àï¤-

ª®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ â  à¥è÷⪨þ, ýã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨þ, ý€¢â®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­-

­ï ⥮६þ. „«ï ª®¦­®ù ⨯®¢®ù § ¤ ç÷ ¯®á÷¡­¨ª ¯à®¯®­ãõ ¯® 30 ¢ à÷ ­-

â÷¢ § ¢¤ ­ì. Š®¦­¨© ஧¤÷« ¬÷áâ¨âì ¬¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨ ÷§ ¯à¨ª« ¤ ¬¨

஧¢'易­­ï. ®àï¤ ÷§ § á¢®õ­­ï¬ áâ ­¤ àâ­¨å ¬¥â®¤÷¢ ஧¢'易­­ï § -

¤ ç÷, áâ㤥­â¨ á⨬ã«îîâìáï ¤® ¯®èãªã ­¥áâ ­¤ àâ­¨å è«ïå÷¢, é® ¢

¡ £ âì®å ¢¨¯ ¤ª å áãââõ¢® ¯®«¥£èãõ ஧¢'易­­ï.

„ ­¨© ¯®á÷¡­¨ª ¬®¦­  ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠⨠­  ¬ â¥¬ â¨ç­¨å ÷ â¥å­÷ç-

­¨å ä ªã«ìâ¥â å â  ÷­áâ¨âãâ å ã ¢¨é¨å ­ ¢ç «ì­¨å § ª« ¤ å â  ¬®¦¥

¡ã⨠ª®à¨á­¨¬ ¤«ï ÷­¦¥­¥à÷¢ â  ­ ãª®¢¨å ¯à æ÷¢­¨ª÷¢, ïª÷ § æ÷ª ¢«¥­÷ ¢

®¯ ­ã¢ ­­÷ ¬¥â®¤÷¢ ஧¢'易­­ï ⨯®¢¨å § ¤ ç ¤¨áªà¥â­®ù ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª¨.

5
 1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­

1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­

1.1. €ªá÷®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩

„®¢¥á⨠â®â®¦­÷áâì  ªá÷®¬ â¨ç­®. Ž¯¥à æ÷ù ý þ â  ý \ Mþ ஧ªà¨â¨ § 

ä®à¬ã« ¬¨ A\B =A∩B c

â  A M B = (A ∩ B ) ∪ (B ∩ Ac ).
c

1. A \ (A \ (A M (A M B))) = A ∩ B ;

2. A ∩ (A \ (A M (A M B))) = A \ B ;

3. B ∪ ((B M (B M A)) \ B) = A ∪ B ;

4. A ∪ ((B M (B M A)) \ B) = A;

5. A ∩ ((B M (B M A)) \ B) = A \ B ;

6. A ∪ (A \ (B M (B M A))) = A;

7. B ∪ (A \ (B M (B ∪ A))) = B ;

8. B \ (A \ (B M (B M A))) = B ;

9. (B \ (A M (B M A))) \ B = ∅;

10. (A \ (A M (B M A))) \ B = A \ B ;

11. (A ∪ (A M (B M A))) \ B = A \ B ;

12. (B \ A) ∪ (B M (B M A)) = A ∪ B ;

13. (B \ A) ∪ (A M (B M A)) = B ;

14. (A \ B) ∪ (A M (B M A)) = A ∪ B ;

15. (A \ B) ∪ (B M (B M A)) = A;

16. ((A \ B) ∪ A) M (B M A) = B ;

17. ((A \ B) ∪ A)c M (B M A) = B c ;

18. (A \ B) ∩ (B c M (B M A)) = ∅;

19. (A \ B) ∩ (Ac M (B M A)) = (A \ B);

6
1.1. €ªá÷®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩

20. (B \ A) ∪ (A M (B M A))c = (A ∩ B)c ;

21. A ∪ (B \ A) = (A M B) ∪ (A ∩ B);

22. A ∪ B = (A M B) M (A ∩ B);

23. B \ (B \ (B M (A M B))) = A ∩ B ;

24. B \ (B \ (A M (A M B))) = B ;

25. A ∩ (B \ A) = (A M B) ∩ (A ∩ B);

26. A M (B \ A) = (A M B) ∪ (A ∩ B);

27. A ∪ (B M A) = (A M B) ∪ (A ∩ B);

28. A M B = (A M B) \ (A ∩ B);

29. (A M B) M B = (A ∩ B) ∪ A;

30. (A M B) M B c = (Ac ∩ B) ∪ Ac .

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é®  ªá÷®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩ ¢  «£¥¡à÷ ¬­®-

¦¨­ ¯¥à¥¤¡ ç õ § áâ®á㢠­­ï ç®â¨àì®å ¯ à ®á­®¢­¨å § ª®­÷¢ (ª®¬ãâ â¨-

¢­÷áâì, ¤¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâì, ­¥©âà «ì­÷áâì â  ¤®¯®¢­¥­÷áâì) ¡¥§ ãà å㢠­­ï

§¬÷áâã ®¯¥à æ÷© ­ ¤ ¬­®¦¨­ ¬¨:

1. Š®¬ãâ â¨¢­÷áâì (¯¥à¥áâ ¢­¨© § ª®­): A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

2. „¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâì (஧¯®¤÷«ì­¨© § ª®­):
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
3. ¥©âà «ì­÷áâì: A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∩ U = A.
4. „®¯®¢­¥­÷áâì: A ∪ A = U , A ∩ A = ∅.
c c

à¨  ªá÷®¬ â¨ç­®¬ã ¤®¢¥¤¥­­÷ ¬®¦­  § áâ®á®¢ã¢ â¨ © ÷­è÷ § ª®­¨,

ïª÷ ¡ã«¨ ¢¨¢¥¤¥­÷ § ®á­®¢­¨å § ª®­÷¢:

5. “­÷¢¥àá «ì­÷ ¬¥¦÷: A ∪ U = U,
A ∩ ∅ = ∅.
6. €¡á®à¡æ÷ï (¯®£«¨­ ­­ï): A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A,

A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A.
7. ö¤¥¬¯®â¥­â­÷áâì: A ∪ A = A,

A ∩ A = A.
8. €á®æ÷ â¨¢­÷áâì (ᯮ«ãç­¨© § ª®­): A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C,

A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C.

7
 1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­

(
A ∪ X = U,
9. ô¤¨­÷áâì ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï: ⇒ (X = Ac ).
A∩X =∅
c c
10. ö­¢®«î⨢­÷áâì: (A ) = A.

‡ ª®­ (¯à ¢¨«®) ¤¥ Œ®à£ ­ : (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B ,

c c c
11.

(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c .
‡ ª®­ ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï: (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ B ) = A;
c
12.

(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B c ) = A.
‡ ª®­ ®à¥æ쪮£®: A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B;
c
13.

A ∪ (Ac ∩ B) = A ∪ B.
à¨  ªá÷®¬ â¨ç­®¬ã ¤®¢¥¤¥­­÷ â®â®¦­®á⥩ ­ ¬ £ îâìáï, ïª ¯à ¢¨-

«®, §¢¥á⨠¡÷«ìè ᪫ ¤­ã ç á⨭ã à÷¢­®áâ÷ ¤® ¡÷«ìè ¯à®áâ®ù. Ÿªé® ®¡¨-

¤¢÷ ç á⨭¨ à÷¢­®áâ÷ ¤®áâ â­ì® ᪫ ¤­÷, á«÷¤ ¯¥à¥â¢®à¨â¨ ®¡¨¤¢÷ ç á⨭¨,

§¢®¤ïç¨ ùå ¤® á¯÷«ì­®£® ¡÷«ìè ¯à®á⮣® ¢¨£«ï¤ã.

à¨ª« ¤ 1.1. „®¢¥á⨠ ªá÷®¬ â¨ç­® â®â®¦­÷áâì

(A \ B) ∪ (A M (A M B)c ) = B c .

à ¢ã ç á⨭ã à÷¢­®áâ÷ ­¥¬®¦«¨¢® á¯à®áâ¨â¨. ‘¯à®á⨬® «÷¢ã ç á-

⨭ã, §¢®¤ïç¨ ù ù ¤® ¢¨£«ï¤ã Bc. ¥à¥â¢®à¥­­ï ¡ã¤¥¬® ஡¨â¨ ¯®áâ㯮¢®,

á¯à®éãîç¨ ¯÷¤ä®à¬ã«¨, ïª÷ ¢å®¤ïâì ã «÷¢ã ç á⨭ã (­ ¤ §­ ª ¬¨ à÷¢-

­®áâ÷ ¢ª § ­® ­®¬¥à¨ § ª®­÷¢, ïª÷ § áâ®á®¢ã¢ «¨áï ­  ¤ ­®¬ã ¯¥à¥å®¤÷):

11,10
1. (A M B)c = ((A ∩ B c ) ∪ (B ∩ Ac ))c = (Ac ∪ B) ∩ (B c ∪ A);
2. A M ((Ac ∪ B) ∩ (B c ∪ A)) =
11,8,10
= (A ∩ ((Ac ∪ B) ∩ (B c ∪ A))c ) ∪ (Ac ∩ ((Ac ∪ B) ∩ (B c ∪ A))) =
11,8,10 2,6
= (A ∩ ((A ∩ B c ) ∪ (B ∩ Ac ))) ∪ ((Ac ∩ (Ac ∪ B)) ∩ (B c ∪ A)) =
2,6 8,7,1,2
= ((A ∩ (A ∩ B c )) ∪ (A ∩ (B ∩ Ac ))) ∪ (Ac ∩ (B c ∪ A)) =
8,7,1,2 4
= ((A ∩ B c )) ∪ (B ∩ (A ∩ Ac )) ∪ ((Ac ∩ B c ) ∪ (Ac ∩ A)) =
5,3
(A ∩ B c ) ∪ (B ∩ ∅) ∪ ((Ac ∩ B c ) ∪ ∅) =
5,3 3 2
= (A ∩ B c ) ∪ ∅ ∪ (Ac ∩ B c ) = (A ∩ B c ) ∪ (Ac ∩ B c ) =
2 4 3
= B c ∩ (A ∪ Ac ) = B c ∩ U = B c ;
1,6
3. (A \ B) ∪ B c = (A ∩ B c ) ∪ B c = B c .
’®â®¦­÷áâì ¤®¢¥¤¥­®.

8
1.2. Œ®¤¥«ì­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩

1.2. Œ®¤¥«ì­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩

„®¢¥á⨠â®â®¦­÷áâì ¬®¤¥«ì­¨¬ è«ï宬.

1. ((A ∪ B) × C) \ (A × (C ∪ D)) = (B × C) \ (A × (C ∪ D));

2. (A × (C ∪ D)) \ ((A ∪ B) × C) = (A × D) \ ((A ∪ B) × C);

3. (((A ∪ B c ) ∩ B) × (C \ D)) ∩ (A × (C ∪ D)) = ((A ∩ B) × (C \ D));

4. ((A ∩ (Ac ∪ B)) × (C M D)) ∪ (A × (C ∪ D)) = (A × (C ∪ D));

5. ((A \ B) × ((C ∪ Dc ) ∩ D)) ∩ ((A ∪ B) × C) = ((A \ B) × (C ∩ D));

6. ((A \ B) × ((C ∪ Dc ) ∩ D)) ∪ ((A ∪ B) × C) = ((A ∪ B) × C);

7. (A M B) × C = (A × C) M (B × C);

8. ((A \ D) × C) \ (A × (B \ C)) = ((A ∪ D) \ D) × C ;

9. ((A ∪ D) × C) \ (A × (B \ C)) = ((A \ D) ∪ D) × C ;

10. ((A∪D)×C)M(A×(B \C)) = (A×((B ∪C)\C))∪(((A\D)∪D)×C);

11. ((A M B) × C) \ (B × (D \ C)) = (((A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B)) × C);

12. ((A ∪ D) × (C M B)) \ (A × (B ∩ C)) = ((A \ D) ∪ D) × (C M B);

13. ((A ∪ D) × (C ∩ B)) \ (A × (B M C)) = ((A \ D) ∪ D) × (C ∩ B);

14. ((A \ D) × (C M B)) \ (A × (B ∩ C)) = ((A ∪ D) \ D) × (C M B);

15. ((A \ D) × (C ∩ B)) \ (A × (B M C)) = ((A ∪ D) \ D) × (C ∩ B);

16. ((A \ D) × (C ∩ B)) ∪ (A × ((B ∪ C) \ (B M C))) = A × (C ∩ B);

17. ((A \ D) × (C M B)) ∪ (A × ((B ∪ C) \ (B ∩ C))) = A × (C M B);

18. ((A \ D) × (C ∩ B)) ∪ (D × ((B ∪ C) \ (B M C))) = (A ∪ D) × (C ∩ B);

19. ((A \ D) × (C M B)) ∪ (D × ((B ∪ C) \ (B ∩ C))) = (A ∪ D) × (C M B);

20. ((A ∩ D) × (C ∩ B)) ∪ (A × ((B ∪ C) \ (B M C))) = A × (C ∩ B);

21. ((A ∩ D) × (C M B)) ∪ (A × ((B ∪ C) \ (B ∩ C))) = A × (C M B);

9
 1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­

22. ((A\D)×(C ∩B))∪((D \A)×((B ∪C)\(B MC))) = (AMD)×(C ∩B);

23. ((D \A)×(B MC))∪((A\D)×((B ∪C)\(B ∩C))) = (AMD)×(C MB);

24. ((A \ D) × (C ∩ B)) ∩ (A × ((B ∪ C) \ (B M C))) = (A \ D) × (C ∩ B);

25. (A × (C M B)) ∩ ((A \ D) × ((B ∪ C) \ (B ∩ C))) = (A \ D) × (C M B);

26. ((A \ D) × ((C ∩ B) ∪ C)) ∪ ((D \ A) × ((C ∪ B) ∩ C)) = (A M D) × C ;

27. ((D \ A) × ((C ∪ B) ∩ C)) ∪ ((A \ D) × ((C ∩ B) ∪ C)) = (A M D) × C ;

28. (A \ D) × ((C \ B) ∪ B) ∩ (A × (C ∪ (B \ C))) = (A \ D) × (C ∪ B);

29. (A × (C ∪ (B \ C))) ∩ ((A \ D) × ((C \ B) ∪ B)) = (A \ D) × (C ∪ B);

30. (A × (C ∪ (B \ C))) ∪ ((A \ D) × ((C \ B) ∪ B)) = A × (C ∪ B).

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

Œ®¤¥«ì­¨© ᯮá÷¡ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩ ¡ §ãõâìáï ­  ¢¨§­ ç¥­­÷

à÷¢­®áâ÷ ¬­®¦¨­ â  ¢¨§­ ç¥­­÷ ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­¨:

(A = B) ⇔ (A ⊂ B) ∧ (B ⊂ A) ⇔
⇔ ((x ∈ A) → (x ∈ B)) ∧ ((x ∈ B) → (x ∈ A)).

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ¤¥ª à⮢¨¬ ¤®¡ã⪮¬ ¤¢®å ¬­®¦¨­ A â  B ­ §¨¢ îâì

¬­®¦¨­ã A × B, é® áª« ¤ õâìáï § 㯮à浪®¢ ­¨å ¯ à ¢¨¤ã (x, y), ¤¥

x ∈ A, y ∈ B :
A × B = {(x, y) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B}.
à¨ ¬®¤¥«ì­®¬ã ¤®¢¥¤¥­­÷ â®â®¦­®á⥩ § ¤¥ª à⮢¨¬ ¤®¡ã⪮¬ á«÷¤

¢à å®¢ã¢ â¨, é® â¨¯®¢¨¬ ¥«¥¬¥­â®¬ ¤¥ª à⮢®£® ¤®¡ãâªã A×B õ ¯ à 

¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ (x, y):

(x, y) ∈ (A × B) ⇔ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (y ∈ B)).

à¨ª« ¤ 1.2. „®¢¥á⨠â®â®¦­÷áâì

((A ∪ B) × (C M D)) \ (A × (C ∪ D)) = (B \ A) × ((C ∪ D) \ (C ∩ D)).

10
1.2. Œ®¤¥«ì­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï â®â®¦­®á⥩

1. ®§¯¨è¥¬® ­ «¥¦­÷áâì ¯ à¨ (x, y) «÷¢÷© ç á⨭÷ â®â®¦­®áâ÷:

(x, y) ∈ ((A ∪ B) × (C M D)) \ (A × (C ∪ D)) ⇔

⇔ ((x, y) ∈ (A ∪ B) × (C M D)) ∧ ((x, y) ∈
/ A × (C ∪ D)) ⇔
⇔ ((x ∈ (A ∪ B)) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D))) ∧ ((x ∈/ A) ∨ (y ∈
/ (C ∪ D))) ⇔
⇔ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D))∧
∧((x ∈
/ A) ∨ ((y ∈
/ C) ∧ (y ∈
/ D))) ⇔
⇔ ((x ∈/ A) ∧ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D))) ∨
∨ ((y ∈
/ C) ∧ (y ∈
/ D) ∧ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D))) ⇔ E1 ∨ E2 ,

¤¥

E1 = (x ∈
/ A) ∧ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D));
E2 = (y ∈
/ C) ∧ (y ∈
/ D) ∧ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D)).

‘¯à®éãîç¨ ¢¨à §¨ E1 ÷ E2 ®ªà¥¬®, ®âਬãõ¬®:

E1 ⇔ ((x ∈
/ A) ∧ (x ∈ A)) ∨ ((x ∈/ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D)) ⇔
⇔ (0 ∨ ((x ∈/ A) ∧ (x ∈ B))) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D)) ⇔
⇔ (x ∈ B \ A) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D));
E2 ⇔ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (y ∈ / C) ∧ (y ∈
/ D)∧
∧(((y ∈ C) ∧ (y ∈/ D)) ∨ ((y ∈
/ C) ∧ (y ∈ D))) ⇔
⇔ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (((y ∈
/ C) ∧ (y ∈/ D) ∧ (y ∈ C) ∧ (y ∈
/ D))∨
∨((y ∈/ C) ∧ (y ∈
/ D) ∧ (y ∈/ C) ∧ (y ∈ D))) ⇔
⇔ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (0 ∨ 0) ⇔ ((x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)) ∧ 0 ⇔ 0.

Žáâ â®ç­® ¤«ï «÷¢®ù ç á⨭¨ ®âਬãõ¬®:

(x, y) ∈ ((A ∪ B) × (C M D)) \ (A × (C ∪ D)) ⇔ E1 ∨ E2 ⇔

⇔ (x ∈ B \ A) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D)) ∨ 0 ⇔ (x ∈ B \ A) ∧ (y ∈ (C M D)).

2. ®§¯¨è¥¬® ­ «¥¦­÷áâì ¯ à¨ (x, y) ¯à ¢÷© ç á⨭÷ â®â®¦­®áâ÷:

(x, y) ∈ (B \ A) × ((C ∪ D) \ (C ∩ D)) ⇔

⇔ (x ∈ B \ A) ∧ (y ∈ ((C ∪ D) \ (C ∩ D))).

Žâ¦¥, ⥯¥à ¤«ï ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï ¢¨å÷¤­®ù â®â®¦­®áâ÷ ¤®áâ â­ì® ¯®ª § â¨, é®

C M D = (C ∪ D) \ (C ∩ D).

11
 1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­

‚¨ª®à¨á⮢ãîç¨ ¬®¤¥«ì­¨© ᯮá÷¡ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï, ®âਬãõ¬®:

(y ∈ C M D) ⇔ (y ∈ (C ∩ Dc ) ∪ (D ∩ C c )) ⇔
⇔ ((y ∈ C) ∧ (y ∈/ D)) ∨ ((y ∈/ C) ∧ (y ∈ D)) ⇔
⇔ ((y ∈ C) ∨ (y ∈/ C)) ∧ ((y ∈ C) ∨ (y ∈ D)) ∧ ((y ∈
/ D)∨
∨(y ∈
/ C)) ∧ ((y ∈/ D) ∨ (y ∈ D)) ⇔
⇔ 1 ∧ ((y ∈ C) ∨ (y ∈ D)) ∧ ((y ∈ / D) ∨ (y ∈
/ C)) ∧ 1 ⇔
⇔ ((y ∈ C) ∨ (y ∈ D)) ∧ ((y ∈ / D) ∨ (y ∈
/ C)) ⇔
⇔ (y ∈ (D ∪ C)) ∧ ¬((y ∈ D) ∧ (y ∈ C)) ⇔
⇔ (y ∈ (C ∪ D)) ∧ ¬(y ∈ (C ∩ D)) ⇔
⇔ (y ∈ (C ∪ D) \ (C ∩ D)).

1.3. ®§¢'易­­ï á¨á⥬¨ à÷¢­ï­ì

®§¢'易⨠á¨á⥬ã à÷¢­ï­ì ¢÷¤­®á­® §¬÷­­®ù X.

( (
(A \ X) ∪ C = B ∩ C; (A \ X) ∩ C = C \ B;
1. 8.
X \ A = Bc. (X \ A) \ C = B.
( (
(A \ X) ∪ (B \ C) = B; (A \ X) M B = C;
2. 9.
(X \ A) = B c ∪ C. (X \ A) ∪ C = B.
( (
(A \ X) ∪ (C ∩ B) = B; (A \ X) M B c = C ∪ A;
3. 10.
X \ A = B. (X \ A) ∩ B = C.
( (
(A \ X) ∪ (A ∩ B) = C; (A ∪ X) ∪ C = B ∩ C;
4. 11.
X \ A = B. X \ A = Bc.
( (
(A \ X) ∩ B = C ∪ B; (A ∪ X) ∪ (B \ C) = B;
5. 12.
(X \ A) ∪ B = C. (X \ A) = B c ∪ C.
( (
(A \ X) \ B = C ∪ B; (A ∪ X) ∪ (C ∩ B) = B;
6. 13.
(X \ A) \ C = B. X \ A = B.
( (
(A \ X) ∩ B = C ∩ B; (A ∪ X) ∪ (A ∩ B) = C;
7. 14.
(X \ A) ∪ C = B. X \ A = B.

12
1.3. ®§¢'易­­ï á¨á⥬¨ à÷¢­ï­ì

( (
(A ∪ X) ∩ B = C ∪ B; (A ∪ X) ∪ (C ∩ B) = B;
15. 23.
(X \ A) ∪ B = C. X ∩ A = B.
( (
(A ∪ X) \ B = C ∪ B; (A ∪ X) ∪ (A ∩ B) = C;
16. 24.
(X \ A) \ C = B. X ∩ A = B.
( (
(A ∪ X) ∩ B = C ∩ B; (A ∪ X) ∩ B = C ∪ B;
17. 25.
(X \ A) ∪ C = B. (X ∩ A) ∪ B = C.
( (
(A ∪ X) ∩ C = C \ B; (A ∪ X) \ B = C ∪ B;
18. 26.
(X \ A) \ C = B. (X ∩ A) \ C = B.
( (
(A ∪ X) M B = C; (A ∪ X) ∩ B = C ∩ B;
19. 27.
(X \ A) ∪ C = B. (X ∩ A) ∪ C = B.
( (
(A ∪ X) M B = C ∪ A;
c
(A ∪ X) ∩ C = C \ B;
20. 28.
(X \ A) ∩ B = C. (X ∩ A) \ C = B.
( (
(A ∪ X) ∪ C = B ∩ C; (A ∪ X) M B = C;
21. 29.
X ∩ A = Bc. (X ∩ A) ∪ C = B.
( (
(A ∪ X) ∪ (B \ C) = B; (A ∪ X) M B c = C ∪ A;
22. 30.
(X ∩ A) = B c ∪ C. (X ∩ A) ∩ B = C.

13
 1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

„«ï ஧¢'易­­ï á¨á⥬¨ à÷¢­ï­ì § ®¤­¨¬ ­¥¢÷¤®¬¨¬ ¢  «£¥¡à÷ ¬­®-

¦¨­ á«÷¤ ஧¢'易⨠ª®¦­¥ à÷¢­ï­­ï á¨á⥬¨ ®ªà¥¬®.

®§£«ï­¥¬® § £ «ì­¨© ¬¥â®¤ ஧¢'易­­ï à÷¢­ï­­ï ¢¨£«ï¤ã

A1 (X) = A2 (X), (1)

¤¥ A1 (X), A2 (X) { ¤®¢÷«ì­÷ ä®à¬ã«¨  «£¥¡à¨ ¬­®¦¨­, ïª÷ ¬®¦ãâì ¬÷á-

â¨â¨ ¤®¢÷«ì­ã áª÷­ç¥­­ã ª÷«ìª÷áâì ¯à®¯®§¨æ÷©­¨å «÷â¥à. à®¯®§¨æ÷©­ 

«÷â¥à  X ¢¢ ¦ õâìáï ­¥¢÷¤®¬¨¬ (⮡⮠à÷¢­ï­­ï ¢÷¤­®á­® X ), ¢á÷ ÷­è÷

¯à®¯®§¨æ÷©­÷ «÷â¥à¨ ¢¢ ¦ îâìáï ä÷ªá®¢ ­¨¬¨ ¯ à ¬¥âà ¬¨.

‡ £ «ì­¨© ¬¥â®¤ ஧¢'易­­ï à÷¢­ï­­ï ⨯ã (1) ¯®¤÷«¨¬® ­  ç®â¨à¨

®á­®¢­÷ ¥â ¯¨.

1. ‚¨ª®à¨á⮢ãîç¨ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâì (A = B) ⇔ (A M B = ∅), §¢®¤¨¬®

à÷¢­ï­­ï (1) ¤® à÷¢­ï­­ï § ¯®à®¦­ì®î ¬­®¦¨­®î 㠯ࠢ÷© ç á⨭÷:

(A1 (X) = A2 (X)) ⇔ (A(X) = ∅), ¤¥ A(X) = A1 (X) M A2 (X).

2. ÷¢­ï­­ï A(X) = ∅ §®¡à §¨¬® ã ¢¨£«ï¤÷

(B1 ∩ X) ∪ (B2 ∩ X c ) ∪ B3 = ∅, (2)

¤¥Bi (i = 1, 2, 3) { ä®à¬ã«¨, é® ­¥ ¬÷áâïâì ¢å®¤¦¥­ì «÷â¥à¨ X . „«ï æ쮣®

¢¨ª®­ õ¬® ­ áâ㯭÷ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷ ¯¥à¥â¢®à¥­­ï ä®à¬ã«¨ A(X).

1) ®§¡ ¢¨¬®áì ®¯¥à æ÷© ý\þ â  ýMþ, ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢ãîç¨ â®â®¦­®áâ÷:

A \ B = A ∩ Bc;
A M B = (A ∩ B c ) ∪ (B ∩ Ac )  ¡® A M B = (A ∪ B) ∩ (Ac ∪ B c ).

2) Š®à¨áâãîç¨áì (­¥®¡å÷¤­ã ª÷«ìª÷áâì à §÷¢) ¯à ¢¨«®¬ ¤¥ Œ®à£ ­ 

(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c , (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

(Ac )c = A, ¢­¥á¥¬® ®¯¥à æ÷ù ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ¢á¥-

â  § ª®­®¬ ÷­¢®«î⨢­®áâ÷

।¨­ã ä®à¬ã«¨ A(X). “ ä®à¬ã«÷ A(X) ­¥ ¯®¢¨­­® § «¨è¨â¨áì §®¢­÷è-

­÷å ®¯¥à æ÷© ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï, ⮡⮠¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ¬ îâì § áâ®á®¢ã¢ â¨áï «¨è¥

¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® ¤® ¯à®¯®§¨æ÷©­¨å «÷â¥à.

3) ‡ áâ®á®¢ãîç¨ ­¥®¡å÷¤­ã ª÷«ìª÷áâì à §÷¢ § ª®­ ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®áâ÷

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),

14
1.3. ®§¢'易­­ï á¨á⥬¨ à÷¢­ï­ì

¢­¥á¥¬® ®¯¥à æ÷ù ¯¥à¥â¨­ã ¯÷¤  à£ã¬¥­â¨ ®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï. “ ä®à¬ã«÷ A(X)

­¥ ¯®¢¨­­® § «¨è¨â¨áì ®¯¥à æ÷© ¯¥à¥â¨­ã, ïª÷ ¡ã«¨ ¡ §®¢­÷è­÷¬¨ ¤®

®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï, ⮡⮠ à£ã¬¥­â ¬¨ ¯¥à¥â¨­÷¢ ¬ îâì ¡ã⨠«¨è¥ ¯à®¯®§¨æ÷©­÷

«÷â¥à¨ â  ùå ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï. “ १ã«ìâ â÷ §à®¡«¥­¨å ¯¥à¥â¢®à¥­ì ä®à¬ã«¨

A(X) ®âਬãõ¬® ®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï ¯¥à¥â¨­÷¢

A(X) = (· · · ∩ · · · ∩ · · · ) ∪ · · · ∪ (· · · ∩ · · · ∩ . . . ),

¤¥  à£ã¬¥­â ¬¨ ª®¦­®£® ¯¥à¥â¨­ã ¬®¦ãâì ¡ã⨠«¨è¥ ¯à®¯®§¨æ÷©­÷ «÷â¥-

à¨ â  ùå ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï.

‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ª®¦­  ¤ã¦ª , 猪 õ  à£ã¬¥­â®¬ §®¢­÷è­ì®£® ®¡'õ¤-

­ ­­ï, ¬®¦¥ ¬÷áâ¨â¨ ¤¥ª÷«ìª  ¢å®¤¦¥­ì «÷â¥à¨ X, ïª § ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï¬,

â ª ÷ ¡¥§ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï. à®â¥ ¤ã¦ª¨ ÷§ ®¤­®ç á­¨¬¨ ¢å®¤¦¥­­ï¬¨ X â 

c
X ¤®à÷¢­îîâì ¯®à®¦­÷© ¬­®¦¨­÷ (¢« á⨢®áâ÷ ¤®¯®¢­¥­®áâ÷ â  ã­÷¢¥à-

á «ì­¨å £à ­¨æì) ÷ ¬®¦ãâì ¡ã⨠¢¨ªà¥á«¥­÷ ÷§ §®¢­÷è­ì®£® ®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï

(¢« á⨢÷áâì ­¥©âà «ì­®áâ÷).

Šà÷¬ ⮣®, ®¤­®ç á­¥ ¢å®¤¦¥­­ï ¢ ®¤­ã ¤ã¦ªã ª÷«ìª®å «÷â¥à X ¡¥§

c
¢å®¤¦¥­ì X ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­¥, §  ÷¤¥¬¯®â¥­â­÷áâî, ®¤­®ªà â­®¬ã ¢å®¤¦¥­-

­î X ( ­ «®£÷ç­®, ¤¥ª÷«ìª  ¢å®¤¦¥­ì ¢ ®¤­ã ¤ã¦ªã Xc ¡¥§ ¢å®¤¦¥­ì X

c
¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­¥ ®¤­®ªà â­®¬ã ¢å®¤¦¥­­î X ).

Žâ¦¥, ã १ã«ìâ â÷ §à®¡«¥­¨å ¯¥à¥â¢®à¥­ì ä®à¬ã«¨ A(X) ®âਬãõ¬®:

! ! !
[
n1 [
n2 [
n3
A(X) = (B1,i ∩ X) ∪ (B2,i ∩ X c ) ∪ B3,i . (3)

i=1 i=1 i=1

4) ‡ áâ®á®¢ãîç¨ ¤® (3) § ª®­ ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®áâ÷, ¢¨­®á¨¬® §  ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤-

­÷ ¤ã¦ª¨ X â  X c. ‚ १ã«ìâ â÷ ®âਬãõ¬®:

A(X) = (B1 ∩ X) ∪ (B2 ∩ X c ) ∪ B3 , ¤¥

[
n1 [
n2 [n3
B1 = B1,i , B2 = B2,i , B3 = B3,i .
i=1 i=1 i=1

Žâ¦¥, ®âਬ «¨ §®¡à ¦¥­­ï ¢¨å÷¤­®£® à÷¢­ï­­ï ã ¢¨£«ï¤÷ (2).

3. ‘ª®à¨áâ ¢è¨áì ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâî (A∪B = ∅) ⇔ ((A = ∅)∧(B = ∅)),

஧ª« ¤¥¬® à÷¢­ï­­ï (2) ¢ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­ã á¨á⥬ã:



B1 ∩ X = ∅,
(B1 ∩ X) ∪ (B2 ∩ X c ) ∪ B3 = ∅ ⇔ B2 ∩ X c = ∅,


B3 = ∅.

15
 1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­

4. ‘ª®à¨áâ ¢è¨áì ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâî (A ⊂ B) ⇔ (A ∩ B c = ∅), ®âਬã-

õ¬® 㬮¢ã ­  ஧¢'燐ª ®âਬ ­®ù á¨á⥬¨:

 
  (
B1 ∩ X = ∅, X ⊂ B 1 ,
c
B2 ⊂ X ⊂ B1c ,
B2 ∩ X c = ∅, ⇔ B2 ⊂ X, ⇔

 
 B3 = ∅.
B3 = ∅ B3 = ∅
‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® à÷¢­ï­­ï B3 = ∅ õ ­¥®¡å÷¤­®î 㬮¢®î ­  ¯ à ¬¥âà¨

¢¨å÷¤­®£® à÷¢­ï­­ï.

‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. Ÿªé® ¯ à ¬¥âਠà÷¢­ï­­ï (1) § ¤®¢®«ì­ïîâì 㬮¢ã

B3 = ∅, ஧¢'離 ¬¨ à÷¢­ï­­ï (1) õ â÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ â÷ X , ïª÷ § ¤®¢®«ì­ïîâì

㬮¢ã B2 ⊂ X ⊂ B1 . Ÿªé® ¯ à ¬¥âਠà÷¢­ï­­ï (1) ­¥ § ¤®¢®«ì­ïîâì
c

㬮¢ã B3 = ∅, à÷¢­ï­­ï (1) ­¥ ¬ õ ஧¢'離÷¢.

‡ ã¢ ¦¥­­ï 1. à¨ ஧¢'易­­÷ ॠ«ì­¨å § ¤ ç ¯ã­ªâ 4 ç áâ® ®¯ãá-

ª îâì, ÷ ¢÷¤ à÷¢­ï­­ï (3) ®¤à §ã ¯¥à¥å®¤ïâì ¤® á¨á⥬¨ ⨯ã (4),  «¥ §

¡÷«ìè®î ª÷«ìª÷áâî ¡÷«ìè ¯à®áâ¨å à÷¢­ï­ì:

! ! !
[
n1 [
n2 [
n3
(B1,i ∩ X) ∪ (B2,i ∩ X c ) ∪ B3,i =∅⇔
i=1 i=1 i=1


B1,i ∩ X = ∅, 1 6 i 6 n1 ,
⇔ B2,i ∩ X c = ∅, 1 6 i 6 n2 ,


B3,i = ∅, 1 6 i 6 n3 .
„«ï ®âਬ ­­ï ®áâ â®ç­®ù ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤÷ ¢ æ쮬㠢¨¯ ¤ªã ç áâ® ª®à¨áâã-

îâìáï ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâî:
(
A1 ⊂ X ⊂ B 1 ,
⇔ (A1 ∪ A2 ) ⊂ X ⊂ (B1 ∩ B2 ). (4)
A2 ⊂ X ⊂ B 2 ,

‡ ã¢ ¦¥­­ï 2. à¨ ஧¢'易­­÷ á¨á⥬ à÷¢­ï­ì § ®¤­¨¬ ­¥¢÷¤®¬¨¬

஧¢'ï§ãîâì ®¯¨á ­¨¬ ¢¨é¥ ¬¥â®¤®¬ ª®¦­¥ à÷¢­ï­­ï ®ªà¥¬®. Žâਬ ­÷

஧¢'離¨ à÷¢­ï­ì §¢®¤ïâì ¤® § £ «ì­®ù á¨á⥬¨, ¯÷á«ï 箣® ¢¨ª®à¨áâ®-

¢ãîâì ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâì (4).

‡ ã¢ ¦¥­­ï 3. ÷¢­ï­­ï á¨á⥬¨ ¬÷áâïâì, ïª ¯à ¢¨«®, á¯÷«ì­÷ ¯ à -

¬¥âà¨. ‚ æ쮬㠢¨¯ ¤ªã ¯®è㪠஧¢'離㠬®¦¥ à÷§ª® á¯à®áâ¨â¨áì, ïªé®

¯à¨ ¯®á«÷¤®¢­®¬ã ஧¢'易­­÷ à÷¢­ï­ì ¢à å®¢ã¢ â¨ 㬮¢¨ ­  ¯ à ¬¥â-

à¨, ®âਬ ­÷ ¯à¨ ஧¢'易­­÷ ïª ¯®â®ç­®£® à÷¢­ï­­ï, â ª ÷ ¯®¯¥à¥¤­÷å

à÷¢­ï­ì á¨á⥬¨.

16
1.3. ®§¢'易­­ï á¨á⥬¨ à÷¢­ï­ì

à¨ª« ¤ 1.3. ®§¢'易⨠á¨á⥬ã

(
C ∪ X = A \ B,
(5)
X \ A = B ∩ C.

I. ®§¢'殮¬® ¯¥àè¥ à÷¢­ï­­ï á¨á⥬¨.

C ∪ X = A \ B ⇔ (C ∪ X) M (A \ B) = ∅ ⇔
⇔ ((C ∪ X) ∩ (A ∩ B c )c ) ∪ ((C ∪ X)c ∩ (A ∩ B c )) = ∅ ⇔

(§  ¯à ¢¨«®¬ ¤¥ Œ®à£ ­  ¢­®á¨¬® ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ¤® ¯à®¯®§¨æ÷©­¨å «÷â¥à)

⇔ ((C ∪ X) ∩ (Ac ∪ B)) ∪ ((C c ∩ X c ) ∩ (A ∩ B c )) = ∅ ⇔

(§  ¤¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâî ¢­®á¨¬® ¯¥à¥â¨­ ¯÷¤ ®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï)

⇔ (C ∩ Ac ) ∪ (X ∩ Ac ) ∪ (C ∩ B) ∪ (X ∩ B) ∪ (C c ∩ X c ∩ A ∩ B c ) = ∅ ⇔

(¢¨¯¨áãõ¬® ÷ ஧¢'ï§ãõ¬® ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­ã á¨á⥬ã à÷¢­ï­ì)

 

 X ∩ Ac = ∅, 
 X ⊂ A,

 


 

X ∩ B = ∅, X ⊂ B ,
c

⇔ X c ∩ C c ∩ A ∩ B c = ∅, ⇔ X ⊃ (C c ∩ A ∩ B c ), ⇔

 


 C ∩ Ac = ∅, 
 C ⊂ A,

 

C ∩ B = ∅ C ∩ B = ∅
 

 (A ∩ B c
∩ C c
) ⊂ X ⊂ (A ∩ B c
), 
(A \ (B ∪ C)) ⊂ X ⊂ (A \ B),
⇔ C ⊂ A, ⇔ C ⊂ A,

 

C ∩B =∅ C ∩ B = ∅.

Žâਬ ­¨© ஧¢'燐ª ¯¥à讣® à÷¢­ï­­ï ­¥ ¯÷¤¤ õâìáï ¯®¤ «ì讬ã

á¯à®é¥­­î.

II. ®§¢'殮¬® ¤à㣥 à÷¢­ï­­ï á¨á⥬¨, ¢à å®¢ãîç¨ ã¬®¢¨, ®âਬ ­÷

¯à¨ ஧¢'易­­÷ ¯¥à讣® à÷¢­ï­­ï.

X \ A = B ∩ C ⇔ X \ A = ∅ ⇔ X ⊂ A.

17
 1. €«£¥¡à  ¬­®¦¨­

III. ‡¢®¤ïç¨ à®§¢'離¨ ¯¥à讣® ÷ ¤à㣮£® à÷¢­ï­ì ¤® § £ «ì­®ù á¨áâ¥-

¬¨, ®âਬãõ¬®:


( 
 (A \ (B ∪ C)) ⊂ X ⊂ (A \ B),

C ⊂ A,
C ∪ X = A \ B,
⇔ ⇔
X \A=B∩C 
 C ∩ B = ∅,


X⊂A


(A \ (B ∪ C)) ⊂ X ⊂ (A \ B) ∩ A,
⇔ C ⊂ A, ⇔


C ∩B =∅


(A \ (B ∪ C)) ⊂ X ⊂ (A \ B),
⇔ C ⊂ A,


C ∩ B = ∅.
‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. Ÿªé® C⊂A â  C ∩ B = ∅, ஧¢'離 ¬¨ á¨á⥬¨ (5) õ

â÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ â÷X , ïª÷ § ¤®¢®«ì­ïîâì 㬮¢ã (A \ (B ∪ C)) ⊂ X ⊂ (A \ B).

Ÿªé® C⊂
̸ A  ¡® C ∩ B ̸= ∅, á¨á⥬  (5) ஧¢'離÷¢ ­¥ ¬ õ.
à¨ª« ¤ 1.4. ®§¢'易⨠á¨á⥬ã
(
A ∩ X = X ∪ B,
(6)
X \ A = C \ X.
  ¯à¨ª« ¤÷ á¨á⥬¨ (6) ¯®ª ¦¥¬®, ïª ¬®¦­  á¯à®áâ¨â¨ ஧¢'燐ª

á¨á⥬¨ ¢  «£¥¡à÷ ¬­®¦¨­, ïªé® ¢à å®¢ã¢ â¨ ª®­ªà¥â­÷ ®á®¡«¨¢®áâ÷ § -

¤ ­¨å à÷¢­ï­ì.

I. à® ­ «÷§ãõ¬® ¯¥àè¥ à÷¢­ï­­ï á¨á⥬¨ (6). ‚à å®¢ãîç¨ ®ç¥¢¨¤­¨©

ä ªâ

(A ∩ X) ⊂ X ⊂ (X ∪ B),
®âਬãõ¬® ஧¢'燐ª ¯¥à讣® à÷¢­ï­­ï :

(A ∩ X = X ∪ B) ⇔ (A ∩ X = X = X ∪ B) ⇔ (B ⊂ X ⊂ A).
II. à® ­ «÷§ãõ¬® ¤à㣥 à÷¢­ï­­ï á¨á⥬¨ (6). ‹¥£ª® §à®§ã¬÷â¨, é®

¬­®¦¨­¨ X \ A â  C \ X ­¥ ¬ îâì á¯÷«ì­¨å ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢. „÷©á­®, ¯à¨¯ãáâ¨-

¢è¨, é® æ÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ ¬÷áâïâì á¯÷«ì­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â x, ®âਬãõ¬® ¯à®â¨à÷ççï:

( (
x ∈ (X \ A), x ∈ X,
⇒
x ∈ (C \ X) x∈/ X.

18
1.3. ®§¢'易­­ï á¨á⥬¨ à÷¢­ï­ì

€«¥ ⮤÷ ®âਬãõ¬®, é® ¬­®¦¨­¨ X \A â  C \X õ à÷¢­¨¬¨ ÷ ­¥ ¬÷áâïâì

¦®¤­®£® á¯÷«ì­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â . ‡¢÷¤á¨ ­¥£ ©­® ¢¨¯«¨¢ õ, é®

X \ A = C \ X = ∅.

Žâ¦¥, ¬®¦¥¬® ¢¨¯¨á â¨ ஧¢'燐ª ¤à㣮£® à÷¢­ï­­ï:

(
X \ A = ∅,
(X \ A = C \ X) ⇔ ⇔ (C ⊂ X ⊂ A)
C \X =∅

III. ‡¢®¤ïç¨ ®âਬ ­÷ ஧¢'離¨ ¯¥à讣® ÷ ¤à㣮£® à÷¢­ï­ì ã á¯÷«ì­ã

á¨á⥬ã, ®âਬãõ¬®:

( (
A ∩ X = X ∪ B, B ⊂ X ⊂ A,
⇔ ⇔ (B ∪ C) ⊂ X ⊂ A.
X \A=C \X C⊂X⊂A

‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. ®§¢'離 ¬¨ á¨á⥬¨ (6) õ â÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ â÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ X,

ïª÷ § ¤®¢®«ì­ïîâì 㬮¢ã

(B ∪ C) ⊂ X ⊂ A. (7)

‡ ã¢ ¦¨¬®, é® ®âਬ ­  ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì ­¥ ¯¥à¥¤¡ ç õ ¤®¤ âª®¢¨å 㬮¢ ­ 

¯ à ¬¥âਠA, B â C . Ž¤­ ª, ÷§ 㬮¢¨ (7) «¥£ª® ¯®¡ ç¨â¨, é® á¨á⥬  (6)

¬ õ å®ç  ¡ ®¤¨­ ஧¢'燐ª ⮤÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ (B ∪ C) ⊂ A.

19
 2. ’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì

2. ’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì

2.1. „®á«÷¤¦¥­­ï ¢« á⨢®á⥩ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï

‚÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ⊂ R2 ¤®á«÷¤¨â¨ ­ :

• à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­÷áâì;

•  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­÷áâì;

• ᨬ¥âà¨ç­÷áâì;

•  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­÷áâì;

• âà ­§¨â¨¢­÷áâì.

1. (xRy) ⇔ (xy > 0). 15. (xRy) ⇔ (xy 6 0).

2. (xRy) ⇔ (y = kx, k ∈ N). 16. (xRy) ⇔ (0 < xy < 1).

3. (xRy) ⇔ (y − x = n, n ∈ Z). 17. (xRy) ⇔ (x2 − y 2 = n2 ,

n ∈ N).
4. (xRy) ⇔ (0 < y
x
< 1).
18. (xRy) ⇔ (max{|x|, |y|} > 1).
5. (xRy) ⇔ (x2 + y 2 > 1).

6. (xRy) ⇔ (|x| + |y| 6 1). 19. (xRy) ⇔ (min{|x|, |y|} 6 1).

7. (xRy) ⇔ (y − x = n, n ∈ N). 20. (xRy) ⇔ (max{|x|, |y|} 6 1).

8. (xRy) ⇔ (x + y = n, n ∈ Z). 21. (xRy) ⇔ (min{|x|, |y|} > 1).

9. (xRy) ⇔ (0 < (y − x) < 1). 22. (xRy) ⇔ (n 6 |y − x| 6 n + 12 ,

n ∈ N ∪ {0}).
10. (xRy) ⇔ ((x ∈ Z) ∨ (y ∈ Z)).
23. (xRy) ⇔ (n 6 (y − x) 6 n + 12 ,
11. (xRy) ⇔ (2n − 1 6
n ∈ N ∪ {0}).
6 |y − x| 6 2n, n ∈ N).
24. (xRy) ⇔ ([x] + [y] = 2n,
12. (xRy) ⇔ (y > x2 ).
n ∈ Z).
13. (xRy) ⇔ (y 2 = x2 ).
25. (xRy) ⇔ ([x] + [y] = 2n + 1,
14. (xRy) ⇔ (y > x ).
2 2
n ∈ Z).

20
2.1. „®á«÷¤¦¥­­ï ¢« á⨢®á⥩ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï

26. (xRy) ⇔ (max{x, y} =n, 28. (xRy) ⇔ ( 12 < y

x
< 2).
n ∈ Z).
29. (xRy) ⇔ ( 12 |x| < y < 2|x|).
27. (xRy) ⇔ (min{x, y} =n,
n ∈ Z). 30. (xRy) ⇔ (|x| 6 y 6 2|x|).

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R: A → A (⮡⮠R ⊂ A × A) ­ §¨¢ îâì:

• à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¨¬, ïªé® ∀ x ∈ A : xRx;

•  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¨¬, ïªé® ∀ x ∈ A : x̸Rx;

• ᨬ¥âà¨ç­¨¬, ïªé® ∀ x, y ∈ A : xRy ⇒ yRx;

•  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­¨¬, ïªé® ∀ x, y ∈ A : (xRy ∧ yRx) ⇒ (x = y);

• âà ­§¨â¨¢­¨¬, ïªé® ∀ x, y, z ∈ A : (xRy ∧ yRz) ⇒ xRz .

‡ ã¢ ¦¥­­ï 4. ‚ ®§­ ç¥­­÷ ᨬ¥âà¨ç­®áâ÷, ¢¨å®¤ïç¨ ÷§ ¤®¢÷«ì­®áâ÷

x, y ∈ A, ­ á«÷¤®ª∀ x, y ∈ A : xRy ⇒ yRx ¬ õ ¬÷áæ¥ ®¤­®ç á­® ÷§ §¢®à®â-
­¨¬ ­ á«÷¤ª®¬ ∀ x, y ∈ A : yRx ⇒ xRy , é® ¤®§¢®«ïõ § ¬÷­¨â¨ ¢ æ쮬ã

®§­ ç¥­­÷ «®£÷ç­¨© ­ á«÷¤®ª ­  «®£÷ç­ã ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâì: R ᨬ¥âà¨ç­¥

⮤÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ ∀ x, y ∈ A : xRy ⇔ yRx.

„«ï ¤®á«÷¤¦¥­­ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì ­  ¢ª § ­÷ ¢« á⨢®áâ÷ ã ¡ £ âì®å ¢¨¯ ¤-

ª å §àãç­® ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠⨠¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­÷ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷ 㬮¢¨:

• (R à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¥ ) ⇔ (IA ⊂ R);

• (R  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¥ ) ⇔ (IA ∩ R = ∅);

• (R ᨬ¥âà¨ç­¥ ) ⇔ (R = R−1 );

• (R  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­¥ ) ⇔ (R ∩ R−1 ⊂ IA );

• (R âà ­§¨â¨¢­¥ ) ⇔ (R ◦ R ⊂ R),

¤¥ IA : A → A ¯®§­ ç õ â®â®¦­¥ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ­  ¬­®¦¨­÷ A.

‘«÷¤ ¯ ¬'ïâ â¨, é® à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­÷áâì ÷  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­÷áâì õ ¢§ õ¬®¢¨-

ª«îç­¨¬¨ ¢« á⨢®áâﬨ (¯à¨­ ©¬­÷ ¤«ï A ̸= ∅), ®¤­ ª ᨬ¥âà¨ç­÷áâì

21
 2. ’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì

÷  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­÷áâì ­¥ ¢¨ª«îç îâì ®¤­  ®¤­ã; â ª, ¯®à®¦­õ ÷ â®â®¦­¥

¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ®¤­®ç á­® ᨬ¥âà¨ç­÷ ÷  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­÷.

„«ï ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï, é® ¤ ­¥ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ­¥ ¬ õ ¯¥¢­®ù ¢« á⨢®áâ÷ (⮡-

â®, 鮡 á¯à®áâ㢠⨠­ ï¢­÷áâì ¢« á⨢®áâ÷), ¤®áâ â­ì® ­ ¢¥á⨠å®ç  ¡

®¤¨­ ª®­âà¯à¨ª« ¤ { ¢ª § â¨ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ÷§ A, ¤«ï 直å æï ¢« á⨢÷áâì

­¥ ¢¨ª®­ãõâìáï. Ž¤­ ª ¤«ï ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï, é® ¤ ­¥ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ¬ õ ¯¥¢­ã

¢« á⨢÷áâì (⮡â®, 鮡 ¯÷¤â¢¥à¤¨â¨ ­ ï¢­÷áâì ¢« á⨢®áâ÷), ­¥®¡å÷¤­®

¤®¢¥á⨠¢¨ª®­ ­­ï æ÷õù ¢« á⨢®áâ÷ ¤«ï ¢á÷å ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ ÷§ A.

à¨ª« ¤ 2.1. „®á«÷¤¨â¨ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R : R → R, § ¤ ­¥ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â-

­÷áâî xRy ⇔ (0 6 x + y 6 2).

„«ï ­ ®ç­®áâ÷ §®¡à §¨¬® ­  ª®®à¤¨­ â­÷© ¯«®é¨­÷ £¥®¬¥âà¨ç­¥ ¬÷áæ¥

â®ç®ª, ïª÷ ­ «¥¦ âì ¢÷¤­®è¥­­î R (à¨á. 1).

„®á«÷¤¨¬® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ­  à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­÷áâì

Y
÷  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­÷áâì. ö§ à¨á. 1 ¢¨¤­®, é® ÷á-
y=x
2 ­ãîâì ¯ à¨ (x, x) (x ∈ R), ïª÷ ­¥ ­ «¥¦ âì

§ ¤ ­®¬ã ¢÷¤­®è¥­­î; § ÷­è®£® ¡®ªã, ÷á­ã-

2 îâì ¯ à¨ (x, x) (x ∈ R), ïª÷ ­ «¥¦ âì § -

0 X ¤ ­®¬ã ¢÷¤­®è¥­­î. ö§ à¨á. 1 ¢¨¤­®, é® § 

ª®­âà¯à¨ª« ¤ ¤«ï á¯à®áâ㢠­­ï à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢-

­®áâ÷ ¤®áâ â­ì® ¢§ï⨠x = 3,   ¤«ï á¯à®-

áâ㢠­­ï  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­®áâ÷ ¬®¦­  ¢§ïâ¨

x = 1.
¨á. 1

„÷©á­®, ¤«ï ¯ à (1, 1) ÷ (3, 3) ¬ õ¬®:

1R1 ⇔ (1 + 1 ∈ [0, 2]); 3R3 ⇔ (3 + 3 ∈ [0, 2]),

⮡⮠¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ­¥ õ  ­÷ à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¨¬ (®áª÷«ìª¨ 3̸R3),  ­÷  ­â¨à¥ä-

«¥ªá¨¢­¨¬ (®áª÷«ìª¨ 1R1).

„®á«÷¤¨¬® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ­  ᨬ¥âà¨ç­÷áâì:

xRy ⇔ (0 6 x + y 6 2); yRx ⇔ (0 6 y + x 6 2),

§¢÷¤ª¨ xRy ⇔ yRx. Žâ¦¥, ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ᨬ¥âà¨ç­¥, é® ¯÷¤â¢¥à¤¦ãõâì-

áï ÷ ᨬ¥âà¨ç­÷áâî £à ä÷ª  ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ¢÷¤­®á­® ¯àאַù y = x (à¨á. 1).

„®á«÷¤¨¬® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ­   ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­÷áâì:

(xRy∧yRx) ⇔ (0 6 x+y 6 2)∧(0 6 y+x 6 2) ⇔ (x+y ∈ [0, 2]) ̸⇒ (x = y),

22
2.1. „®á«÷¤¦¥­­ï ¢« á⨢®á⥩ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï

⮡⮠R ­¥  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­¥; §  ª®­âà¯à¨ª« ¤ ¬®¦­  ¢§ï⨠¯ àã (0, 1),

®áª÷«ìª¨ 1R0 ÷ 0R1 (1 + 0 = 1 ∈ [0, 2]),  «¥ 1 ̸= 0.
„®á«÷¤¨¬® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ­  âà ­§¨â¨¢­÷áâì:

(
x + y ∈ [0, 2],
(xRy ∧ yRz) ⇔ ̸⇒ xRz ⇔ (x + z ∈ [0, 2]),
y + z ∈ [0, 2]

⮡⮠¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ­¥ õ âà ­§¨â¨¢­¨¬; §  ª®­âà¯à¨ª« ¤ ¬®¦­  ¢§ï⨠¥«¥-

¬¥­â¨ x = 2, y = 0, z = 2 (2 + 0 ∈ [0, 2], 0 + 2 ∈ [0, 2],  «¥ 2 + 2 ∈

/ [0, 2]).
‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. ‡ ¤ ­¥ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ­¥ à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¥, ­¥  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢-
­¥, ᨬ¥âà¨ç­¥, ­¥  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­¥, ­¥ âà ­§¨â¨¢­¥.

à¨ª« ¤ 2.2. „®á«÷¤¨â¨ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R : R → R, § ¤ ­¥ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â-

­÷áâî xRy ⇔ (x − y = n, n ∈ N ∪ {0}).

‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ¬÷áâ¨âì â÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ â÷ ¯ à¨ (x, y) ∈ R2 ,
¤«ï 直å x − y ∈ N ∪ {0}.

‚÷¤­®è¥­­ï õ à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¨¬, ®áª÷«ìª¨ 㬮¢  xRx ⇔ (x − x ∈ N ∪ {0})

¢¨ª®­ãõâìáï ¤«ï ¢á÷å x ∈ R. ‡¢÷¤á¨ ¢¨¯«¨¢ õ, é® æ¥ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ­¥ ¬®-

¦¥ ¡ã⨠ ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¨¬, ®áª÷«ìª¨ 㬮¢  x̸ Rx ­¥ ¢¨ª®­ãõâìáï ¤«ï

¦®¤­®£® x ∈ R (­ £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ¤«ï á¯à®áâ㢠­­ï  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­®áâ÷

¤®áâ â­ì® á¯à®áâ㢠⨠㬮¢ã x̸Rx å®ç  ¡ ¤«ï ®¤­®£® x ∈ R).

‚÷¤­®è¥­­ï, ®ç¥¢¨¤­®, ­¥ õ ᨬ¥âà¨ç­¨¬, ®áª÷«ìª¨

(x − y ∈ N ∪ {0}) ̸⇒ (y − x = −(x − y) ∈ N ∪ {0});

§  ª®­âà¯à¨ª« ¤ ¬®¦­  ¢§ï⨠x = 2, y = 1.

‚÷¤­®è¥­­ï õ  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­¨¬, ®áª÷«ìª¨ 㬮¢¨ x − y ∈ N ∪ {0}
÷ y − x ∈ N ∪ {0} ¬®¦ãâì ¢¨ª®­ã¢ â¨áï ®¤­®ç á­® «¨è¥ ã ¢¨¯ ¤ªã

x = y ∈ R.
„®á«÷¤¨¬® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ­  âà ­§¨â¨¢­÷áâì:

(
x − y ∈ N ∪ {0},
(xRy ∧ yRz) ⇔ ⇒ (x − y) + (y − z) = x − z ∈ N ∪ {0},
y − z ∈ N ∪ {0}

⮡⮠¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï âà ­§¨â¨¢­¥.

‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. ‡ ¤ ­¥ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¥, ­¥  ­â¨à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¥,

­¥ ᨬ¥âà¨ç­¥,  ­â¨á¨¬¥âà¨ç­¥, âà ­§¨â¨¢­¥.

23
 2. ’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì

2.2. Ž¯¥à æ÷ù ­ ¤ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬¨

„«ï § ¤ ­¨å R : A → B â  S : B → C , ¤¥ A = {a1 , a2 , a3 }, B = {b1 , b2 },

C = {c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 }, ®¡ç¨á«¨â¨ (R ◦ S)−1 â  (R ◦ R−1 )+ . Š®¬¯®§¨æ÷î R ◦ S
®¡ç¨á«¨â¨ ¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨ { ¬ âà¨æﬨ â  áâà÷«®ç­¨¬¨ ¤÷ £à ¬ ¬¨.

1. R = {(a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b1 ), (a3 , b2 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

2. R = {(a1 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

3. R = {(a1 , b1 ), (a3 , b2 ), (a2 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c2 ), (b1 , c1 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c4 )}.

4. R = {(a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b1 ), (a3 , b2 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

5. R = {(a1 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

6. R = {(a1 , b1 ), (a3 , b2 ), (a2 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c4 )}.

7. R = {(a2 , b1 ), (a3 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

8. R = {(a2 , b1 ), (a3 , b2 ), (a1 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

9. R = {(a2 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), (a3 , b2 )}, S = {(b1 , c2 ), (b1 , c1 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c4 )}.

10. R = {(a2 , b1 ), (a3 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

11. R = {(a2 , b1 ), (a3 , b2 ), (a1 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

12. R = {(a2 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), (a3 , b2 )}, S = {(b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c4 )}.

13. R = {(a3 , b1 ), (a2 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

14. R = {(a3 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 ), (a2 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

15. R = {(a3 , b1 ), (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 )}, S = {(b1 , c2 ), (b1 , c1 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c4 )}.

16. R = {(a3 , b1 ), (a2 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

17. R = {(a3 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 ), (a2 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

18. R = {(a3 , b1 ), (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 )}, S = {(b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c4 )}.

19. R = {(a1 , b2 ), (a2 , b2 ), (a3 , b2 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

20. R = {(a1 , b2 ), (a1 , b1 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.

24
2.2. Ž¯¥à æ÷ù ­ ¤ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬¨

21. R = {(a1 , b2 ), (a2 , b2 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c2 ), (b1 , c1 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c4 )}.
22. R = {(a1 , b2 ), (a2 , b1 ), (a3 , b2 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.
23. R = {(a1 , b2 ), (a1 , b1 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.
24. R = {(a1 , b2 ), (a2 , b2 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c4 )}.
25. R = {(a2 , b2 ), (a3 , b2 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.
26. R = {(a2 , b2 ), (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.
27. R = {(a2 , b2 ), (a1 , b2 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b1 , c2 ), (b1 , c1 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c4 )}.
28. R = {(a2 , b2 ), (a3 , b2 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.
29. R = {(a2 , b2 ), (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c3 ), (b2 , c4 )}.
30. R = {(a2 , b2 ), (a1 , b2 ), (a3 , b1 )}, S = {(b2 , c3 ), (b1 , c2 ), (b2 , c1 ), (b1 , c4 )}.

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

¥å © R : A → B , S : B → C , ¤¥ A, B , C { ¤¥ïª÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨.

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ï R ◦ S ¢¨§­ ç õâìáï ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâî

x(R ◦ S)z ⇔ ∃y ∈ B : xRy ∧ ySz,

¤¥x ∈ A, z ∈ C . …«¥¬¥­â y ∈ B , ÷á­ã¢ ­­ï 类£® ­¥®¡å÷¤­® ¤«ï ¢¨ª®­ ­­ï
㬮¢¨ x(R ◦ S)z , ­ §¢¥¬® âà ­§¨â­¨¬.

„«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ù ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì ã ¢¨¯ ¤ªã áª÷­ç¥­­¨å A, B, C

§àãç­® ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠⨠¬ âà¨ç­¨© ᯮá÷¡,   â ª®¦ (ïªé® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï

R â  S ¬÷áâïâì ­¥¢¥«¨ªã ª÷«ìª÷áâì ¯ à) áâà÷«®ç­÷ ¤÷ £à ¬¨.

à¨ª« ¤ 2.3. ¥å © A = {a1 , a2 , a3 }, B = {b1 , b2 , b3 }, C = {c1 , c2 }.

®§£«ï­¥¬® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï

R : A → B, R = {(a1 , b2 ), (a2 , b1 ), (a2 , b3 ), (a3 , b2 )};

S : B → C, S = {(b1 , c1 ), (b3 , c1 ), (b3 , c2 )}.
Ž¡ç¨á«¨¬® ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷î R◦S §  ¤®¯®¬®£®î ¬ âà¨æì. ‡  ¯à¨à®¤­®ù

­ã¬¥à æ÷ù à浪÷¢ â  á⮢¯æ÷¢ ¬ âà¨æì ®âਬãõ¬®:

   
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
MR◦S = M R M S = 1 0 1  0 0  = 1 1  ,
0 1 0 1 1 0 0

25
 2. ’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì

§¢÷¤ª¨ R ◦ S = {(a2 , c1 ), (a2 , c2 )}.

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ý«®£÷ç­¨©þ ¤®¡ã⮪ ¬ âà¨æì MR MS  ­ «®£÷ç­¨© ª« -

á¨ç­®¬ã ¤®¡ãâªã ¬ âà¨æì (直© ¢÷¤®¬¨© § ªãàáã «÷­÷©­®ù  «£¥¡à¨) ÷§

§ ¬÷­®î  à¨ä¬¥â¨ç­¨å ®¯¥à æ÷© á㬨 ÷ ¤®¡ãâªã ­  «®£÷ç­÷ ®¯¥à æ÷ù {

¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­® ¤¨§'î­ªæ÷î â  ª®­'î­ªæ÷î.  ¢¥¤¥¬® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­÷ ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï

¤«ï ¥«¥¬¥­âã (MR◦S )21 :

(MR◦S )21 = ((MR )21 ∧ (MS )11 ) ∨ ((MR )22 ∧ (MS )21 ) ∨ ((MR )23 ∧ (MS )31 ) =
= (1 ∧ 1) ∨ (0 ∧ 0) ∨ (1 ∧ 1) = 1 ∨ 0 ∨ 1 = 1.

Ž¡ç¨á«¨¬® R◦S §  ¤®¯®¬®£®î áâà÷«®ç­¨å ¤÷ £à ¬ (à¨á. 2).

a1 b1
c1
a2 b2
c2
a3 b3
R S
A B C

¨á. 2

ö§ à¨á. 2 ¡ ç¨¬®, é® ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ï R◦S ¬÷áâ¨âì ¤¢÷ ¯ à¨ { (a2 , c1 )

(âà ­§¨â­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â b1 ) ÷ (a2 , c2 ) (âà ­§¨â­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â b3 ). ’ ª¨¬ 稭®¬,
R ◦ S = {(a2 , c1 ), (a2 , c2 )}.
‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. R ◦ S = {(a2 , c1 ), (a2 , c2 )} (®¡ç¨á«¥­® ¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨).

„«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ÷­¢¥àá­®£® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R−1 : B → A ã ¢¨¯ ¤ªã áª÷­-

祭­¨å ¬­®¦¨­ A â  B §àãç­® ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠⨠¬ âà¨ç­¨© ᯮá÷¡, âà ­á-

T
¯®­ãîç¨ ¬ âà¨æî ¢¨å÷¤­®£® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï: MR−1 = (MR ) .

à¨ª« ¤ 2.4. Ž¡ç¨á«¨¬® S −1 : C → B ¤«ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï S: B → C ÷§

¯®¯¥à¥¤­ì®£® ¯à¨ª« ¤ã:

 T
1 0  
1 0 1
MS −1 = (MS ) = 0 0 =
T
,
0 0 1
1 1

§¢÷¤ª¨S −1 = {(c1 , b1 ), (c1 , b3 ), (c2 , b3 )}.

−1
‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. S = {(c1 , b1 ), (c1 , b3 ), (c2 , b3 )}.

26
2.2. Ž¯¥à æ÷ù ­ ¤ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬¨

¥å © R: A → A { ¡÷­ à­¥ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ­  ¬­®¦¨­÷ A.  £ ¤ õ¬®,

é® âà ­§¨â¨¢­¥ § ¬¨ª ­­ï R : A → A
+
¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï T õ ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­¨¬

஧è¨à¥­­ï¬ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï T ¤® âà ­§¨â¨¢­®£® (஧£®à­ã⥠¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï

¤¨¢., ­ ¯à. ã [13, 23]). Žâ¦¥, ¤«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï âà ­§¨â¨¢­®£® § ¬¨ª ­-

­ï R+ ã ¢¨¯ ¤ªã áª÷­ç¥­­®ù ¬­®¦¨­¨ A ¬®¦­ , ¢¨å®¤ïç¨ ÷§ ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï

âà ­§¨â¨¢­®£® § ¬¨ª ­­ï, ¯®á«÷¤®¢­® ¤®¤ ¢ â¨ ¤® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï â÷ ¯ à¨,

ïª÷ ­¥®¡å÷¤­÷ ¤«ï ¢¨ª®­ ­­ï 㬮¢¨ âà ­§¨â¨¢­®áâ÷. à ªâ¨ç­® æ¥ ®§­ -

ç õ, é® §  ­ ï¢­®áâ÷ ã ¢÷¤­®è¥­­÷ ­  ¤ ­®¬ã ªà®æ÷ ¯ à (x, y) ÷ (y, z) ¤®

¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ­¥®¡å÷¤­® ¤®¤ â¨ ¯ àã (x, z). Ž¡ç¨á«¥­­ï §àãç­® ¯à®¢®¤¨â¨,

§®¡à ¦ãîç¨ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ã ¢¨£«ï¤÷ ®à÷õ­â®¢ ­¨å £à ä÷¢.

 ¢¥¤¥­¨© ᯮá÷¡, ¯à¨©­ïâ­¨© ¤«ï ¬­®¦¨­ A § ­¥¢¥«¨ª®î ª÷«ìª÷áâî

¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢, ¢ ¦ª® ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠⨠㠢¨¯ ¤ªã ¢¥«¨ª®ù ª÷«ìª®áâ÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢

ã ¬­®¦¨­÷ A, ÷ ­¥¬®¦«¨¢® ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠⨠㠢¨¯ ¤ªã, ª®«¨ ¬­®¦¨­  A

­¥áª÷­ç¥­­ . “­÷¢¥àá «ì­¨© ᯮá÷¡ ¤«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï âà ­§¨â¨¢­®£® § ¬¨-

ª ­­ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R: A → A ­ ¤ õ ä®à¬ã« 

[
∞
+
R = Rk = R ∪ R2 ∪ · · · ∪ Rk ∪ · · · ,
k=1

¤¥
| ◦ ·{z
R1 = R, Rk = R · · ◦ R}. „«ï áª÷­ç¥­­®ù ¬­®¦¨­¨ A ®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï ã ¯à -
k
¢÷© ç á⨭÷ ॠ«ì­® ¬÷áâ¨â¨¬¥ «¨è¥ áª÷­ç¥­­ã ª÷«ìª÷áâì ýª®¬¯®§¨æ÷©­¨å

á⥯¥­÷¢þ Rk :
[
n
R =+
Rk = R ∪ R2 ∪ · · · ∪ Rn ,
k=1

¤¥ n { ª÷«ìª÷áâì ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ ã ¬­®¦¨­÷ A.

Š®à¨á­® §à®§ã¬÷â¨, é® ýª®¬¯®§¨æ÷©­  á⥯÷­ìþ Rk+1 ¬÷áâ¨âì á ¬¥ â÷
¯ à¨, ïª÷ ­¥®¡å÷¤­® ¤®¤ â¨ ­  k -¬ã ªà®æ÷ ¤® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ∪ R ∪ · · · ∪ R ,
2 k
k+1
¢¨å®¤ïç¨ ÷§ ¢¨ª®­ ­­ï 㬮¢¨ âà ­§¨â¨¢­®áâ÷. ö­è¨¬¨ á«®¢ ¬¨ R ¬÷á-

â¨âì ¯ àã (x, z) ⮤÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ∪ R ∪ · · · ∪ R

2 k

¬÷áâ¨âì ¯ à¨ (x, y) ÷ (y, z) ¤«ï ¤¥ïª®£® y ∈ A.

à¨ª« ¤ 2.5. ¥å © A = {a, b, c, d}.   à¨á. 3 §®¡à ¦¥­® ¯à®æ¥á

¯®¡ã¤®¢¨ âà ­§¨â¨¢­®£® § ¬¨ª ­­ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï

R : A → A, R = {(a, b), (b, c), (c, c), (c, d)}.

27
 2. ’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì

b c b c b c

a a a

d d d
  ¡ ¢

¨á. 3 . ®¡ã¤®¢  âà ­§¨â¨¢­®£® § ¬¨ª ­­ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R:

a { ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R; ¡ { ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R∪ R2 ; ¢ { ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R+ = R ∪ R2 ∪ R3

  ¯¥à讬㠪à®æ÷ ¤® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ¡ã«¨ ¤®¤ ­÷ ¤¢÷ ¯ à¨: ¯ à  (a, c),
®áª÷«ìª¨ R ¬÷áâ¨âì ¯ à¨ (a, b) ÷ (b, c), â  ¯ à  (b, d), ®áª÷«ìª¨ R ¬÷áâ¨âì
¯ à¨ (b, c) ÷ (c, d). “ १ã«ìâ â÷ ®âਬ «¨ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ∪ R . ‡ §­ ç¨¬®,
2

é® R = {(a, c), (b, d), (b, c), (c, d), (c, c)}, ®¤­ ª ¯ à¨ (b, c), (c, d), (c, c) ¢¦¥
2

¬÷áâïâìáï ã ¢÷¤­®è¥­­÷ R. “ æ쮬㠯ਪ« ¤÷ ¬¨ ­¥ §ã¯¨­ïõ¬®áì ­  ®¡ç¨á-

«¥­­÷ ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ù ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­÷ ¯®ïá­¥­­ï ¡ã«¨ §à®¡«¥­÷

¢¨é¥.

  ¤à㣮¬ã ªà®æ÷ ¤® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ∪ R2 ¡ã«  ¤®¤ ­  ®¤­  ¯ à  (a, d),

®áª÷«ìª¨ R ∪ R ¬÷áâ¨âì ¯ à¨ (a, b) ÷ (b, d) (¤® ­¥®¡å÷¤­®áâ÷ ¤®¤ â¨ (a, d)
2

¬®¦­  ¡ã«® ¯à¨©â¨ ÷ ç¥à¥§ ¯ à¨ (a, c) ÷ (c, d)). “ १ã«ìâ â÷ ®âਬ «¨ ¢÷¤-

­®è¥­­ï R ∪ R ∪ R . ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® R = {(a, d), (a, c), (b, c), (c, d), (c, c)},
2 3 3

®¤­ ª ÷§ æ¨å ¯'ï⨠¯ à «¨è¥ (a, d) ¡ã«  ý­®¢®îþ, ⮡⮠­¥ ¬÷á⨫ áì ã

¢÷¤­®è¥­­÷ R ∪ R .
2

Žç¥¢¨¤­®, ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R ∪ R ∪ R
2 3
õ âà ­§¨â¨¢­¨¬, ÷ âà ­§¨â¨¢­¥

§ ¬¨ª ­­ï ¯®¡ã¤®¢ ­¥: R
+
= R ∪ R2 ∪ R3 . ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é®

R4 = {(a, c), (b, c), (c, d), (c, c)} ⊂ R ∪ R2 ∪ R3 .

2.3. Ž¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­¨

‚÷¤­®è¥­­ï ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ ý ∼þ § ¤ ­¥ ¢÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï¬ f : R2 → R :

((x1 , x2 ) ∼ (y1 , y2 )) ⇔ (f (x1 , x2 ) = f (y1 , y2 )).

¥®¡å÷¤­®:

1. ®¯¨á â¨ § £ «ì­¨© ¢¨£«ï¤ ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­¨ R2 ∼
;

2. §®¡à §¨â¨ ­  ª®®à¤¨­ â­÷© ¯«®é¨­÷ ª« á¨ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷, é® ¢÷¤-

¯®¢÷¤ îâì § ¤ ­¨¬ §­ ç¥­­ï¬ a = f (x1 , x2 ).

1. f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 − x22 , a = 0; 1; −1.

28
2.3. Ž¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­¨

2. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x21 − x22 |, a = 0; 1; 4.

3. f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 x2 , a = 0; 1; −1.

4. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x1 x2 |, a = 0; 1; 4.

5. f (x1 , x2 ) = min{x1 , x2 }, a = 0; 2; −2.

6. f (x1 , x2 ) = min{|x1 |, |x2 |}, a = 0; 2; 4.

7. f (x1 , x2 ) = max{x1 , x2 }, a = 0; 2; −2.

8. f (x1 , x2 ) = max{|x1 |, |x2 |}, a = 0; 2; 4.

9. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x1 | + |x2 |, a = 0; 2; 4.

10. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x1 | − |x2 |, a = 0; 2; −2.

11. f (x1 , x2 ) = ||x1 | − |x2 ||, a = 0; 2; 4.

12. f (x1 , x2 ) = [x1 ] + [x2 ], a = 0; 2; −2.

13. f (x1 , x2 ) = [x1 ] − [x2 ], a = 0; 2; −2.

14. f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + |x2 |, a = 0; 4; 1.

15. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x1 | − x22 , a = 0; 4; −4.

16. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x1 | − |x32 |, a = 0; 1; −1.

17. f (x1 , x2 ) = x2 · 2−x1 , a = 0; 1; −2.

18. f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 · 2−x2 , a = 0; 1; −2.

19. f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 · 2|x2 | , a = 0; 1; −2.

20. f (x1 , x2 ) = x2 · 2|x1 | , a = 0; 1; −2.

21. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x2 | − cos x1 , a = 0; 1; −1/2.

22. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x2 | − sin x1 , a = 0; 1; −1/2.

23. f (x1 , x2 ) = x2 − | cos x1 |, a = 0; 1; −1/2.

24. f (x1 , x2 ) = x2 − | sin x1 |, a = 0; 1; −1/2.

29
 2. ’¥®à÷ï ¢÷¤­®è¥­ì

25. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x2 − cos x1 |, a = 0; 1; 1/2.

26. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x2 − sin x1 |, a = 0; 1; 1/2.
27. f (x1 , x2 ) = ||x2 | − cos x1 |, a = 0; 1; 1/2.
28. f (x1 , x2 ) = ||x2 | − sin x1 |, a = 0; 1; 1/2.
29. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x2 − | cos x1 ||, a = 0; 1; 1/2.
30. f (x1 , x2 ) = |x2 − | sin x1 ||, a = 0; 1; 1/2.

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ ­  ¬­®¦¨­÷ A ­ §¨¢ îâì

¡÷­ à­¥ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï R : A → A, 瘟 õ ®¤­®ç á­® à¥ä«¥ªá¨¢­¨¬, ᨬ¥â-

à¨ç­¨¬ ÷ âà ­§¨â¨¢­¨¬. „«ï ä ªâã xRy (x, y ∈ A) ã ¢¨¯ ¤ªã ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï

¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ âà ¤¨æ÷©­® ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢ãîâì ¯®§­ ç¥­­ï x ∼ y (ª ¦ãâì,

é® ¥«¥¬¥­â x ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­âã y ). Š« á®¬ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷, 直©

¯®à®¤¦¥­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â®¬ a ∈ A, ­ §¨¢ îâì ¬­®¦¨­ã ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢, ¥ª¢÷¢ -


«¥­â­¨å a: [a] = {x ∈ A : x ∼ a}. ” ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­®î A ­ §¨¢ îâì
∼
¬­®¦¨­ã ¢á÷å ª« á÷¢ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷:

A ∼ = {[a] : a ∈ A}.

‘«÷¤ ¯ ¬'ïâ â¨, é® ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­  A ã⢮àîõ ஧¡¨ââï ¬­®¦¨­¨
∼
A, ⮡â®:

• ª« á¨ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷  ¡® ­¥ ¯¥à¥â¨­ îâìáï,  ¡® §¡÷£ îâìáï;

• ª« á¨ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ { ­¥¯®à®¦­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ (¯à¨­ ©¬­÷ a ∈ [a]);

S
• ®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï ¢á÷å ª« á÷¢ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ §¡÷£ õâìáï § A: [a] = A.
a∈A

®§£«ï­¥¬® ¢ ¦«¨¢¨© ¢¨¯ ¤®ª, ª®«¨ ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ ­ 

¬­®¦¨­÷ A ¯®à®¤¦ãõâìáï ¢÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï¬ f : A → B , ¤¥ B { ¤¥ïª  ¬­®¦¨-

­ : (x1 ∼ x2 ) ⇔ (f (x1 ) = f (x2 )). “ æ쮬㠢¨¯ ¤ªã ª« á¨ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷
¬ îâì ¢¨£«ï¤:

Aa = {x : f (x) = a}, a ∈ Imf ,

¤¥ Imf = {f (x) : x ∈ A} { ®¡à § ¢÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï f . Œ­®¦¨­ã Aa ÷­®¤÷

­ §¨¢ îâì ¬­®¦¨­®î à÷¢­ï a ¤«ï § ¤ ­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù f .

Žç¥¢¨¤­®, é® ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­  A/∼ õ áãªã¯­÷áâî ¢á÷å ¬­®¦¨­ Aa :

A/∼ = {Aa : a ∈ Imf }.

30
2.3. Ž¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­¨

à¨ª« ¤ 2.6. ¥å © A = R2 , ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ ý∼þ § ¤ -

õâìáï ¢÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï¬ f : R2 → R, f (x1 , x2 ) = x21 + x22 − 2x1 :

((x1 , x2 ) ∼ (y1 , y2 )) ⇔ (f (x1 , x2 ) = f (y1 , y2 )).

®âà÷¡­® §­ ©â¨ ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­ã R2 / ∼ ÷ §®¡à §¨â¨ ­  ª®®à¤¨­ â-

­÷© ¯«®é¨­÷ ª« á¨ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷, é® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ îâì § ¤ ­¨¬ §­ ç¥­­ï¬

à÷¢­ï: a = f (x1 , x2 ) = −1; 0; 3.

‚¨§­ ç¨¬® ¢¨£«ï¤ ª« á÷¢ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ ïª ¬­®¦¨­ã à÷¢­ï a:

((x1 , x2 ) ∈ Aa ) ⇔ (x21 + x22 − 2x1 = a) ⇔ ((x1 − 1)2 + x22 = a + 1),

§¢÷¤ª¨ ¢¨¤­®, é® a ¬®¦¥ ­ ¡ã¢ â¨ §­ ç¥­ì ÷§ ¬­®¦¨­¨ [−1; ∞).

Y
A3

A0 X
1 2 3

A -1={(1, 0)}

¨á. 4


Žâ¦¥, ä ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­  R2 ∼
õ ஧¡¨ââï¬ ª®®à¤¨­ â­®ù ¯«®é¨-

­¨ R
2
­  ª®­æ¥­âà¨ç­÷ ª®«  § 業âà ¬¨ ã â®çæ÷ (1, 0) ÷ à ¤÷ãá ¬¨
√
1 + a > 0 (¢¨¯ ¤ªã r = 0 ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ ®¤­®â®çª®¢¨© ª« á ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â-
­®áâ÷ [(1, 0)] = {(1, 0)}).

Žâ¦¥, ®âਬãõ¬® ª« á¨ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷

Aa = {(x1 , x2 ) : (x1 − 1)2 + x22 = a + 1},

¤¥ a > −1. Š« á¨ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷ ¤«ï ¢¨¯ ¤ª÷¢ a = −1; 0; 3 §®¡à ¦¥­÷ ­ 

à¨á. 4.

” ªâ®à-¬­®¦¨­  R2 õ ¬­®¦¨­®î ¢ª § ­¨å ª« á÷¢ ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­®áâ÷:
 ∼
R2 ∼ = {Aa : a > −1}.

31
 3. Š®¬¡÷­ â®à¨ª 

3. Š®¬¡÷­ â®à¨ª 

3.1. ‚¨¡÷à ­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨å ®¡'õªâ÷¢

“ ¯®á㤨­÷ §­ å®¤ïâìáï n1 ¡÷«¨å, n2 ç®à­¨å â  n3 ç¥à¢®­¨å ªã«ì®ª

(¢á÷ ªã«ìª¨ ­ã¬¥à®¢ ­÷). ‘ª÷«ìª®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨ ¬®¦­  ¢¨âï£â¨ k ªã«ì®ª

¡¥§ ¯®¢¥à­¥­­ï â  ¡¥§ ãà å㢠­­ï ¯®à浪ã â ª, 鮡 ã ¢¨¡÷àæ÷ ¡ã«® ­¥

¬¥­è ­÷¦ k1 ¡÷«¨å, k2 ç®à­¨å â  k3 ç¥à¢®­¨å ªã«ì®ª?

ü n1 n2 n3 k k1 k2 k3 ü n1 n2 n3 k k1 k2 k3
1 3 4 5 6 1 1 2 16 3 4 5 6 1 2 1
2 3 4 5 7 2 1 2 17 3 4 5 7 2 2 1
3 3 4 5 7 1 2 2 18 4 6 2 7 2 1 1
4 4 6 2 6 2 2 0 19 4 6 2 6 2 1 1
5 4 6 2 6 3 1 0 20 4 6 2 6 1 3 0
6 4 4 6 8 3 2 1 21 4 4 6 8 3 1 2
7 4 4 6 8 2 1 3 22 4 4 6 8 2 3 1
8 4 4 6 8 1 3 2 23 4 5 6 8 2 3 1
9 4 5 6 8 2 1 3 24 4 5 6 8 3 1 2
10 4 5 6 8 3 2 1 25 4 5 6 8 1 2 3
11 4 4 6 8 3 0 3 26 4 4 6 8 3 3 0
12 4 4 6 8 1 1 4 27 4 4 6 7 2 3 0
13 4 4 6 7 0 3 2 28 4 5 6 7 2 3 0
14 4 5 6 7 2 0 3 29 4 5 6 7 3 0 2
15 4 5 6 7 3 2 0 30 4 5 6 7 0 2 3

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

‘â ­¤ àâ­¨¬ ¬¥â®¤®¬  ­ «÷§ã ­¥¢¯®à浪®¢ ­®£® ¢¨¡®à㠭㬥஢ ­¨å

®¡'õªâ÷¢ (⮡⮠®¡'õªâ÷¢, ïª÷ ¯®¯ à­® ஧à÷§­ïîâìáï) õ ª®¬¡÷­ â®à­  áå¥-

¬ , ¢÷¤®¬  ¯÷¤ ­ §¢®î ý§ ¤ ç  ¯à® ¤¥â «÷þ: ïªé® ã ª®à®¡æ÷ ¬÷áâ¨âìáï ni
¤¥â «¥© i-£® á®àâã ( i = 1, 2, . . . , k ), â® ¢¨âï£â¨ m ¤¥â «¥© ¡¥§ ¯®¢¥à­¥­­ï

÷ ¡¥§ ãà å㢠­­ï ¯®à浪ã â ª, 鮡 ã ¢¨¡÷àæ÷ ¡ã«® mi ¤¥â «¥© i-£® á®àâã

( i= 1, 2, . . . , k ), ¬®¦­  Cnm11 Cnm22 · · · Cnmkk ᯮᮡ ¬¨.

Ÿªé® ª÷«ìª÷áâì ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ ª®¦­®£® á®àâã ­¥ ¦®àá⪮ ä÷ªá®¢ ­ ,   § -

¤ õâìáï ¯¥¢­¨¬¨ ®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï¬¨, ¬®¦­  ᪮à¨áâ â¨áï ¯à¨­æ¨¯®¬ á㬨,

⮡⮠¯¥à¥¡à â¨ ¢á÷ ¢ à÷ ­â¨ ஧¯®¤÷«ã ¤¥â «¥© ã ¢¨¡÷àæ÷ ¯® á®àâ å, § -

áâ®á®¢ãîç¨ á奬㠧 ¤ ç÷ ¯à® ¤¥â «÷ ¤«ï ª®¦­®£® ä÷ªá®¢ ­®£® ஧¯®¤÷«ã

¤¥â «¥© ¯® á®àâ å.

à¨ª« ¤ 3.1. “ ¯®á㤨­÷ §­ å®¤ïâìáï 3 ¡÷«¨å, 5 ç®à­¨å â  4 §¥«¥­¨å

32
3.2. ‚¨¡÷à ­¥­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨å ®¡'õªâ÷¢

ªã«ì®ª (¢á÷ ªã«ìª¨ ­ã¬¥à®¢ ­÷). ‘ª÷«ìª®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨ ¬®¦­  ¢¨âï£â¨ 7

ªã«ì®ª ¡¥§ ¯®¢¥à­¥­­ï â  ¡¥§ ãà å㢠­­ï ¯®à浪ã â ª, 鮡 ã ¢¨¡÷àæ÷ ¡ã«®

­¥ ¬¥­è ­÷¦ 2 ¡÷«¨å, 3 ç®à­¨å â  1 §¥«¥­®ù ªã«ìª¨?

‡¢¥¤¥¬® ã â ¡«¨æî ¢ à÷ ­â¨ ஧¯®¤÷«ã ªã«ì®ª ã ¢¨¡÷àæ÷ §  ª®«ì®à -

¬¨, ¯®§­ ç¨¢è¨ ç¥à¥§ m¡ , mç , m§ ª÷«ìª÷áâì ã ¢¨¡÷àæ÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­® ¡÷«¨å,

ç®à­¨å â  §¥«¥­¨å ªã«ì®ª.

m¡ mç m§ Š÷«ìª÷áâì ᯮᮡ÷¢
2 3 2 C32 C53 C42 = 3 · 10 · 6 = 180
2 4 1 C32 C54 C41 = 3 · 5 · 4 = 60
3 3 1 C33 C53 C41 = 1 · 10 · 4 = 40
’ ª¨¬ 稭®¬, § £ «ì­  ª÷«ìª÷áâì ᯮᮡ÷¢ 180 + 60 + 40 = 280.
‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. 280 ᯮᮡ÷¢.

3.2. ‚¨¡÷à ­¥­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨å ®¡'õªâ÷¢

ãª¥â ª¢÷â÷¢ ¬®¦¥ ¬÷áâ¨â¨ åਧ ­â¥¬¨, âà®ï­¤¨, ஬ èª¨ â  ¯÷¢®­÷ù.

‚á÷ ª¢÷⨠¢¢ ¦ îâìáï ­¥­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨¬¨, ⮡⮠ª¢÷⨠®¤­®£® ¢¨¤ã ­¥ à®-

§à÷§­ïîâìáï. ®à冷ª ª¢÷â÷¢ ¢ ¡ãª¥â÷ ­¥ ¬ õ §­ ç¥­­ï. ‘ª÷«ìª¨ ¬®¦­ 

᪫ á⨠à÷§­¨å ¡ãª¥â÷¢ ÷§n ª¢÷â÷¢, ïªé® ª®¦¥­ ¡ãª¥â ¯®¢¨­¥­ ¬÷áâ¨â¨ ­¥
¬¥­è ­÷¦ k1 ÷ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n1 åਧ ­â¥¬, ­¥ ¬¥­è ­÷¦ k2 ÷ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦

n2 âà®ï­¤, ­¥ ¬¥­è ­÷¦ k3 ÷ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n3 ஬ è®ª, ­¥ ¬¥­è ­÷¦ k4 ÷

­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n4 ¯÷¢®­÷©?

ü n k1 n1 k2 n2 k3 n3 k4 n4
1 10 2 4 1 3 1 4 2 3
2 10 2 4 3 5 1 3 1 4
3 10 3 5 1 4 1 3 1 4
4 10 3 5 1 3 1 4 1 5
5 10 3 6 1 4 1 5 1 3
6 10 1 4 2 3 1 4 2 3
7 10 1 4 3 5 1 3 1 4
8 10 1 4 1 4 1 3 1 4
9 10 1 4 2 4 1 4 1 5
10 10 1 4 4 6 1 3 1 3
11 11 2 4 1 3 1 4 0 2
12 11 2 4 3 5 1 3 0 3
13 11 3 5 1 4 0 3 1 4
14 11 3 5 1 3 0 2 1 5
15 11 3 6 0 3 1 5 1 3

33
 3. Š®¬¡÷­ â®à¨ª 

ü n k1 n1 k2 n2 k3 n3 k4 n4
16 11 1 4 0 2 1 4 2 3
17 11 0 3 3 5 1 3 1 4
18 11 0 3 1 4 1 3 1 4
19 11 1 4 0 4 1 4 1 5
20 11 1 4 0 3 1 3 1 3
21 12 2 4 1 3 0 4 0 2
22 12 2 4 3 5 0 3 0 3
23 12 3 5 0 4 0 3 1 4
24 12 3 5 0 3 0 2 1 5
25 12 0 6 0 3 1 5 1 3
26 12 0 4 0 2 1 4 2 3
27 12 0 3 3 5 0 3 1 4
28 12 0 3 1 4 0 3 1 4
29 12 0 4 0 4 1 4 1 5
30 12 0 4 0 3 1 3 1 3

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

‘â ­¤ àâ­¨¬ ¬¥â®¤®¬  ­ «÷§ã ¢¨¡®àã ­¥­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨å ®¡'õªâ÷¢ (⮡â®

®¡'õªâ÷¢, ïª÷ ã ¬¥¦ å ®¤­®£® ⨯㠭¥ ஧à÷§­ïîâìáï) õ á奬  ª®¬¡÷­ -

æ÷© § ¯®¢â®à¥­­ï¬¨: ª÷«ìª÷áâì ­ ¡®à÷¢ ÷§ n ®¡'õªâ÷¢ §  ­ ï¢­®áâ÷ k ⨯÷¢

®¡'õªâ÷¢, ïªé® ®¡'õªâ¨ ®¤­®£® ⨯㠭¥ ஧à÷§­ïîâìáï ÷ ùå ஧â è㢠­­ï

ã ­ ¡®à÷ ­¥ ¬ õ §­ ç¥­­ï, ¤®à÷¢­îõ en = C n

C k n+k−1 .
Ÿªé® § ¤ ç  ¬÷áâ¨âì ý®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï §­¨§ãþ, ⮡⮠­ ¡®à¨ ¢ 㬮¢÷ § ¤ ç÷

¬ îâì ¬÷áâ¨â¨ ­¥ ¬¥­è ­÷¦ nk ®¡'õªâ÷¢ k -£® ⨯ã, ¬®¦­  «¥£ª® ¯¥à¥©â¨ ¤®
§ ¤ ç÷ ¡¥§ ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì: ¢¢ ¦ îç¨, é® ­ ¡®à¨ ¬÷áâïâì ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­® ­¥®¡å÷¤-

­ã ª÷«ìª÷áâì ®¡'õªâ÷¢ ª®¦­®£® ⨯ã, ä®à¬ãõ¬® ­ ¡®à¨ ¬¥­è®ù ª÷«ìª®áâ÷

®¡'õªâ÷¢ ¡¥§ ®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï.

Ÿªé® § ¤ ç  ¬÷áâ¨âì ý®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï §¢¥àåãþ, ⮡⮠­ ¡®à¨ ¢ 㬮¢÷ § -

¤ ç÷ ¬ îâì ¬÷áâ¨â¨ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ nk ®¡'õªâ÷¢ k -£® ⨯ã, ¬®¦­  ¯¥à¥©â¨

¤® §¢®à®â­®ù § ¤ ç÷ { ®¡ç¨á«¨â¨ ª÷«ìª÷áâì ­ ¡®à÷¢, ïª÷ ­¥ § ¤®¢®«ì­ïîâì

§ ¤ ­¨¬ ®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï¬ §­¨§ã. ®§¢'燐ª ¢¨å÷¤­®ù § ¤ ç÷ «¥£ª® ®âਬ â¨ ïª

à÷§­¨æî ¬÷¦ ª÷«ìª÷áâî ­ ¡®à÷¢ ¤«ï § ¤ ç÷ ¡¥§ ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì ÷ ª÷«ìª÷áâî ¬®¦-

«¨¢¨å ­ ¡®à÷¢ ¤«ï §¢®à®â­®ù § ¤ ç÷. ‡à®§ã¬÷«®, é® ¤«ï §¢®à®â­®ù § ¤ ç÷

®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï §¢¥àåã ­ ¡ã¤ãâì ¢¨£«ï¤ã ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì §­¨§ã, ⮡⮠¬¨ §¢¥¤¥¬®

§ ¤ çã ¤® â ª®ù, ïªã ¬¨ ¢¬÷õ¬® ஧¢'ï§ã¢ â¨. Žá®¡«¨¢÷áâî â ª®£® ¯÷¤å®¤ã

õ â¥, é® § ¯¥à¥å®¤®¬ ¤® §¢®à®â­®ù § ¤ ç÷ ª®­'î­ªæ÷ï ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì §¢¥àåã ­ -

¡ã¢ õ ¢¨£«ï¤ã ¤¨§'î­ªæ÷ù ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì §­¨§ã, ÷ ¤«ï ¯¥à¥å®¤ã ¤® ª®­'î­ªæ÷ù

㬮¢ ¤®¢®¤¨âìáï § áâ®á®¢ã¢ â¨ ä®à¬ã«ã ¯®â㦭®áâ÷ ®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï áª÷­ç¥­-

­¨å ¬­®¦¨­ (®¡'õ¤­ãîâìáï ¬­®¦¨­¨ ­ ¡®à÷¢ ¤«ï ª®¦­®ù ®ªà¥¬®ù 㬮¢¨

34
3.2. ‚¨¡÷à ­¥­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨å ®¡'õªâ÷¢

§¢®à®â­®ù § ¤ ç÷).

 à¥èâ÷, ã ¢¨¯ ¤ªã ­ ï¢­®áâ÷ ïª ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì §¢¥àåã, â ª ÷ ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì

§­¨§ã, á«÷¤ ᯮç âªã ¯®§¡ãâ¨áï ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì §­¨§ã (­¥ ­ ¢¯ ª¨!),   ¯®â÷¬

¯¥à¥©â¨ ¤® §¢®à®â­®ù § ¤ ç÷. ¥à¥å®¤ïç¨ ¤® § ¤ ç÷ ¡¥§ ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì §­¨§ã,

­¥®¡å÷¤­® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­¨¬ 稭®¬ §¬¥­è㢠⨠ç¨á« , ïª÷ § ¤ îâì ®¡¬¥¦¥­-

­ï §¢¥àåã, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ª®¦¥­ ­ ¡÷à ¢¦¥ ¬÷áâ¨âì ¤¥ïªã (  á ¬¥ ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­®

­¥®¡å÷¤­ã) ª÷«ìª÷áâì ®¡'õªâ÷¢ ª®¦­®£® ⨯ã.

à¨ª« ¤ 3.2. ãª¥â ª¢÷â÷¢ ¬®¦¥ ¬÷áâ¨â¨ åਧ ­â¥¬¨, âà®ï­¤¨, à®-

¬ èª¨ â  ¯÷¢®­÷ù. ‚á÷ ª¢÷⨠¢¢ ¦ îâìáï ­¥­ã¬¥à®¢ ­¨¬¨, ⮡⮠ª¢÷â¨

®¤­®£® ¢¨¤ã ¬÷¦ ᮡ®î ­¥ ஧à÷§­ïîâìáï. ®à冷ª ª¢÷â÷¢ ¢ ¡ãª¥â÷ ­¥ ¬ õ

§­ ç¥­­ï. ‘ª÷«ìª¨ ¬®¦­  ᪫ á⨠à÷§­¨å ¡ãª¥â÷¢ ÷§ n = 11 ª¢÷â÷¢, ïªé®

ª®¦¥­ ¡ãª¥â ¯®¢¨­¥­ ¬÷áâ¨â¨ ­¥ ¬¥­è ­÷¦ k1 = 1 ÷ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n1 = 3

åਧ ­â¥¬¨, ­¥ ¬¥­è ­÷¦ k2 = 2 ÷ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n2 = 3 âà®ï­¤, ­¥ ¬¥­è

­÷¦ k3 = 1 ÷ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n3 = 4 ஬ è®ª, ­¥ ¬¥­è ­÷¦ k4 = 2 ÷ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè

­÷¦ n4 = 3 ¯÷¢®­÷©?

¥à¥©¤¥¬® ¤® § ¤ ç ¡¥§ ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì §­¨§ã, ⮡⮠¡ã¤¥¬® ¢¢ ¦ â¨, é®

¡ãª¥â ¢¦¥ ¬÷áâ¨âì 1 åਧ ­â¥¬ã, 2 âà®ï­¤¨, 1 ஬ èªã ÷ 2 ¯÷¢®­÷ù. ’ -

ª¨¬ 稭®¬, ®âਬãõ¬® § ¤ çã: ¡ãª¥â (÷§ ª¢÷â÷¢, ïª÷ ¬¨ ¤®¤ õ¬® ¤® ¬÷­÷-

¬ «ì­® ­¥®¡å÷¤­¨å) ¬ õ ¬÷áâ¨â¨ e = n − (k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 ) = 5 ª¢÷⮪,

n
á¥à¥¤ ïª¨å ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n e1 = n1 − k1 = 2 åਧ ­â¥¬¨, ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦
e2 = n2 − k2 = 1 âà®ï­¤ , ­¥ ¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n
n e3 = n3 − k3 = 3 ஬ èª¨ ÷ ­¥
e4 = n4 − k4 = 1 ¯÷¢®­÷ï.
¡÷«ìè ­÷¦ n

Žâ¦¥, ®âਬ «¨ § ¤ çã, 猪 ¬÷áâ¨âì «¨è¥ ®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï §¢¥àåã. ®§­ -

ç¨¢è¨ ª÷«ìª÷áâì åਧ ­â¥¬, âà®ï­¤, ஬ è®ª ÷ ¯÷¢®­÷© 㠡㪥â÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤-

­® ç¥à¥§ m1 , m2 , m3 , m4 , § ¯¨è¥¬® ®âਬ ­¥ ®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï ã ¢¨£«ï¤÷

A = (m1 6 2) ∧ (m2 6 1) ∧ (m3 6 3) ∧ (m4 6 1).

‡ ¯¨è¥¬® ®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï ¤«ï §¢®à®â­®ù § ¤ ç÷:

¬A = (m1 > 3) ∨ (m2 > 2) ∨ (m3 > 4) ∨ (m4 > 2).

®§­ ç îç¨ ç¥à¥§ N (P ) ª÷«ìª÷áâì ¡ãª¥â÷¢, ïª÷ § ¤®¢®«ì­ïîâì 㬮-

¢÷ P, ÷§ ä®à¬ã«¨ ¤«ï ¯®â㦭®áâ÷ ®¡'õ¤­ ­­ï (ç®â¨àì®å) ¬­®¦¨­ ã § -

£ «ì­®¬ã ¢¨£«ï¤÷ ®âਬãõ¬®:

N (P1 ∨ P2 ∨ P3 ∨ P4 ) = N (P1 ) + N (P2 ) + N (P3 ) + N (P4 )−

−N (P1 ∧ P2 ) − N (P1 ∧ P3 ) − N (P1 ∧ P4 ) − N (P2 ∧ P3 )−
(8)
−N (P2 ∧ P4 ) − N (P3 ∧ P4 ) + N (P1 ∧ P2 ∧ P3 ) + N (P1 ∧ P2 ∧ P4 )+
+N (P1 ∧ P3 ∧ P4 ) + N (P2 ∧ P3 ∧ P4 ) − N (P1 ∧ P2 ∧ P3 ∧ P4 ).

35
 3. Š®¬¡÷­ â®à¨ª 

‚¨ª®à¨á⮢ãîç¨ ä®à¬ã«ã (8), § ¯¨è¥¬® ¢¨à § ¤«ï N (¬A):

N (¬A) = N (m1 > 3) + N (m2 > 2) + N (m3 > 4) + N (m4 > 2)−
−N ((m1 > 3) ∧ (m2 > 2)) − N ((m1 > 3) ∧ (m3 > 4))−
−N ((m1 > 3) ∧ (m4 > 2)) − N ((m2 > 2) ∧ (m3 > 4))−
−N ((m2 > 2) ∧ (m4 > 2)) − N ((m3 > 4) ∧ (m4 > 2))+
+N ((m1 > 3) ∧ (m2 > 2) ∧ (m3 > 4))+
+N ((m1 > 3) ∧ (m2 > 2) ∧ (m4 > 2))+
+N ((m1 > 3) ∧ (m3 > 4) ∧ (m4 > 2))+
+N ((m2 > 2) ∧ (m3 > 4) ∧ (m4 > 2))−
−N ((m1 > 3) ∧ (m2 > 2) ∧ (m3 > 4) ∧ (m4 > 2)).

’¥¯¥à ª®¦­¨© ¤®¤ ­®ª ¢ ®âਬ ­®¬ã ¢¨à §÷ ¤«ï N (¬A) õ ஧¢'離®¬

§ ¤ ç÷ § ®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï¬¨ §­¨§ã (¡¥§ ®¡¬¥¦¥­ì §¢¥àåã) ÷ ®¡ç¨á«îõâìáï ç¥à¥§

ä®à¬ã«ã ¤«ï ª®¬¡÷­ æ÷© § ¯®¢â®à¥­­ï¬¨:

N (¬A) = Ce2 + Ce3 + C

e1 + C
e3 − C
e0 − 0 − Ce0 − 0 − C
e1 − 0+
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
+0 + 0 + 0 + 0 − 0 = C5 + C6 + C4 + C6 − C3 − C3 − C41 =
2 3 1 3 0 0

= 10 + 20 + 4 + 20 − 1 − 1 − 4 = 48.

Š÷«ìª÷áâì ¡ãª¥â÷¢ ¤«ï § ¤ ç÷ ä®à¬ã¢ ­­ï ¡ãª¥â÷¢ ÷§ e=4

n ª¢÷â÷¢ ¡¥§

®¡¬¥¦¥­ì (㬮¢  ®¡¬¥¦¥­­ï â®â®¦­  1):

e45 = C85 = 56.

N (1) = C

 à¥èâ÷, ®áâ â®ç­¨© १ã«ìâ â ®âਬ õ¬® ïª à÷§­¨æî

N (1) − N (¬A) = 56 − 48 = 8.

‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. 8 ¡ãª¥â÷¢.

36
 4. ’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æì

4.1. ‚¨§­ ç¥­­ï £à㯨

„®á«÷¤¨â¨, ç¨ õ  «£¥¡à¨ç­  áâàãªâãà  ⟨R, ∗⟩ £àã¯®î §  ¢ª § ­®î ®¯¥-

∗
à æ÷õî ý þ. Ÿªé® ­÷, §¢ã§¨â¨ R â ª, 鮡 ®âਬ ­  ¬­®¦¨­  ¡ã«  £àã-

¯®î §  ¢ª § ­®î ®¯¥à æ÷õî (§  ¬®¦«¨¢®áâ÷ â ª®£® §¢ã¦¥­­ï). ‚ª § â¨

­¥©âà «ì­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â £à㯨, ¤«ï ª®¦­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â  ¢ª § â¨ ®¡¥à­¥­¨©,

¤®á«÷¤¨â¨ £àã¯ã ­  ª®¬ãâ â¨¢­÷áâì.

ü Ž¯¥à æ÷ï ü Ž¯¥à æ÷ï

1 a ∗ b = 15a + 15b + 5ab + 42 16 a ∗ b = 2a + 2b + 6ab + 13

2 a ∗ b = − 43 a − 43 b − 34 ab − 73 17 a ∗ b = 12 a + 12 b + 101
ab − 52
3 a ∗ b = 23 a + 23 b + 2ab − 91 18 a ∗ b = − 15 a − 15 b + 10 1
ab + 12 5
4 a ∗ b = 2a + 2b + 12 ab + 4 19 a ∗ b = 21a + 21b + 7ab + 60
5 a ∗ b = −2a − 2b + 3ab + 2 20 a ∗ b = −3a − 3b − 17 ab − 84
6 a ∗ b = 12 a + 12 b + 81 ab − 2 21 a ∗ b = − 65 a − 65 b + 65 ab + 11 5
7 a ∗ b = 16 a + 16 b + 61 ab − 65 22 a ∗ b = 2 a + 2 b + 4 ab + 1
3 3 3

8 a ∗ b = 3a + 3b − ab − 6 23 a ∗ b = 83 a + 83 b + 8ab + 59
9 a ∗ b = 4a + 4b + 4ab + 3 24 a ∗ b = 52 a + 52 b + 12 ab + 152
10 a ∗ b = −a − b + 11 1
ab + 22 25 a ∗ b = 3 a + 3 b − 3 ab − 3
7 7 1 28

11 a ∗ b = 3a + 3b − 11 1
ab − 66 26 a ∗ b = − 13 a − 13 b + 12 ab + 89
12 a ∗ b = 2a + 2b − 7 ab − 14
1
27 a ∗ b = 53 a + 53 b − 31 ab − 10 3
13 a ∗ b = 14a + 14b + 7ab + 26 28 a ∗ b = − 3 a − 3 b + 3 ab + 10
2 2 1
3
14 a ∗ b = −3a − 3b + 13 ab + 36 29 a ∗ b = −2a − 2b − 2 ab − 12
1

15 a ∗ b = −a − b + 3ab + 23 30 a ∗ b = − 32 a − 32 b − 21 ab − 15 2

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é®  «£¥¡à¨ç­ã áâàãªâãàã ⟨G, ∗⟩ ­ §¨¢ îâì £à㯮î, ïªé®

¢¨ª®­ãîâìáï 㬮¢¨:

• § ¬ª­¥­÷áâì: ∀a, b ∈ G : a ∗ b ∈ G;
•  á®æ÷ â¨¢­÷áâì: ∀a, b, c ∈ G : (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c);
• ÷á­ã¢ ­­ï ­¥©âà «ì­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â : ∃e ∈ G : ∀a ∈ G : a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a;

37
 4. ’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æì

• ÷á­ã¢ ­­ï ®¡¥à­¥­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â :

∀a ∈ G : ∃a−1 = a−1,∗ ∈ G : a ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ a = e.

∗
Ÿªé® ®¯¥à æ÷ï ý þ ª®¬ãâ â¨¢­ , £àã¯ã ­ §¨¢ îâì  ¡¥«¥¢®î.

à¨ª« ¤ 4.1. „®á«÷¤¨¬®, ç¨ õ ¬­®¦¨­  ⟨R, ∗⟩ £àã¯®î §  ®¯¥à æ÷õî

a ∗ b = a + b + ab. Ž¯¥à æ÷ï § ¬ª­¥­ , ®áª÷«ìª¨ § a ∈ R, b ∈ R ¢¨¯«¨-

¢ õ a ∗ b ∈ R, â  ª®¬ãâ â¨¢­ , ®áª÷«ìª¨ a ∗ b = b ∗ a. „«ï ¯¥à¥¢÷ન

 á®æ÷ â¨¢­®áâ÷ § ¯¨è¥¬®:

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ b + c + (a ∗ b)c = a + b + ab + c + (a + b + ab)c =
= a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc,
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a + b ∗ c + a(b ∗ c) = a + b + c + bc + a(b + c + bc) =
= a + b + c + ab + ac + ab + abc.

„÷©á­®, ®¯¥à æ÷ï õ  á®æ÷ â¨¢­®î.

˜ãª õ¬® ­¥©âà «ì­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â. „«ï ¯®èãªã ¯à ¢®£® ­¥©âà «ì­®£®

¥«¥¬¥­â  § ¯¨è¥¬®: a ∗ er = a ⇔ a + er + aer = a ⇔ (1 + a)er = 0. ÷¢­÷áâì

1
¯®¢¨­­  ¢¨ª®­ã¢ â¨áì ¤«ï ¢á÷å a ∈ R, ⮬ã er = 0. Ž¯¥à æ÷ï ª®¬ãâ -

⨢­ , ⮬ã 0 õ ®¤­®ç á­® © «÷¢¨¬ ­¥©âà «ì­¨¬,  , ®â¦¥, ¤¢®áâ®à®­­÷¬

­¥©âà «ì­¨¬. Žâ¦¥, ⟨R, ∗⟩ õ ª®¬ãâ â¨¢­¨¬ ¬®­®ù¤®¬.

„«ï a ∈ R è㪠õ¬® ®¡¥à­¥­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â. „«ï ¯®èãªã ¯à ¢®£® ®¡¥à­¥-

−1,r
­®£® § ¯¨è¥¬®: a ∗ a = e ⇔ a + a−1,r + aa−1,r = 0 ⇔ (1 + a)a−1,r = −a.
…«¥¬¥­â a = −1 ­¥ ¬ õ ¯à ¢®£® ®¡¥à­¥­®£®, ⮬ã ⟨R, ∗⟩ ­¥ õ £à㯮î. €«¥
−1,r
¤«ï ¢á÷å a ̸= −1 ¯à ¢¨© ®¡¥à­¥­¨© ÷á­ãõ ÷ ¤®à÷¢­îõ a = − a+1
a
. Ž¯¥à -

æ÷ï ª®¬ãâ â¨¢­ , ⮬ã −

a
õ ®¤­®ç á­® © «÷¢¨¬ ®¡¥à­¥­¨¬ ¤® a, ®â¦¥,
a+1
¤¢®áâ®à®­­÷¬ ®¡¥à­¥­¨¬.

„®á«÷¤¨¬®, ç¨ õ ⟨R \ {−1}, ∗⟩ £à㯮î.

∗
„«ï ¯¥à¥¢÷ન § ¬ª­¥­®áâ÷ ®¯¥à æ÷ù ý þ ¯®âà÷¡­® ¢¯¥¢­¨â¨áï, é® §

a ̸= −1 â  b ̸= −1 ¢¨¯«¨¢ õ a + b + ab ̸= −1. à¨¯ãá⨬® áã¯à®â¨¢­¥:

­¥å © a + b + ab = −1. ’®¤÷ (a + 1)(b + 1) = 0,  «¥ a ̸= −1, b ̸= −1.

Žâਬ ­  á㯥à¥ç­÷áâì ¤®¢®¤¨âì § ¬ª­¥­÷áâì ®¯¥à æ÷ù.

€á®æ÷ â¨¢­÷áâì ®¯¥à æ÷ù ∗
ý þ â  ÷á­ã¢ ­­ï ­¥©âà «ì­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â 

e = 0 ∈ R \ {−1} ¯¥à¥¢÷७÷ ¢¨é¥. ’ ª®¦ ¡ã«® ¤®¢¥¤¥­®, é® ¤«ï ª®¦­®£®

a ∈ R\{−1} ÷á­ãõ ¥«¥¬¥­â a−1 = − a+1
a
∈ R, â ª¨©, é® a∗a−1 = a−1 ∗a = e;
1 ¥à¥å÷¤ ¤® § ¯¨áã er = 0
õ ­¥ª®à¥ªâ­¨¬ ¡¥§ ¤®¤ âª®¢®ù ¯¥à¥¢÷ન ¢¨¯ ¤ªã
(1+a)
a = −1

38
4.2. ƒà㯨 ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢®ª

®¤­ ª ­¥®¡å÷¤­® ¢¯¥¢­¨â¨áï, é® a−1 ∈ R \ {−1}. à¨¯ãá⨬® áã¯à®â¨¢­¥:

a−1 = −1 ¤«ï ¤¥ïª®£® a ̸= −1. ’®¤÷ − a+1
a
= −1, §¢÷¤ª¨ a = a + 1 { ®âà¨-
−1
¬ ­  á㯥à¥ç­÷áâì ¤®¢®¤¨âì, é® a ̸= −1, ⮡⮠a−1 ∈ R \ {−1}. ’ ª¨¬
−1
稭®¬, ¥«¥¬¥­â a õ ®¡¥à­¥­¨¬ ¤® a ∈ R\{−1} ¢ áâàãªâãà÷ ⟨R \ {−1}, ∗⟩.

‚÷¤¯®¢÷¤ì. ⟨R, ∗⟩ õ ª®¬ãâ â¨¢­¨¬ ¬®­®ù¤®¬,  «¥ ­¥ £à㯮î, ®áª÷«ì-

ª¨ ¥«¥¬¥­â −1 ­¥ ¬ õ ®¡¥à­¥­®£®. ⟨R \ {−1}, ∗⟩ õ  ¡¥«¥¢®î £àã¯®î §

­¥©âà «ì­¨¬ ¥«¥¬¥­â®¬ e = 0, ¤«ï ¥«¥¬¥­â  a ®¡¥à­¥­¨¬ ¥«¥¬¥­â®¬ õ

a−1 = − a+1
a
.

4.2. ƒà㯨 ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢®ª

„«ï § ¤ ­®ù ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨ c ∈ S12 :

• §­ ©â¨ ஧ª« ¤ ã ­¥§ «¥¦­÷ 横«¨;

• ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨, ç¨ õ ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª  c ¯ à­®î;

• ®¡ç¨á«¨â¨ ¯®à冷ª | c| ¥«¥¬¥­â  c ∈ S12 .

‚ à÷ ­â¨ § ¢¤ ­ì ¤¨¢. ¢ â ¡«¨æ÷ 3.

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

®§ª« ¤ ­­ï ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨ c : {1, 2, . . . , n} → {1, 2, . . . , n} ã ­¥§ «¥¦­÷

横«¨ ¬®¦­  ¯®ç¨­ â¨ § ¡ã¤ì-类£® ¥«¥¬¥­â  i0 ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}. ‡ ä÷ªáã-

¢ ¢è¨, ­ ¯à¨ª« ¤, i0 = 1, ¡ã¤ãîâì ¯®á«÷¤®¢­÷áâì

i0 = 1, i1 = c(i0 ), i2 = c(i1 ) = c2 (1), i3 = c(i2 ) = c3 (1), . . . , ik = ck (1), . . .

“à å®¢ãîç¨ áª÷­ç¥­­÷áâì ¬­®¦¨­¨ {1, 2, . . . , n}, ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ¯®á«÷¤®¢-

­®áâ÷ i0 , i1 , . . . , ik , . . . ¯®ç­ãâì ¯®¢â®àâ¨áï. „ «÷, ¢à å®¢ãîç¨ ¡÷õªâ¨¢-

­÷áâì (ïªé® ¡÷«ìè ª®­ªà¥â­® { ÷­'õªâ¨¢­÷áâì) ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨ c, ¯®¢â®à¥­­ï

¬®¦¥ ¯®ç â¨áï «¨è¥ § ¥«¥¬¥­â  i0 . Žâ¦¥, ¤«ï ¤¥ïª®£® ­®¬¥à  m ®âà¨-

¬ õ¬® ¯®¯ à­® à÷§­÷ i0 , i1 , . . . , im−1 ,  «¥ c(im−1 ) = i0 . ®¡ã¤®¢ ­  ¯®á«÷-

¤®¢­÷áâì ¢¨§­ ç õ 横« (i0 , i1 , . . . , im−1 ).

Ÿªé® ã ¬­®¦¨­÷ {1, 2, . . . , n} § «¨è¨«¨áì ¥«¥¬¥­â¨, ïª÷ ­¥ ã¢÷©è«¨

ã ¯®¡ã¤®¢ ­¨© 横«, ¡ã¤ãîâì ¢¨é¥®¯¨á ­¨¬ ¬¥â®¤®¬ ­ áâ㯭¨© 横«,

¯®ç¨­ îç¨ § ¡ã¤ì-类£® ¥«¥¬¥­â  j0 ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}, j0 ∈

/ {i0 , i1 , . . . , im−1 }.
Ÿªé® ã ¬­®¦¨­÷ {1, 2, . . . , n} § «¨è¨«¨áì ¥«¥¬¥­â¨, ïª÷ ­¥ ã¢÷©è«¨ ã

¯®¡ã¤®¢ ­÷ 横«¨, ¡ã¤ãîâì âà¥â÷© 横« ÷ â.¤.

39
 4. ’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æì

’ ¡«. 3. ƒà㯨 ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢®ª. ‚ à÷ ­â¨ § ¢¤ ­ì

ü c ü c
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 3 7 11 2 12 4 6 10 9 8 1 5 16 4 1 8 2 11 6 10 12 3 7 5 9
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2 7 1 12 6 10 4 11 8 3 5 2 9 17 11 6 4 2 9 1 12 10 7 8 3 5
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 12 5 4 1 6 2 9 10 7 8 11 3 18 6 4 2 12 1 5 10 11 9 7 8 3
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4 7 6 5 8 4 12 11 3 9 2 1 10 19 4 12 2 5 7 9 1 10 11 8 6 3
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
5 9 11 6 3 8 4 7 5 10 1 12 2 20 10 7 12 2 6 3 8 4 9 11 1 5
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
6 6 12 8 10 7 4 3 2 11 1 9 5 21 5 4 7 1 2 3 6 10 12 9 11 8
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
7 7 1 12 8 11 6 10 9 2 3 5 4 22 10 12 9 7 2 4 6 11 1 3 8 5
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
8 4 10 7 5 6 1 12 3 9 11 2 8 23 3 12 10 11 2 7 4 8 1 9 6 5
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
9 9 10 8 1 3 6 4 5 7 12 2 11 24 7 6 8 9 2 5 11 4 3 10 12 1
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10 8 1 5 11 7 2 4 6 10 9 3 12 25 4 9 10 2 11 12 7 3 1 8 6 5
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 7 10 8 1 4 6 5 11 12 9 3 2 26 4 11 6 7 1 10 5 12 2 3 9 8
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12 5 1 11 6 8 12 3 2 4 10 7 9 27 10 1 7 11 8 3 6 5 4 2 9 12
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 6 1 11 12 7 2 4 10 3 8 9 5 28 3 8 12 1 2 7 10 9 5 6 11 4
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
14 5 1 11 3 7 9 2 12 8 10 4 6 29 4 9 6 5 8 2 12 1 3 7 11 10
   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
15 6 7 2 3 12 5 4 11 8 10 9 1 30 6 11 5 1 9 7 4 12 3 2 10 8

40
4.2. ƒà㯨 ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢®ª

à®æ¥á ¬ õ § ª÷­ç¨â¨áì §  áª÷­ç¥­­ã ª÷«ìª÷áâì ªà®ª÷¢, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ¬­®-

¦¨­  {1, 2, . . . , n} áª÷­ç¥­­ . ®¡ã¤®¢ ­÷ ®¯¨á ­¨¬ ¬¥â®¤®¬ 横«¨ § ¢-

¦¤¨ ­¥§ «¥¦­÷, ®áª÷«ìª¨ §  ¯®¡ã¤®¢®î ­¥ ¬®¦ãâì ¬ â¨ á¯÷«ì­¨å ¥«¥¬¥­-

â÷¢ (¢¨¯«¨¢ õ § ÷­'õªâ¨¢­®áâ÷ ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨).

 
à¨ª« ¤ 4.2. ‡®¡à §¨¬® ã ¢¨£«ï¤÷ ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ù ­¥§ «¥¦­¨å 横«÷¢
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ªã c= :
2 5 8 6 4 1 7 3
1) ¯®¡ã¤ãõ¬® ¯¥à訩 横«, ¯®ç¨­ îç¨ § ¥«¥¬¥­â  1:

1, c(1) = 2, c(2) = 5, c(5) = 4, c(4) = 6, c(6) = 1,

⮡⮠®âਬãõ¬® 横« ¤®¢¦¨­®î 5: (1, 2, 5, 4, 6); ¯à®æ¥¤ãà  ¬ õ ¯à®¤®¢-

¦ã¢ â¨áï, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ÷á­ãîâì ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ (­ ¯à¨ª« ¤, 3), é® ­¥ ã¢÷©è«¨ ¤®

¯®¡ã¤®¢ ­®£® 横«ã;

2) ¯®¡ã¤ãõ¬® ¤à㣨© 横«, ¯®ç¨­ îç¨ § ¥«¥¬¥­â  3:

3, c(3) = 8, c(8) = 3,

⮡⮠®âਬãõ¬® 横« ¤®¢¦¨­®î 2: (3, 8); ¯à®æ¥¤ãà  ¬ õ ¯à®¤®¢¦ã¢ â¨-

áï, ®áª÷«ìª¨ § «¨è¨¢áï ¥«¥¬¥­â 7, é® ­¥ ã¢÷©è®¢ ¤® ¯®¡ã¤®¢ ­¨å 横«÷¢;
3) ¯®¡ã¤ãõ¬® âà¥â÷© 横«, ¯®ç¨­ îç¨ § ¥«¥¬¥­â  7:

7, c(7) = 7,

⮡⮠®âਬãõ¬® 横« ¤®¢¦¨­®î 1 (â®â®¦­ã ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ªã): (7) = e.

Žâ¦¥, ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª  c ¤®¯ã᪠õ â ª¨© ஧ª« ¤ ã ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷î ­¥§ «¥¦-

­¨å 横«÷¢:

c = (1, 2, 5, 4, 6) ◦ (3, 8) ◦ (7).

‡¢'燐ª ¯®¡ã¤®¢ ­¨å 横«÷¢ § ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª®î c æ÷ª ¢® ¯à®á⥦¨â¨, ¯¥-
à¥áâ ¢¨¢è¨ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­® á⮢¯æ÷ ¬ âà¨æ÷ c:
 
1 2 5 4 6 3 8 7
c= .
2 5 4 6 1 8 3 7

÷¤ªà¥á«¨¬® ­¥§ «¥¦­÷áâì १ã«ìâ âã ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ù ­¥§ «¥¦­¨å 横«÷¢

¢÷¤ ¯®à浪㠧 ¯¨áã  à£ã¬¥­â÷¢ (ª ¦ãâì, é® ­¥§ «¥¦­÷ 横«¨ ¬÷¦ ᮡ®î

ª®¬ãâãîâì ). ’ ª, ¤«ï ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨ c ÷§ ¯à¨ª«. 4.2 ÷á­ãõ 6 ¢ à÷ ­â÷¢ § -

¯¨áã ã ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷î ­¥§ «¥¦­¨å 横«÷¢:

c = (1, 2, 5, 4, 6) ◦ (3, 8) ◦ (7) = (3, 8) ◦ (1, 2, 5, 4, 6) ◦ (7) = . . . .

41
 4. ’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æì

„«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ¯ à­®áâ÷ ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨, ïªã ஧ª« ¤¥­® ã ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷î

­¥§ «¥¦­¨å 横«÷¢, á«÷¤ ¢à å®¢ã¢ â¨, é® æ¨ª« ¯ à­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ õ ­¥¯ à-

­®î ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª®î, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ஧ª« ¤ õâìáï ã ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷î ­¥¯ à­®ù (­  1

¬¥­è®ù §  ¤®¢¦¨­ã 横« ) ª÷«ìª®áâ÷ â࠭ᯮ§¨æ÷©, ÷ ­ ¢¯ ª¨ { 横« ­¥-

¯ à­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ õ ¯ à­®î ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª®î. Žâ¦¥, ¯ à­÷áâì ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ù ­¥§ -

«¥¦­¨å 横«÷¢ ¢¨§­ ç õâìáï ª÷«ìª÷áâî 横«÷¢ ¯ à­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ (­¥¯ à­¨å

¯÷¤áâ ­®¢®ª), ®áª÷«ìª¨ 横«¨ ­¥¯ à­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ (¯ à­÷ ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨) ­¥

§¬÷­îîâì ¯ à­÷áâì ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ù. Žáâ â®ç­® ¬ õ¬®: ïªé® ஧ª« ¤ ¯÷¤áâ -

­®¢ª¨ ã ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷î ­¥§ «¥¦­¨å 横«÷¢ ¬÷áâ¨âì ¯ à­ã ª÷«ìª÷áâì 横«÷¢

¯ à­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨, ¢¨å÷¤­  ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª  ¯ à­ , ïªé® ­¥¯ à­ã ª÷«ìª÷áâì {

­¥¯ à­ .

à¨ª« ¤ 4.3. ÷¤áâ ­®¢ª  c = (1, 2, 5, 4, 6) ◦ (3, 8) ◦ (7) ÷§ ¯à¨ª«. 4.2

¬ õ ®¤¨­ 横« ¯ à­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ (横« (3, 8)),   ®â¦¥ õ ­¥¯ à­®î.

„«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ¯®à浪㠯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨ c, ïªã ஧ª« ¤¥­® ã ª®¬¯®§¨-

æ÷î ­¥§ «¥¦­¨å 横«÷¢, á«÷¤ ¢à å®¢ã¢ â¨, é® ¯®à冷ª ª®¦­®£® 横«ã

¤®à÷¢­îõ ©®£® ¤®¢¦¨­÷ { æ¥ ¢¨¯«¨¢ õ § ®§­ ç¥­­ï ¯®à浪㠥«¥¬¥­â  £àã-

¯¨ ïª ­ ©¬¥­è®£® ¤®¤ â­®£® ¯®ª §­¨ª  á⥯¥­ï, ¯à¨ ¯÷¤­¥á¥­­÷ ¤® 类£®

®âਬãõ¬® ­¥©âà «ì­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â (â®â®¦­ã ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ªã).

„ «÷, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ­¥§ «¥¦­÷ 横«¨ ª®¬ãâãîâì, á⥯÷­ì ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ù ­¥§ -

«¥¦­¨å 横«÷¢ ¤®à÷¢­îõ ª®¬¯®§¨æ÷ù á⥯¥­÷¢:

( c1 ◦ c2 ◦ · · · ◦ ck ) m = cm
1 ◦ c2 ◦ · · · ◦ ck ,
m m

¤¥ cj (j = 1, 2, . . . , k ) { ­¥§ «¥¦­÷ 横«¨. ö§ ­ ¢¥¤¥­®ù à÷¢­®áâ÷ ®¤à §ã

¢¨¯«¨¢ õ, é® ¯®à冷ª ¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨ c = c1 ◦ c2 ◦ · · · ◦ ck ¬ õ ¡ã⨠­ ©-

¬¥­è¨¬ ÷§ ç¨á¥«, ïª÷ ªà â­÷ ¯®à浪 ¬ 横«÷¢ cj (j = 1, 2, . . . , k ), ⮡â®

|c| = ‘Š(|c1 |, |c2 |, . . . , |ck |).

à¨ª« ¤ 4.4. ÷¤áâ ­®¢ª  c = (1, 2, 5, 4, 6) ◦ (3, 8) ◦ (7) ÷§ ¯à¨ª«. 4.2

¬÷áâ¨âì âਠ­¥§ «¥¦­÷ 横«¨ § ¤®¢¦¨­ ¬¨ 5, 2 â  1. ’ ª¨¬ 稭®¬,

|c| = ‘Š(5, 2, 1) = 10.

4.3. ƒ®¬®¬®àä÷§¬¨ £à㯠ª« á÷¢ «¨èª÷¢

‡­ ©â¨ ¢á÷ £®¬®¬®àä÷§¬¨ §  ¤¨â¨¢­®ù £à㯨 Zn ¢  ¤¨â¨¢­ã £àã¯ã Zm .

42
4.3. ƒ®¬®¬®àä÷§¬¨ £à㯠ª« á÷¢ «¨èª÷¢

ü n m ü n m ü n m ü n m ü n m
1 4 18 7 8 12 13 6 21 19 12 16 25 12 14
2 10 15 8 4 10 14 6 10 20 9 12 26 12 15
3 10 12 9 10 18 15 4 18 21 9 15 27 14 20
4 16 18 10 16 20 16 15 20 22 16 22 28 15 21
5 18 21 11 20 25 17 12 20 23 15 24 29 12 21
6 18 20 12 20 26 18 20 28 24 21 27 30 24 28

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

ƒ®¬®¬®àä÷§¬, é® ¤÷õ ÷§ ¡ã¤ì-类ù 横«÷ç­®ù £à㯨, ®¤­®§­ ç­® ¢¨§­ -

ç õâìáï ᢮ù¬ §­ ç¥­­ï¬ ­  â¢÷à­÷©, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ¡ã¤ì-直© ¥«¥¬¥­â 横«÷ç-

­®ù £à㯨 õ §  ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï¬ ¤¥ïª¨¬ á⥯¥­¥¬ â¢÷à­®ù. ’ ª¨¬ 稭®¬, ¤«ï

¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï £®¬®¬®àä÷§¬ã f : Zn → Zm ¤®áâ â­ì® ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ f (1), ®áª÷«ì-

ª¨ ¥«¥¬¥­â 1 ∈ Zn õ â¢÷à­¨¬ (ïª ¯à ¢¨«®, ®¤­÷õî ÷§ â¢÷à­¨å ¢  ¤¨â¨¢­÷©

£àã¯÷ Zn ).
‚¢¥¤¥¬® ¯®§­ ç¥­­ï k = f (1) ∈ Zm , ¤¥ k = 0, 1, . . . , m−1. ö§ ®§­ ç¥­­ï
£®¬®¬®àä÷§¬ã ¬ õ¬®:

n,+ n,+
f (0) = f (n) = f (1)n,+ = f (1) =k = kn ∈ Zm .

‡ ÷­è®£® ¡®ªã, f (0) = 0 ∈ Zm (£®¬®¬®àä­¨© ®¡à § ­¥©âà «ì­®£®

¥«¥¬¥­â  { ­¥©âà «ì­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â). Žâ¦¥, ®âਬ õ¬® â ªã à÷¢­÷áâì ã Zm :

(kn = 0) ⇔ ((kn mod m) = 0).

’ ª¨¬ 稭®¬, ç¨á«® k ¬®¦¥ ­ ¡ã¢ â¨ «¨è¥ â ª¨å §­ ç¥­ì ÷§ ¬­®¦¨­¨

{0, 1, . . . , m − 1}, §  直å kn ¤÷«¨âìáï ­  m. ‚¢¥¤¥¬® ¤® ஧£«ï¤ã ç¨á« 

m1 â  n1 ÷§ à÷¢­®á⥩

m = ‘„(n, m) · m1 , n = ‘„(n, m) · n1 .

Žáª÷«ìª¨ ‘„ (n1 , m1 ) = 1 (ç¨á«  m1 â  n1 §  ¯®¡ã¤®¢®î ¢§ õ¬­®

¯à®áâ÷), ®âਬãõ¬®:

(kn = 0) ⇔ ((kn mod m) = 0) ⇔ ((kn1 mod m1 ) = 0) ⇔ ((k mod m1 ) = 0).

43
 4. ’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æì

Žâ¦¥, ®âਬãõ¬® â ª÷ ¬®¦«¨¢÷ §­ ç¥­­ï k (­ £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ­ á æ÷ª ¢-

«ïâì «¨è¥ §­ ç¥­­ï 0 6 k 6 m − 1):

k ∈ {0, m1 , 2m1 , . . . , (‘„(n, m) − 1)m1 }.
’¥¯¥à §­ ç¥­­ï £®¬®¬®àä÷§¬ã f ­  ª®¦­®¬ã ¥«¥¬¥­â÷ j ∈ Zn ¬®¦­ 

®¡ç¨á«¨â¨ ÷§ á¯÷¢¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï

j,+
f (j) = (f (1))j,+ = k = kj ∈ Zm .
‡ ã¢ ¦¥­­ï 5. ‡ £ «ì­  ª÷«ìª÷áâì £®¬®¬®àä÷§¬÷¢ f : Zn → Zm ¤®-
à÷¢­îõ ‘„(n, m) (§  ª÷«ìª÷áâî ¬®¦«¨¢¨å §­ ç¥­ì k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , m − 1}).

‡ ã¢ ¦¥­­ï 6. ‡  ¡ã¤ì-直å n, m ∈ N, § ¢¦¤¨ ÷á­ãõ â ª §¢ ­¨©

âਢ÷ «ì­¨© £®¬®¬®àä÷§¬ f0 : Zn → Zm , 直© § ¢¦¤¨ ¯à¨©¬ õ §­ ç¥­­ï

0 ∈ Zm (f0 , ®ç¥¢¨¤­®, ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ §­ ç¥­­î k = 0).

à¨ª« ¤ 4.5. ®¡ã¤ãõ¬® £®¬®¬®àä÷§¬¨ ÷§  ¤¨â¨¢­®ù £à㯨 Z12 ã

£àã¯ã Z8 . “ ¢¢¥¤¥­¨å ¯®§­ ç¥­­ïå ¬ õ¬®:

n = 12, m = 8, ‘„ (n, m) = 4, n1 = 3, m1 = 2.

Žâ¦¥, ®âਬãõ¬® â ª÷ ¬®¦«¨¢÷ §­ ç¥­­ï ¤«ï f (1) = k ∈ Z8 , 0 6 k 6 7:
k0 = 0 · 2 = 0, k1 = 1 · 2 = 2, k2 = 2 · 2 = 4, k3 = 3 · 2 = 6.
ƒ®¬®¬®àä÷§¬¨, ïª÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ îâì §­ ©¤¥­¨¬ §­ ç¥­­ï¬ k, ¯®§­ ç¨¬®

ç¥à¥§f0 , f2 , f4 , f6 ; ùå­÷ §­ ç¥­­ï §¢¥¤¥¬® ¢ â ¡«¨æî (®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï §­ ç¥­ì

­ ¢¥¤¥¬® «¨è¥ ¤«ï f2 ):

j f0 (j) f2 (j) f4 (j) f6 (j)

0 0 0 0 0
1 0 2 4 6
2 0 2·2=4 0 4
3 0 2·3=6 4 2
4 0 2·4=0 0 0
5 0 2·5=2 4 6
6 0 2·6=4 0 4
7 0 2·7=6 4 2
8 0 2·8=0 0 0
9 0 2·9=2 4 6
10 0 2 · 10 = 4 0 4
11 0 2 · 11 = 6 4 2

44
4.4. Œã«ì⨯«÷ª â¨¢­  £à㯠 ª÷«ìæï

4.4. Œã«ì⨯«÷ª â¨¢­  £à㯠 ª÷«ìæï

„«ï § ¤ ­®£® ­ âãà «ì­®£® ç¨á«  n:

• ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ ¬ã«ì⨯«÷ª â¨¢­ã £àã¯ã Z∗n ª÷«ìæï Zn ;

• ¤«ï ª®¦­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â  x ∈ Z∗n :

{ ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ ®¡¥à­¥­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â x−1 ;

{ ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ 横«÷ç­ã ¯÷¤£àã¯ã [x];
{ ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ ¯®à冷ª |x|;

• §à®¡¨â¨ ¢¨á­®¢®ª 鮤® 横«÷ç­®áâ÷ £à㯨 Z∗n ;

• ¤«ï § ¤ ­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â  a ∈ Z∗n :


{ ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ ä ªâ®à-£àã¯ã Z∗n [a]
;


{ ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ â ¡«¨æî Š¥«÷ £à㯨 Z∗n [a]
;


{ ¤®á«÷¤¨â¨ Z∗
n [a]
­  横«÷ç­÷áâì.

ü 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
n 9 15 16 20 24 30 28 32 28 27

a 4 2 9 3 23 7 3 25 13 10

ü 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
n 16 20 18 30 32 15 35 9 16 20

a 15 9 17 11 9 4 11 8 3 19

ü 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
n 28 27 15 28 32 28 30 32 14 24

a 9 19 11 5 17 15 29 15 13 5

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

Š÷«ìæ¥ «¨èª÷¢ Zn õ ¯à¨ª« ¤®¬ áª÷­ç¥­­®£® ª÷«ìæï § ®¤¨­¨æ¥î. Žá-

ª÷«ìª¨ ã áª÷­ç¥­­¨å ª÷«ìæïå ®¡®à®â­¨¬¨ õ ¢á÷ ­¥­ã«ì®¢÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨, ïª÷ ­¥

õ ¤÷«ì­¨ª ¬¨ ­ã«ï, ­¥áª« ¤­® ¤®¢¥áâ¨, é® ¬ã«ì⨯«÷ª â¨¢­  £à㯠 Z∗

n
ª÷«ìæï Zn ᪫ ¤ õâìáï ÷§ ª« á÷¢ «¨èª÷¢ k, ¤¥ k { ¢§ õ¬­® ¯à®á⥠§ n:

Z∗
n = {k : ‘„(n, k) = 1}, (9)

45
 4. ’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æì

‚¯à ¢ . „®¢¥á⨠á¯÷¢¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï (9).

‡ ã¢ ¦¥­­ï 7. ”ã­ªæ÷î f(n) = |Z∗n |, é® ¢¨§­ ç õ ª÷«ìª÷áâì ¥«¥¬¥­-

â÷¢ ¢ Z∗
n, ­ §¨¢ îâì äã­ªæ÷õî …©«¥à  . „«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï §­ ç¥­ì äã­ªæ÷ù

…©«¥à  ¢÷¤®¬÷ (¤¨¢., ­ ¯à., [10]) â ª÷ ä®à¬ã«¨:

f(pm ) = (p − 1)pm−1 ; (10)

f(n) = f(pm
1 )f(p2 ) · · · f(pk ) = n(1 − p1 )(1 −
1 m2 mk 1 1
p2
) · · · (1 − 1
pk
), (11)

mk
¤¥ p { ¤®¢÷«ì­¥ ¯à®á⥠ç¨á«®, n = pm 1 m2
1 p2 . . . pk ஧ª« ¤¥­® ¢ ¤®¡ã⮪ áâ¥-
¯¥­÷¢ k à÷§­¨å ¯à®áâ¨å ç¨á¥«. ”®à¬ã«ã (10) «¥£ª® ®âਬ â¨ ÷§ (9), ஧¡¨¢-
m
è¨ ¯®á«÷¤®¢­÷áâì 1, . . . , p, p + 1, . . . , 2p, . . . , p
m−1
+ 1, . . . , pm ­  pp = pm−1
÷­â¥à¢ «÷¢ ¯® p ç¨á¥«: ª®¦¥­ § ÷­â¥à¢ «÷¢ jp + 1, . . . , (j + 1)p ¬÷áâ¨âì p

ç¨á¥«, § 直å p − 1 ç¨á«® (ãá÷, ®ªà÷¬ (j + 1)p) ¢§ õ¬­® ¯à®áâ÷ § p ; ®â¦¥,

m
∗
§£÷¤­® § (9), £à㯠 Zn ¤÷©á­® ¬÷áâ¨âì (p − 1)p
m−1
ç¨á¥«. ”®à¬ã«ã (11)

¬®¦­  ¤®¢¥á⨠§ (10), ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢ãîç¨ à®§ª« ¤ ª÷«ìæï Zn ã ¯àï¬ã áã¬ã

ª÷«¥æì Zpm1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z mk (¤¨¢., ­ ¯à., [10]).

1 p k

à¨ª« ¤ 4.6. ‚¨§­ ç¨¬® ¬ã«ì⨯«÷ª â¨¢­ã £àã¯ã Z∗40 ª÷«ìæï «¨-

∗
èª÷¢ Z40 , ãá÷ 横«÷ç­÷ ¯÷¤£à㯨 Z40 , ¯®à浪¨ ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢,   â ª®¦ ®¡¥à­¥­÷

¥«¥¬¥­â¨ x
−1 ∗
¤«ï ª®¦­®£® x ∈ Z . ‚¨ª®à¨á⮢ãîç¨ (9), ®âਬãõ¬®:
40

Z∗
40 = {1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33, 37, 39}.

Žâ¦¥, |Z∗
40 | = 16, é® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ (11): f(40) = 40(1 − 12 )(1 − 15 ) = 16.
Ž¡ç¨á«¨¬® 横«÷ç­÷ ¯÷¤£à㯨 Z∗40 . ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é®, ®¡ç¨á«îîç¨ æ¨ª-

«÷ç­ã ¯÷¤£àã¯ã [x], ¬¨  ¢â®¬ â¨ç­® ®âਬãõ¬® ¯®à冷ª |x| â¢÷à­®£® ¥«¥-

−1
¬¥­â  x. Šà÷¬ ⮣®, ®¤à §ã ®âਬãõ¬® ®¡¥à­¥­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â x = x|x|−1 .

x [x] |x| x−1 x [x] |x| x−1

1 {1} 1 1 21 {21, 1} 2 21
3 {3, 9, 27, 1} 4 27 23 {23, 9, 7, 1} 4 7
7 {7, 9, 23, 1} 4 23 27 {27, 9, 3, 1} 4 3
9 {9, 1} 2 9 29 {29, 1} 2 29
11 {11, 1} 2 11 31 {31, 1} 2 31
13 {13, 9, 37, 1} 4 37 33 {33, 9, 17, 1} 4 17
17 {17, 9, 33, 1} 4 33 37 {37, 9, 13, 1} 4 13
19 {19, 1} 2 19 39 {39, 1} 2 39

46
4.4. Œã«ì⨯«÷ª â¨¢­  £à㯠 ª÷«ìæï

Žâ¦¥, ¦®¤¥­ ¥«¥¬¥­â Z∗

40 ­¥ ¬ õ ¯®à冷ª |Z∗40 | = 16, ⮡⮠¦®¤­ 

§ ù ù ¯÷¤£à㯠­¥ §¡÷£ õâìáï ÷§ á ¬®î £à㯮î. ’ ª¨¬ 稭®¬, £à㯠 Z∗40 ­¥

横«÷ç­ .


„«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ä ªâ®à-£à㯨 Z∗n [a]
¡ ç¨âìáï ­¥¤®æ÷«ì­¨¬ ¢¨ª®à¨á-

⮢㢠⨠¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâì ((x) = (y)) ⇔ (x ∗ y −1 ∈ [a]) (¤¨¢., ­ ¯à., [23]),

®áª÷«ìª¨ ­¥¬ õ ®ù ä®à¬ã«¨ ¤«ï ®¡ç¨á«¥­­ï ®¡¥à­¥­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â  ¢

Z∗ ∗
n .  â®¬÷áâì, ¢à å®¢ãîç¨ áª÷­ç¥­­÷áâì Zn , ¬®¦­  ®¡ç¨á«î¢ â¨ áã¬÷¦-
­÷ ª« á¨ ¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® §  ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï¬: (x) = {xa : 0 6 k 6 |a| − 1}.
k


à¨ª« ¤ 4.7. Ž¡ç¨á«¨¬® ä ªâ®à-£àã¯ã Z∗40 , ᪫ ¤¥¬® â ¡«¨æî

∗
[9]
Š¥«÷ â  ¤®á«÷¤¨¬® Z40 ­  横«÷ç­÷áâì. ‡ ãà å㢠­­ï¬ ¯®¯¥à¥¤­ì®£®
[9]

¯à¨ª« ¤ã: [9] = {9, 1}, |[9]| = 2,   ®â¦¥ Z∗40 [9] ¬ õ ¬÷áâ¨â¨ 16
2
= 8 (à÷§­¨å)
áã¬÷¦­¨å ª« á÷¢, ª®¦¥­ § ïª¨å ¬÷áâ¨âì 2 ¥«¥¬¥­â¨. ¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® § 

¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï¬ (x) = x · [9] = {x · 9, x · 1} ®âਬãõ¬®:

x (x) x (x) x (x) x (x)

1 {9, 1} 11 {19, 11} 21 {29, 21} 31 {39, 31}
3 {27, 3} 13 {37, 13} 23 {7, 23} 33 {17, 33}
7 {23, 7} 17 {33, 17} 27 {3, 27} 37 {13, 37}
9 {1, 9} 19 {11, 19} 29 {21, 29} 39 {31, 39}

Ÿª ÷ ®ç÷ªã¢ «®áï, ®âਬ ­® 8 à÷§­¨å áã¬÷¦­¨å ª« á÷¢, é® ¯®¯ à­® ­¥

¯¥à¥â¨­ îâìáï (ª®¦¥­ ª« á ã ­ ¢¥¤¥­÷© â ¡«¨æ÷ ¯®¢â®àîõâìáï ¤¢÷ç÷):


Z∗
40 [9]
= {(1), (3), (7), (11), (13), (17), (21), (31)} =
= {{1, 9}, {3, 27}, {7, 23}, {11, 19}, {13, 37}, {17, 33}, {21, 29}, {31, 39}}.

·
Ž¯¥à æ÷ï ý þ ¯¥à¥­®á¨âìáï ­  ä ªâ®à-£àã¯ã §£÷¤­® ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï (¤¨¢.,

­ ¯à., [10, 23]):

((x) · (y) = (x · y) = (x · y).

’ ª, ¤«ï ((21) · (17) ¬ õ¬®:

((21) · (17) = (21 · 17) = (357) = (357 mod 40) = (37) = {13, 37} = (13).

47
 4. ’¥®à÷ï £àã¯ â  ª÷«¥æì


‘ª« ¤¥¬® â ¡«¨æî Š¥«÷ £à㯨 Z∗40 [9]
.

· (1) (3) (7) (11) (13) (17) (21) (31)

(1) (1) (3) (7) (11) (13) (17) (21) (31)
(3) (3) (1) (21) (17) (31) (11) (7) (13)
(7) (7) (21) (1) (13) (11) (31) (3) (17)
(11) (11) (17) (13) (1) (7) (3) (31) (21)
(13) (13) (31) (11) (7) (1) (21) (17) (3)
(17) (17) (11) (31) (3) (21) (1) (13) (7)
(21) (21) (7) (3) (31) (17) (13) (1) (11)
(31) (31) (13) (17) (21) (3) (7) (11) (1)

Š®à¨áâãîç¨áì â ¡«¨æ¥î Š¥«÷, ¢¨¯¨è¥¬® 横«÷ç­÷ ¯÷¤£à㯨 Z∗40 [9]
:

(x) [(x)] (x) [(x)]

(1) {(1)} (13) {(13), (1)}
(3) {(3), (1)} (17) {(17), (1)}
(7) {(7), (1)} (21) {(21), (1)}
(11) {(11), (1)} (31) {(31), (1)}

Žâ¦¥, ¢á÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ Z∗
40 [9]
, ®ªà÷¬ ­¥©âà «ì­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â  (1), ¬ îâì

¯®à冷ª 2, ⮡⮠¦®¤­ 

 § ù ù ¯÷¤£à㯠­¥ §¡÷£ õâìáï ÷§ á ¬®î £à㯮î. ’ ª¨¬

稭®¬,
∗
£à㯠 Z40 ­¥ 横«÷ç­ .
[9]

48
 5. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨

â  à¥è÷⪨

5.1. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨. ‚¥àå­÷ â 

­¨¦­÷ ¬¥¦÷

„«ï § ¤ ­®ù á¨á⥬¨ ¬­®¦¨­ A, ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­®ù §  ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬ ¢ª« -

¤¥­­ï ý ⊂þ, ­¥®¡å÷¤­®:

• ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ ¤÷ £à ¬ã ƒ¥áá¥;

• ¤«ï § ¤ ­®ù ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­¨ B ⊂ A ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ ¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­÷ â  ¬÷­÷-

¬ «ì­÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨, ­ ©¡÷«ìè÷ â  ­ ©¬¥­è÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨, áã¯à¥¬ã¬ â  ÷­-

ä÷¬ã¬;

• ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨, ç¨ õ § ¤ ­  ç á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­  ¬­®¦¨­  ⟨A, ⊂⟩ à¥-

è÷⪮î;

• ïªé® ⟨A, ⊂⟩ õ à¥è÷⪮î, ¤®á«÷¤¨â¨ ù ù ­  ¤¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâì â  ¢¨§­ -

ç¨â¨ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ¤«ï ª®¦­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â .

1. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {1, 4}, {1, 2}, {1}},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 4}}.

2. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {2}},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2}}.

3. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {3, 4}, {1, 2}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {3, 4}}.

4. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {2, 4}}.

5. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {3, 4}, {1, 2}, {4}, {2}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {3, 4}}.

6. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {3, 4}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3}, {2}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {3, 4}}.

7. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {2, 3}}.

49
 5. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ â  à¥è÷⪨

8. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1}, {2, 3, 4}, {2, 3}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {4}}.

9. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1}, {2, 3, 4}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {4}}.

10. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {2, 3, 4}, {2, 3}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{2, 3, 4}, {1, 2}, {4}}.

11. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 4}, {2}, {1}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 4}}.

12. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {2, 3, 4}, {3, 4}, {3}, {2, 3}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {3, 4}}.

13. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2}, {2}, {1}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1}}.

14. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {2}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}}.

15. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {2, 3, 4}, {2, 3}, {3}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}}.

16. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {1, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}}.

17. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {1, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}}.

18. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {1, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}, {2}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}}.

19. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {1, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}, {2}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}}.

20. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 4}, {2, 4}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}, {1, 4}}.

21. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 4}, {4}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {4}, {1, 4}}.

22. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 4}, {2, 4}, {2}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}, {1, 4}}.

50
5.1. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨. ‚¥àå­÷ â  ­¨¦­÷ ¬¥¦÷

23. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 4}},
B = {{1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 4}}.

24. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3}, {1}, {2, 3}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 4}, {2, 3}, {1}}.

25. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2}, {1}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1}}.

26. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 3}, {1}}.

27. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}}.

28. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, ∅},

B = {{1, 2, 3}, {3}, {1}}.

29. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 3}, {1, 2}}.

30. A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, ∅},
B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 3}, {1, 2}}.

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

„«ï ¯®¡ã¤®¢¨ ¤÷ £à ¬¨ ƒ¥áᥠ§ ¤ ­®ù ç á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­®ù ¬­®¦¨-

­¨ (—‚Œ) ­¥®¡å÷¤­®:

1. ®§â è㢠⨠­  ¯«®é¨­÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ § ¤ ­®ù —‚Œ §£÷¤­® § ®¡à ­¨¬

­ ¯àשׁ®¬ ý§à®áâ ­­ïþ. Œ¨ ¢¢ ¦ â¨¬¥¬®, é® ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ý§à®áâ îâìþ

§­¨§ã ¢£®àã, ⮡⮠¤«ï a ≺ b ¥«¥¬¥­â a ஧â è®¢ãõâìáï ­¨¦ç¥ ¥«¥¬¥­â  b.

2. ‡'õ¤­ â¨ ॡ஬ ª®¦­ã ¯ àã ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ a ≺ b § ¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­÷¬ ¯¥à¥-

¤ã¢ ­­ï¬.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.1. ®§£«ï­¥¬® áãªã¯­÷áâì ¬­®¦¨­

A = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1}, {2, 4}, ∅},

¢¯®à浪®¢ ­ã §  ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬ ¢ª« ¤¥­­ï ý ⊂þ. Œ­®¦¨­÷ {1, 2, 3, 4} ¯¥à¥-

¤ãîâì ¢á÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ áãªã¯­®áâ÷ A, á ¬  ¬­®¦¨­  {1, 2, 3, 4}, ®ç¥¢¨¤­®,
­¥ ¯¥à¥¤ãõ ¦®¤­÷© § ¬­®¦¨­ áãªã¯­®áâ÷ A (®ªà÷¬ á ¬®ù ᥡ¥). Œ­®¦¨­¨
{1, 2, 3} â  {1, 2, 4} ¯¥à¥¤ãîâì ¬­®¦¨­÷ {1, 2, 3, 4} ¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì®, ®áª÷«ìª¨
¬÷áâïâì «¨è¥ ­  ®¤¨­ ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬¥­è¥, ­÷¦ ¬÷áâ¨âì {1, 2, 3, 4}. Œ­®¦¨­÷

51
 5. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ â  à¥è÷⪨

{1, 2, 3} áâண® ¯¥à¥¤ãîâì ¬­®¦¨­¨ {1} ÷ ∅, ®¤­ ª ¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® ¯¥à¥-

¤ãõ «¨è¥ {1}. {1, 2, 4} áâண® ¯¥à¥¤ãîâì ¬­®¦¨­¨ {1}, {2, 4} ÷

Œ­®¦¨­÷

∅, ¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® ¯¥à¥¤ãîâì {1} ÷ {2, 4}. Š®¦­÷© § ¬­®¦¨­ {1} â  {2, 4}

áâண® ¯¥à¥¤ãõ «¨è¥ ∅, ÷ æ¥ ¯¥à¥¤ã¢ ­­ï ¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­õ.  à¥èâ÷, ¯®à®¦-

­÷© ¬­®¦¨­÷ ∅ ­¥ ¯¥à¥¤ãõ ¦®¤­  § ¬­®¦¨­, ®ªà÷¬ á ¬®ù ∅. ’¥¯¥à ¬ õ¬®

¢á¥ ­¥®¡å÷¤­¥ ¤«ï ¯®¡ã¤®¢¨ ¤÷ £à ¬¨ ƒ¥áᥠ(¤¨¢. à¨á. 5).

{1,2,3,4}

{1,2,3} {1,2,4}

{1} {2,4}

¨á. 5

Œ÷­÷¬ «ì­¨© (¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­¨©) ¥«¥¬¥­â ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­¨ B ç á⪮¢® ¢¯®-

à浪®¢ ­®ù ¬­®¦¨­¨ A { æ¥ ¥«¥¬¥­â, 直© ­ «¥¦¨âì B, ÷ 类¬ã ­¥ ¯¥à¥-

¤ãõ (¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­®, §  直¬ ­¥ á«÷¤ãõ) ¦®¤¥­ ÷­è¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â ÷§ B . “ ¢¨¯ ¤ªã

­¥¢¥«¨ª®ù ª÷«ìª®áâ÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ ã ¬­®¦¨­÷ B, ¯®è㪠¬÷­÷¬ «ì­¨å â  ¬ ª-

ᨬ «ì­¨å ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ §àãç­® ¯à®¢®¤¨â¨ ­  ¤÷ £à ¬÷ ƒ¥áá¥. ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é®

¡ã¤ì-猪 áª÷­ç¥­­  ­¥¯®à®¦­ï ¬­®¦¨­  B ®¡®¢'離®¢® ¬÷áâ¨âì ¯à¨­ ©-

¬­÷ ®¤¨­ ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­¨© ÷ ®¤¨­ ¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­¨© ¥«¥¬¥­â.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.2. ‡­ ©¤¥¬® ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­÷ â  ¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ¤«ï

¬­®¦¨­¨ B = {{1, 2, 3}, {1}, {2, 4}} ã ᪫ ¤÷ —‚Œ ⟨A, ⊂⟩ § ¯à¨ª« ¤ã 5.1.
…«¥¬¥­â {1, 2, 3} á«÷¤ãõ §  {1} ÷ ­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨© § {2, 4},   ®â¦¥ õ ¬ ª-

ᨬ «ì­¨¬ ( «¥ ­¥ ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­¨¬) ¢ B . …«¥¬¥­â {1} ¯¥à¥¤ãõ ¥«¥¬¥­âã

{1, 2, 3} ÷ ­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨© § {2, 4},   ®â¦¥ õ ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­¨¬ ( «¥ ­¥ ¬ ªá¨-

¬ «ì­¨¬) ¢ B . …«¥¬¥­â {2, 4} ­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨© § ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬¨ {1, 2, 3} â 

{1},   ®â¦¥ õ ®¤­®ç á­® ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­¨¬ ÷ ¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­¨¬ ¢ B .

 ©¬¥­è¨© (­ ©¡÷«ì訩) ¥«¥¬¥­â ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­¨ B ç á⪮¢® ¢¯®àï¤-

ª®¢ ­®ù ¬­®¦¨­¨ A { æ¥ ¥«¥¬¥­â, 直© ­ «¥¦¨âì B, ÷ 直© ¯¥à¥¤ãõ ¢á÷¬

÷­è¨¬ ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬ (á«÷¤ãõ §  ¢á÷¬  ÷­è¨¬¨ ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬¨) ¬­®¦¨­¨ B.  

52
5.1. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨. ‚¥àå­÷ â  ­¨¦­÷ ¬¥¦÷

¢÷¤¬÷­ã ¢÷¤ ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­®£® (¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­®£®) ¥«¥¬¥­â , ­ ©¬¥­è¨© (­ ©-

¡÷«ì訩) ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬­®¦¨­¨ B ¬ õ ¡ã⨠¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨© § ª®¦­¨¬ ¥«¥¬¥­-

⮬ ¬­®¦¨­¨ B. ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ¡ã¤ì-猪 ¬­®¦¨­  B ¬÷áâ¨âì ­¥ ¡÷«ìè¥

®¤­®£® ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­®£® â  ­¥ ¡÷«ìè¥ ®¤­®£® ¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â . ‡ 

¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï¬, ­ ©¬¥­è¨© (­ ©¡÷«ì訩) ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬­®¦¨­¨ B õ ®¤­®ç á­®

¬÷­÷¬ «ì­¨¬ (¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­¨¬) ¥«¥¬¥­â®¬ B, §¢®à®â­®£® ­ á«÷¤ªã ­¥¬ õ.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.3. Œ­®¦¨­  {{1, 2, 4}, {1}, {2, 4}} ã ᪫ ¤÷ —‚Œ ⟨A, ⊂⟩
§ ¯à¨ª« ¤ã 5.1 ¬÷áâ¨âì ­ ©¡÷«ì訩 ¥«¥¬¥­â {1, 2, 4} (直© ®¤­®ç á­® õ

¬ ªá¨¬ «ì­¨¬) ÷ ­¥ ¬÷áâ¨âì ­ ©¬¥­è®£® (å®ç  ¬÷áâ¨âì ¬÷­÷¬ «ì­÷ ¥«¥-

¬¥­â¨ {1} ÷ {2, 4}).

„«ï ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï áã¯à¥¬ã¬ã (÷­ä÷¬ã¬ã) ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­¨ B § ¤ ­®ù —‚Œ

⟨A, ⊂⟩ á«÷¤ ᯮç âªã ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ ¢á÷ ¢¥àå­÷ (­¨¦­÷) ¬¥¦÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ B . ‘ã-
¯à¥¬ã¬ (÷­ä÷¬ã¬) , ïªé® ÷á­ãõ, õ ­ ©¬¥­è®î (­ ©¡÷«ìè®î) ã ᥭá÷ § -

¤ ­®£® ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ¯®à浪ã á¥à¥¤ ãá÷å ¢¥àå­÷å (¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­® ­¨¦­÷å) ¬¥¦

¬­®¦¨­¨ B. ÷¤ªà¥á«¨¬®, é® áã¯à¥¬ã¬ â  ÷­ä÷¬ã¬, ïª ÷ ¡ã¤ì-猪 ¢¥àå-

­ï ç¨ ­¨¦­ï ¬¥¦ , ­ «¥¦ âì § ¤ ­÷© —‚Œ A ÷ ¬®¦ãâì ­¥ ­ «¥¦ â¨

¬­®¦¨­÷ B ⊂ A.
“ ¢¨¯ ¤ªã áª÷­ç¥­­®ù —‚Œ § ­¥¢¥«¨ª®î ª÷«ìª÷áâî ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢, ¯®èãª

÷­ä÷¬ã¬÷¢ â  áã¯à¥¬ã¬÷¢ §àãç­® §¤÷©á­î¢ â¨ ­  ¤÷ £à ¬÷ ƒ¥áá¥.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.4. Œ­®¦¨­  B = {{1, 2, 4}, {1}, {2, 4}} ã ᪫ ¤÷ —‚Œ
⟨A, ⊂⟩ § ¯à¨ª« ¤ã 5.1 ¬ õ ¢¥àå­÷ ¬¥¦÷ {1, 2, 3, 4} â  {1, 2, 4}, ­ ©¬¥­è®î
§ 直å õ {1, 2, 4}. ô¤¨­®î (÷, ®ç¥¢¨¤­®, â®ç­®î) ­¨¦­ì®î ¬¥¦¥î B õ

¯®à®¦­ï ¬­®¦¨­ . Žâ¦¥, sup B = {1, 2, 4}, inf B = ∅.

— á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­  ¬­®¦¨­  ⟨A, ⊂⟩ ¢¨§­ ç õ à¥è÷âªã § ®¯¥à æ÷-

ﬨ x∨y = sup{x, y} â  x∧y = inf{x, y} ⮤÷ © â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ sup{x, y}

â  inf{x, y} ÷á­ãîâì ¤«ï ¡ã¤ì-直å x, y ∈ A. Žáª÷«ìª¨

(x ≺ y) ⇔ (sup{x, y} = y) ⇔ (inf{x, y} = x),

÷á­ã¢ ­­ï sup{x, y} â  inf{x, y} ¤®áâ â­ì® ¯¥à¥¢÷à¨â¨ «¨è¥ ¤«ï ­¥¯®à÷¢-
­ï­­¨å x, y ∈ A.  £ ¤ õ¬®, é® à¥è÷âªã ÷­®¤÷ ¢¨§­ ç îâì á ¬¥ ïª —‚Œ

⟨A, ⊂⟩ § 㬮¢®î, é® sup{x, y} â  inf{x, y} ÷á­ãîâì ¤«ï ¡ã¤ì-直å x, y ∈ A.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.5. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­  ¬­®¦¨­  ⟨A, ⊂⟩ § ¯à¨ª« ¤ã 5.1
õ à¥è÷⪮î (¢¨§­ ç õ à¥è÷âªã), ®áª÷«ìª¨ ¤®¯ã᪠õ «¨è¥ ¤¢÷ ¯ à¨ ­¥¯®-

à÷¢­ï­­¨å ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢, ¤«ï 直å ÷á­ãõ áã¯à¥¬ã¬ â  ÷­ä÷¬ã¬:

sup{{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}} = sup{{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}} = {1, 2, 3, 4},
inf{{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}} = {1}, inf{{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}} = ∅.

53
 5. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ â  à¥è÷⪨

„¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâì à¥è÷⪨ § ­¥¢¥«¨ª®î ª÷«ìª÷áâî ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ ¤®æ÷«ì­®

¯¥à¥¢÷àï⨠§  ¤®¯®¬®£®î ¢÷¤®¬®£® ªà¨â¥à÷ï ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®áâ÷: à¥è÷⪠

õ ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®î ⮤÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ ¢®­  ­¥ ¬÷áâ¨âì ¯÷¤à¥è÷⮪,

÷§®¬®àä­¨å à¥è÷⪠¬ N5 â  M3 (¤¨¢. à¨á. 6 ÷ 7 ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­®).

a a
b d
b c
c

d
e e
¨á. 6. ¥è÷⪠ N5 ¨á. 7. ¥è÷⪠ M3
à¨ª« ¤ 5.6. „®á«÷¤¨¬® ­  ¤¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâì à¥è÷âªã ⟨A, ⊂⟩ §

¯à¨ª« ¤ã 5.1. Žáª÷«ìª¨ ¬­®¦¨­  A ¬÷áâ¨âì «¨è¥ 6 ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢, ⮡-

5
â® ¬÷áâ¨âì «¨è¥ C6 = 6 ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­ § 5 ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢, ¤®æ÷«ì­® ᪮-

à¨áâ â¨áì ªà¨â¥à÷õ¬ ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®áâ÷. ÷¤¬­®¦¨­  A \ {{1, 2, 3, 4}}

(¤¨¢. à¨á. 8) ­¥ õ à¥è÷⪮î, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ­¥ ¬÷áâ¨âì áã¯à¥¬ã¬ã ¬­®¦¨­¨

{{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}}. ÷¤¬­®¦¨­  A \ {∅} õ ¤ã «ì­®î ¤® A \ {{1, 2, 3, 4}}.

Œ­®¦¨­  A \ {{1, 2, 3}} (¤¨¢. à¨á. 9) õ à¥è÷⪮î, ÷ õ ¯÷¤à¥è÷⪮î à¥-

è÷⪨ A,  «¥ æï ¯÷¤à¥è÷⪠ ­¥ ÷§®¬®àä­   ­÷ N5 ,  ­÷ M3 . ÷¤¬­®¦¨­ 

A \ {{2, 4}} õ ¤ã «ì­®î ¤® A \ {{1, 2, 3}}. ÷¤¬­®¦¨­  A \ {{1, 2, 4}} (¤¨¢.

à¨á. 10) õ à¥è÷⪮î,  «¥ ­¥ õ ¯÷¤à¥è÷⪮î à¥è÷⪨ A, ®áª÷«ìª¨ áã¯à¥-

¬ã¬ ¬­®¦¨­¨ {{1}, {2, 4}} ­ ¡ã¢ õ à÷§­¨å §­ ç¥­ì ¢ A ÷ ¢ A \ {{1, 2, 4}}

({1, 2, 4} ÷ {1, 2, 3, 4} ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­®). ÷¤¬­®¦¨­  A \ {{1}} õ ¤ã «ì­®î ¤®

A \ {{1, 2, 4}}.

{1,2,3,4} {1,2,3,4}

{1,2,3} {1,2,4} {1,2,3}

{1,2,4}

{1} {1}
{1} {2,4}
{2,4} {2,4}

Æ Æ Æ

¨á. 8 ¨á. 9 ¨á. 10

54
5.1. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨. ‚¥àå­÷ â  ­¨¦­÷ ¬¥¦÷

5-¥«¥¬¥­â­¨å ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­ à¥è÷⪨ ⟨A, ⊂⟩ ­¥ õ ¯÷¤à¥è÷â-

Žâ¦¥, ¦®¤­  §

ª®î, ÷§®¬®àä­®î N5 ç¨ M3 ,   ®â¦¥, §£÷¤­® § ªà¨â¥à÷õ¬ ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®áâ÷,

à¥è÷⪠ ⟨A, ⊂⟩ ¤¨áâਡã⨢­ .

„®¯®¢­¥­­ï ¤® ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ ¢ ®¡¬¥¦¥­÷© à¥è÷âæ÷ ¬®¦­  è㪠⨠¡¥§¯®-

á¥à¥¤­ì® §  ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï¬, ⮡⮠¤«ï ä÷ªá®¢ ­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­â  a §­ ©â¨ ¢á÷

â ª÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ b, é® a ∧ b = 0, a ∨ b = 1. ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ¯®à÷¢­ï­­÷ ¥«¥-

¬¥­â¨ ¬®¦ãâì ¡ã⨠¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï¬ ®¤¨­ ¤® ®¤­®£® «¨è¥ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ ®¤¨­

§ ­¨å õ ®¤¨­¨æ¥î,   ¤à㣨© { ­ã«¥¬ à¥è÷⪨. Žâ¦¥, ïªé® ¥«¥¬¥­â a ­¥

õ ®¤¨­¨æ¥î ç¨ ­ã«¥¬ à¥è÷⪨, ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ¤® ­ì®£® á«÷¤ è㪠⨠«¨è¥

á¥à¥¤ ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢, ­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨å § a.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.7. ‚¨§­ ç¨¬® ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ¤® ª®¦­®£® ¥«¥¬¥­âã ¢ à¥è÷â-
æ÷ ⟨A, ⊂⟩ § ¯à¨ª« ¤ã 5.1. …«¥¬¥­â {1, 2, 3, 4} õ ®¤¨­¨æ¥î à¥è÷⪨,   ®â-

¦¥ ¬ õ õ¤¨­¥ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ∅ (­ã«ì à¥è÷⪨). €­ «®£÷ç­®, ¥«¥¬¥­â ∅ õ

­ã«¥¬ à¥è÷⪨,   ®â¦¥ ¬ õ õ¤¨­¥ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï {1, 2, 3, 4} (®¤¨­¨æï à¥è÷â-

ª¨). …«¥¬¥­â {1, 2, 3} ­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨© «¨è¥ § ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬¨ {1, 2, 4} â  {2, 4}.

Ž¡ç¨á«îîç¨ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­÷ ¤¨§'î­ªæ÷ù ÷ ª®­'î­ªæ÷ù, ®âਬãõ¬®:

{1, 2, 3} ∨ {1, 2, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3} ∧ {1, 2, 4} = {1} ̸= ∅;

{1, 2, 3} ∨ {2, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3} ∧ {2, 4} = ∅.
Žâ¦¥, ¥«¥¬¥­â {1, 2, 3} ¬ õ ®¤­¥ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï { ¥«¥¬¥­â {2, 4}. €­ «®-
£÷ç­®, ¥«¥¬¥­â {2, 4} ­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨© § ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬¨ {1, 2, 3} â  {1},  «¥

{2, 4} ∨ {1} = {1, 2, 4} ̸= {1, 2, 3, 4}; ®â¦¥, {2, 4} ¬ õ ®¤­¥ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï
{ ¥«¥¬¥­â {1, 2, 3}. …«¥¬¥­â {1, 2, 4} ­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨© «¨è¥ § {1, 2, 3},  «¥

{1, 2, 3} ∧ {1, 2, 4} = {1} ̸= ∅; ®â¦¥, ¥«¥¬¥­â {1, 2, 4} ­¥ ¬ õ ¦®¤­®£®

¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï. €­ «®£÷ç­®, ¦®¤­®£® ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ­¥ ¬ õ ¥«¥¬¥­â {1} { ¢÷­

­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨© «¨è¥ § {2, 4},  «¥ {2, 4} ∨ {1} = {1, 2, 4} ̸= {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Žâ¦¥, ®âਬ «¨ ¤¢÷ ¯ à¨ ¢§ õ¬®¤®¯®¢­¥­¨å ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢:

{1, 2, 3, 4} ! ∅, {1, 2, 3} ! {2, 4}.

„ ­  à¥è÷⪠ ­¥ ¤®¯®¢­¥­ , ®áª÷«ìª¨ ¤¢  ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ( {1, 2, 4} â  {1}) ­¥

¬ îâì ¦®¤­®£® ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.8. ®§£«ï­¥¬® áãªã¯­÷áâì ¬­®¦¨­

{{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3}, {2, 4}, ∅},
¢¯®à浪®¢ ­ã §  ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬ ¢ª« ¤¥­­ï ý ⊂þ (¤÷ £à ¬  ƒ¥áᥠ§®¡à ¦¥­ 
­  à¨á. 11).

55
 5. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ â  à¥è÷⪨

{1,2,3,4}

{1,2,3} {1,2,4}

{1,3} {2,4}

¨á. 11

–ï —‚Œ õ à¥è÷⪮î, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ¤«ï ¢á÷å ¯ à ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ (¤®áâ â­ì® ¯¥à¥-

¢÷à¨â¨ «¨è¥ ¯ à¨ ­¥¯®à÷¢­ï­­¨å ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢) ÷á­ãõ áã¯à¥¬ã¬ â  ÷­ä÷¬ã¬:

sup{{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}} = sup{{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}} = {1, 2, 3, 4},
sup{{1, 3}, {1, 2, 4}} = sup{{1, 3}, {2, 4}} = {1, 2, 3, 4},
inf{{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}} = inf{{1, 2, 3}, {2, 4}} = ∅,
inf{{1, 3}, {1, 2, 4}} = inf{{1, 3}, {2, 4}} = ∅.
ö§ ­ ¢¥¤¥­¨å á¯÷¢¢÷¤­®è¥­ì ¡ ç¨¬®, é® ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ {1, 2, 3} ÷ {1, 3} ¬ îâì

¯® ¤¢  ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï { {1, 2, 4} ÷ {2, 4}. Žâ¦¥, ®âਬ «¨ ¯'ïâì ¯ à ¢§ õ¬®-

¤®¯®¢­¥­¨å ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ (¢à å®¢ãîç¨ ®¤¨­¨æî ÷ ­ã«ì à¥è÷⪨):

{1, 2, 3, 4} ! ∅, {1, 2, 3} ! {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2, 3} ! {2, 4},

{1, 3} ! {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3} ! {2, 4}.
„ ­  à¥è÷⪠ ¤®¯®¢­¥­ , ®áª÷«ìª¨ ª®¦¥­ ¥«¥¬¥­â ¬ õ ¯à¨­ ©¬­÷ ®¤­¥

¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï.

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ¢ ¤¨áâਡã⨢­÷© ®¡¬¥¦¥­÷© à¥è÷âæ÷ ª®¦¥­ ¥«¥¬¥­â

¬ õ ­¥ ¡÷«ìè¥ ®¤­®£® ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï. –¥© ä ªâ ÷­®¤÷ ¤®§¢®«ïõ ¤®¢¥á⨠­¥-

¤¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâì à¥è÷⪨. ’ ª, à¥è÷⪠ § ¯à¨ª« ¤ã 5.8 ­¥¤¨áâਡã⨢-

­ , ®áª÷«ìª¨ ¤¥ïª÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ¬ îâì ¯® ¤¢  ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï.

5.2. ¥è÷⪠ ¤÷«ì­¨ª÷¢ ­ âãà «ì­®£® ç¨á« 

„«ï à¥è÷⪨ Ln ¤÷«ì­¨ª÷¢ ä÷ªá®¢ ­®£® ç¨á«  n∈N (¤¨§'î­ªæ÷ï â 

ª®­'î­ªæ÷ï ¢¨§­ ç¥­÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­® ïª ­ ©¬¥­è¥ á¯÷«ì­¥ ªà â­¥ â  ­ ©¡÷«ì-

訩 á¯÷«ì­¨© ¤÷«ì­¨ª) ­¥®¡å÷¤­®:

56
5.2. ¥è÷⪠ ¤÷«ì­¨ª÷¢ ­ âãà «ì­®£® ç¨á« 

• ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ ¤÷ £à ¬ã ƒ¥áá¥;

• ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨, ïª÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ¬ îâì ¢ Ln ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï;

• ®¡ç¨á«¨â¨ áã¯à¥¬ã¬ â  ÷­ä÷¬ã¬ ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­¨ A ⊂ Ln .

ü n A ü n A
1 30 {2, 6, 15} 16 30 {3, 5, 10}
2 30 {2, 5, 15} 17 30 {3, 6, 10}
3 20 {2, 4, 5} 18 20 {4, 5, 10}
4 28 {4, 7, 14} 19 28 {2, 4, 7}
5 24 {4, 6, 12} 20 24 {6, 8, 12}
6 24 {2, 4, 6} 21 24 {2, 3, 4}
7 18 {2, 6, 9} 22 18 {3, 6, 9}
8 18 {2, 3, 9} 23 18 {2, 3, 6}
9 40 {2, 5, 8} 24 40 {4, 5, 10}
10 40 {5, 8, 20} 25 40 {2, 8, 10}
11 90 {2, 5, 15} 26 90 {2, 10, 45}
12 90 {6, 18, 45} 27 90 {2, 9, 45}
13 60 {3, 6, 15} 28 60 {3, 20, 30}
14 60 {4, 10, 20} 29 60 {2, 3, 20}
15 84 {4, 6, 12} 30 84 {3, 12, 42}

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

„«ï ¯®¡ã¤®¢¨ ¤÷ £à ¬¨ ƒ¥áᥠ§ ¤ ­®ù —‚Œ ­¥®¡å÷¤­®:

1. ®§â è㢠⨠­  ¯«®é¨­÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ § ¤ ­®ù —‚Œ §£÷¤­® § ®¡à ­¨¬

­ ¯àשׁ®¬ ý§à®áâ ­­ïþ. Œ¨ ¢¢ ¦ õ¬®, é® ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ý§à®áâ îâìþ §­¨§ã

¢£®àã, ⮡⮠¤«ï a≺b ¥«¥¬¥­â a ஧â è®¢ãõâìáï ­¨¦ç¥ ¥«¥¬¥­â  b.

2. ‡'õ¤­ â¨ ॡ஬ ª®¦­ã ¯ àã ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ a≺b § ¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­÷¬ ¯¥à¥-

¤ã¢ ­­ï¬.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.9. ®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ ¤÷ £à ¬ã ƒ¥áᥠà¥è÷⪨ L72 .

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é® ¢ à¥è÷âæ÷ Ln (§£÷¤­® ¯à¨©­ïâ¨å ¢ ­ è®¬ã ªãàá÷ ¯®§­ -

祭ì) ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï ¯®à浪㠧¡÷£ õâìáï § ¢÷¤­®è¥­­ï¬ ¯®¤÷«ì­®áâ÷:

(a 4 b) ⇔ (∃ k ∈ Z : b = ka).

57
 5. — á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ â  à¥è÷⪨

Žç¥¢¨¤­®, é® L72 = {2i 3j : 0 6 i 6 3; 0 6 j 6 2}. ‹¥£ª® ¯¥à¥¢÷à¨â¨,

é® a ≺ b ¡¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® ⮤÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ b = p · a, ¤¥ p { ¤¥ïª¥
¯à®á⥠ç¨á«®. ’¥¯¥à ¬®¦¥¬® ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ ¤÷ £à ¬ã ƒ¥áᥠ(¤¨¢. à¨á. 12).

72

24
36

18 12 8

9 6 4

3 2

¨á. 12

„«ï ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï, ïª÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ¢ § ¤ ­÷© à¥è÷âæ÷ Ln ¬ îâì ¤®¯®¢­¥­-

­ï, á«÷¤ ஧ª« á⨠ç¨á«® n ­  ¯à®áâ÷ ¬­®¦­¨ª¨:

n = pn1 1 pn2 2 · · · pnmm ,

¤¥ p1 , p2 , ..., pm { ¯à®áâ÷ ç¨á« . Žç¥¢¨¤­®, é® ¡ã¤ì-直© ¥«¥¬¥­â a ∈ Ln

¬ õ ¢ ஧ª« ¤÷ ­  ¯à®áâ÷ ¬­®¦­¨ª¨ «¨è¥ ç¨á«  p1 , p2 , ..., pm :

a = pa11 pa22 · · · pamm ,

¤¥ 0 6 aj 6 nj (j = 1, 2, . . . , m).
‚÷¤®¬®, é® ¥«¥¬¥­â a ¬ õ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï ⮤÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨

∀ j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m} : aj ∈ {0, nj }.

„®¯®¢­¥­­ï b ∈ Ln ¤® ¥«¥¬¥­â  a ∈ Ln ¬®¦­  ®¡ç¨á«¨â¨ §  ­ áâã¯-

­¨¬ ¯à ¢¨«®¬:

a = pa11 pa22 · · · pamm , b = pb11 pb22 · · · pbmm ,

(12)
(aj = 0) ⇒ (bj = nj ), (aj = nj ) ⇒ (bj = 0); j = 1, 2, . . . , m.

58
5.2. ¥è÷⪠ ¤÷«ì­¨ª÷¢ ­ âãà «ì­®£® ç¨á« 

„®¯®¢­¥­­ï ¤® ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢ ¢ à¥è÷âæ÷ Ln ¬®¦­  è㪠⨠÷ ¡¥§¯®á¥-

।­ì®, ª®à¨áâãîç¨áì ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï¬ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï. Žáª÷«ìª¨ ¤¨§'î­ªæ÷ï ÷

ª®­'î­ªæ÷ï ¢ Ln ®¡ç¨á«îîâìáï ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­® ïª ‘Š â  ‘„, ®âਬãõ¬®:

(
‘Š(a, b) = n,
(b ∈ Ln õ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï¬ ¤® a ∈ Ln ) ⇔ (13)
‘„(a, b) = 1.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.10. ‚¨§­ ç¨â¨, ïª÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ ¢ à¥è÷âæ÷ L72 ¬ îâì ¤®¯®¢-

­¥­­ï.

®§ª« ¤¥¬® ç¨á«® 72 ­  ¯à®áâ÷ ¬­®¦­¨ª¨: 72 = 23 · 32 . ‡£÷¤­® § ¯à -

¢¨«®¬ (12) ®âਬãõ¬® ­ áâ㯭÷ ¯ à¨ ý¥«¥¬¥­â  ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ïþ:

1 = 20 · 30  72 = 23 · 32 ;
8 = 2 3 · 30  9 = 2 0 · 32 .

‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ®âਬ ­¨© १ã«ìâ â ¯÷¤â¢¥à¤¦ãõâìáï ÷ á¯÷¢¢÷¤­®è¥­-

­ï¬¨ (13):

‘Š (9, 8) = ‘Š(72, 1) = 72; ‘„ (9, 8) = ‘„(72, 1) = 1.

„«ï ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï áã¯à¥¬ã¬ã (÷­ä÷¬ã¬ã) ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­¨ A § ¤ ­®ù —‚Œ

á«÷¤ ᯮç âªã ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ ¢á÷ ¢¥àå­÷ (­¨¦­÷) ¬¥¦÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨ A. ‘ã¯à¥¬ã¬

(÷­ä÷¬ã¬), ïªé® ÷á­ãõ, õ ­ ©¬¥­è®î (­ ©¡÷«ìè®î) ã ᥭá÷ § ¤ ­®£® ¢÷¤­®-

襭­ï ¯®à浪ã á¥à¥¤ ãá÷å ¢¥àå­÷å (¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­® ­¨¦­÷å) ¬¥¦ ¬­®¦¨­¨ A.

 £ ¤ õ¬®, é® áã¯à¥¬ã¬ â  ÷­ä÷¬ã¬ ­ «¥¦ âì § ¤ ­÷© —‚Œ ÷ ¬®¦ãâì

­¥ ­ «¥¦ â¨ á ¬÷© ¬­®¦¨­÷ A.

“ ¢¨¯ ¤ªã áª÷­ç¥­­®ù —‚Œ § ­¥¢¥«¨ª®î ª÷«ìª÷áâî ¥«¥¬¥­â÷¢, ¯®èãª

÷­ä÷¬ã¬÷¢ â  áã¯à¥¬ã¬÷¢ §àãç­® §¤÷©á­î¢ â¨ ­  ¤÷ £à ¬÷ ƒ¥áá¥.

à¨ª« ¤ 5.11. “ ç á⪮¢® ¢¯®à浪®¢ ­÷© ¬­®¦¨­÷ L72 §­ ©â¨ ÷­ä÷-

¬ã¬ â  áã¯à¥¬ã¬ ¬­®¦¨­¨ A = {4, 6, 12}.

„÷ £à ¬  ƒ¥áᥠ¬­®¦¨­¨ L72 ­ ¢¥¤¥­  ¢¨é¥ (à¨á. 12). ‹¥£ª® §à®§ã-

¬÷â¨, é® ¢¥àå­÷¬¨ ¬¥¦ ¬¨ ¬­®¦¨­¨ {4, 6, 12} õ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ 12, 24, 36 â 

72, á¥à¥¤ ïª¨å ­ ©¬¥­è®î (⮡⮠áã¯à¥¬ã¬®¬) õ 12. ¨¦­÷¬¨ ¬¥¦ ¬¨

¬­®¦¨­¨ {4, 6, 12} õ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨ 1 ÷ 2, á¥à¥¤ ïª¨å ­ ©¡÷«ìè®î (⮡⮠÷­ä÷-

¬ã¬®¬) õ 2. Žâ¦¥, ®âਬãõ¬®:

sup{4, 6, 12} = 12, inf{4, 6, 12} = 2.

59
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

6.1. „¨§'⨢­÷ â  ª®­'⨢­÷

­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨

„«ï ¡ã«¥¢®ù äã­ªæ÷ù, § ¤ ­®ù ¢¥ªâ®à®¬ §­ ç¥­ì:

1) ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ „„” ÷ „Š”;

2) §­ ©â¨ ¢á÷ â㯨ª®¢÷ ¤¨§'⨢­÷ ­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨:

 ) §  ¤®¯®¬®£®î ª à⠊ à­®  ¡® ¤÷ £à ¬ ‚¥©ç ;

¡) ¬¥â®¤®¬ Š¢ ©­  { Œ ª-Š« áª÷ § ¯®¤ «ì訬 § áâ®á㢠­­ï¬ ¬¥-

⮤  ¥âà÷ª .

1. f = (0000 0011 1101 1011); 16. f = (0000 0001 1011 1101);

2. f = (0000 0011 1110 0111); 17. f = (0000 0001 1101 1011);
3. f = (0000 0101 1011 1101); 18. f = (0000 0001 1110 0111);
4. f = (0000 0101 1110 0111); 19. f = (0000 0010 0111 1110);
5. f = (0000 0111 0111 1010); 20. f = (0000 0010 1011 1101);
6. f = (0000 0000 0111 1110); 21. f = (0000 0111 1100 1110);
7. f = (0000 0000 1011 1101); 22. f = (0000 0111 1101 1010);
8. f = (0000 0000 1101 1011); 23. f = (0000 0111 1101 1011);
9. f = (0000 0000 1110 0111); 24. f = (0000 0111 1101 1110);
10. f = (0000 0001 0111 1110); 25. f = (0000 1010 0111 1110);
11. f = (0000 0111 0111 1100); 26. f = (0000 0110 0111 1110);
12. f = (0000 0111 1010 1110); 27. f = (0000 0110 1110 0111);
13. f = (0000 0111 1011 1100); 28. f = (0000 0111 0110 1110);
14. f = (0000 0111 1011 1101); 29. f = (0000 1001 1011 1101);
15. f = (0000 0111 1011 1110); 30. f = (0000 1001 1101 1011).

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

¥å © ¡ã«¥¢  äã­ªæ÷ï f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) § ¤ ­  ¢¥ªâ®à®¬ §­ ç¥­ì, ⮡-

â® §­ ç¥­­ï¬¨ ­  ­ ¡®à å ÷§ 0 â  1 ¯à¨ ­ã¬¥à æ÷ù ­ ¡®à÷¢ §£÷¤­® ¤¢÷©ª®-

¢®ù á¨á⥬¨ ç¨á«¥­­ï. „«ï ¯®¡ã¤®¢¨ „„” (¤®áª®­ «®ù ¤¨§'⨢­®ù

­®à¬ «ì­®ù ä®à¬¨) ¡ã«¥¢®ù äã­ªæ÷ù f ª®à¨áâãîâìáï ⨬ 䠪⮬, é®

ª®­'⠯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ ¯à¨©¬ õ §­ ç¥­­ï 1 ¢ â®ç­®áâ÷ ­  ®¤­®¬ã ­ -

¡®à÷ ÷§ 0 â  1 (ý®¤¨­¨ç­¨©þ ­ ¡÷à äã­ªæ÷ù f , 直© ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ ¤ ­®¬ã
ª®­'î­ªâã). ’¥¯¥à „„” ¡ã¤ãõâìáï ïª ¤¨§'î­ªæ÷ï ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢, ïª÷ ¢÷¤-

¯®¢÷¤ îâì ®¤¨­¨ç­¨¬ ­ ¡®à ¬ äã­ªæ÷ù f.

60
6.1. „¨§'⨢­÷ â  ª®­'⨢­÷ ­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨

€­ «®£÷ç­®, ¤«ï ¯®¡ã¤®¢¨ „Š” (¤®áª®­ «®ù ª®­'⨢­®ù ­®à-

¬ «ì­®ù ä®à¬¨) ª®à¨áâãîâìáï ⨬ 䠪⮬, é® ¤¨§'⠯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨

¯à¨©¬ õ §­ ç¥­­ï 0 «¨è¥ ­  ®¤­®¬ã ­ ¡®à÷ ÷§ 0 â  1 (ý­ã«ì®¢¨©þ ­ ¡÷à

äã­ªæ÷ù f, 直© ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ ¤ ­®¬ã ¤¨§'î­ªâã). ’¥¯¥à „Š” ¡ã¤ãõâìáï

ïª ª®­'î­ªæ÷ï ¤¨§'î­ªâ÷¢, ïª÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ îâì ­ã«ì®¢¨¬ ­ ¡®à ¬ äã­ªæ÷ù f.

÷¤ªà¥á«¨¬®, é® „„” ÷ „Š” ¤«ï § ¤ ­®ù ¡ã«¥¢®ù äã­ªæ÷ù ¢¨§­ -

ç îâìáï ®¤­®§­ ç­® (§ â®ç­÷áâî ¤® ¯¥à¥áâ ¢«¥­ì  à£ã¬¥­â÷¢ ¢á¥à¥¤¨­÷

¤¨§'î­ªæ÷© ÷ ª®­'î­ªæ÷©).

à¨ª« ¤ 6.1. ¥å © f = (1111 1110 0001 0011). Žç¥¢¨¤­®, é® f õ

äã­ªæ÷õî ç®â¨àì®å  à£ã¬¥­â÷¢. „«ï §àãç­®áâ÷ ¢¨¯¨è¥¬® â ¡«¨æî §­ -

祭ì äã­ªæ÷ù f (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ­  ­ ¡®à å ÷§ 0 â  1. „«ï ª®¦­®£® ý®¤¨­¨ç-

­®£®þ ­ ¡®àã äã­ªæ÷ù f ¢ª ¦¥¬® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­¨© ª®­'î­ªâ,   ¤«ï ª®¦­®£®

ý­ã«ì®¢®£®þ ­ ¡®àã { ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­¨© ¤¨§'î­ªâ.

x1 x2 x3 x4 f (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ¤¨§'î­ªâ/ª®­'î­ªâ

0 0 0 0 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
0 0 0 1 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
0 0 1 0 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
0 0 1 1 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
0 1 0 0 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
0 1 0 1 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
0 1 1 0 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
0 1 1 1 0 x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4
1 0 0 0 0 x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4
1 0 0 1 0 x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4
1 0 1 0 0 x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4
1 0 1 1 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
1 1 0 0 0 x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4
1 1 0 1 0 x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4
1 1 1 0 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
1 1 1 1 1 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4

’¥¯¥à ¬¨ ¬®¦¥¬® ¢¨¯¨á â¨ „„” ïª ¤¨§'î­ªæ÷î ¢ª § ­¨å ª®­'î­ª-

â÷¢ â  „Š” ïª ª®­'î­ªæ÷î ¢ª § ­¨å ¤¨§'î­ªâ÷¢.

61
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

„„”: (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 )∨

(x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 )∨
(x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 )∨
(x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 );
„Š”: (x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4 ) ∧ (x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4 ) ∧ (x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4 )∧
(x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4 ) ∧ (x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4 ) ∧ (x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ∨ x4 ).

à¨ ¯®èãªã â㯨ª®¢¨å ¤¨§'⨢­¨å ä®à¬ ¬¥â®¤®¬ ª à⠊ à­®

á«÷¤ ¢à å®¢ã¢ â¨ â ª÷ ä ªâ¨:

• áãá÷¤­÷¬ à浪 ¬ (á⮢¯æï¬) ª à⨠Š à­® ¬ îâì ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ â¨ áãá÷¤­÷

­ ¡®à¨ §¬÷­­¨å, ¯à¨ç®¬ã ªà ©­÷ à浪¨ (á⮢¯ç¨ª¨) ¢¢ ¦ îâìáï áã-

á÷¤­÷¬¨; â ª, ¤«ï äã­ªæ÷ù ç®â¨àì®å §¬÷­­¨å ¬®¦­  á¯÷¢áâ ¢¨â¨ ç®-

â¨à쮬 à浪 ¬ ­ ¡®à¨ (x1 , x2 ), (x1 , x2 ), (x1 , x2 ), (x1 , x2 ),   ç®â¨à쮬

á⮢¯æï¬ { ­ ¡®à¨ (x3 , x4 ), (x3 , x4 ), (x3 , x4 ), (x3 , x4 );

• ª®¦­®¬ã ª®­'î­ªâã ­  ª àâ÷ Š à­® ¢§ õ¬­® ®¤­®§­ ç­® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ

¯àאַªãâ­¨ª (÷§ ®¤¨­¨æì) ஧¬÷à­®áâ÷ 2k × 2j , ⮡⮠¯«®é  2k+j õ

æ÷«¨¬ á⥯¥­¥¬ ç¨á«  2, ¯à¨ç®¬ã ç¨á«® k + j ¤®à÷¢­îõ ª÷«ìª®áâ÷

§¬÷­­¨å, ¢÷¤áãâ­÷å ã ª®­'î­ªâ÷;

• ¢á÷ ®¤¨­¨æ÷ ­  ª àâ÷ Š à­® ­¥®¡å÷¤­® ¯®ªà¨â¨ á¨á⥬®î ¯àאַªãâ-

­¨ª÷¢ ஧¬÷à­®áâ÷ 2k × 2j (k, j ∈ N ∪ {0}) (ª®¦¥­ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª ¢÷¤-

¯®¢÷¤ õ ¤¥ïª®¬ã ª®­'î­ªâã â㯨ª®¢®ù ¤¨§'⨢­®ù ä®à¬¨), ¯à¨-

箬ã:

{ ¦®¤¥­ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª ­¥ ¬®¦­  §¡÷«ìè¨â¨ â ª, 鮡 ©®£® ¯«®é 

§ «¨è¨« áì æ÷«¨¬ á⥯¥­¥¬ ç¨á«  2 (⮡â®, 鮡 ¢÷­ ÷ ­ ¤ «÷

¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ ¢ ¤¥ïª®¬ã ª®­'î­ªâã);

{ ¦®¤¥­ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª ­¥ ¬®¦¥ æ÷«ª®¬ ¤ã¡«î¢ â¨áï ÷­è¨¬¨ ¯àï-

¬®ªãâ­¨ª ¬¨ (¯à®â¥, ®ªà¥¬÷ ®¤¨­¨æ÷ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª  ¬®¦ãâì

¢å®¤¨â¨ ¢ ÷­è÷ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª¨).

à¨ª« ¤ 6.2. ‡  ¤®¯®¬®£®î ª à⠊ à­® §­ ©â¨ ¢á÷ â㯨ª®¢÷ „”

¤«ï äã­ªæ÷ù, § ¤ ­®ù ᢮ù¬ ¢¥ªâ®à®¬ §­ ç¥­ì: f = (1111 1110 0001 0011).
®¡ã¤ãõ¬® ª àâ㠊 à­® ¤«ï ¤ ­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù f (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ), ¯®ª¨ é®

­¥ ¢¨§­ ç îç¨áì ÷§ â㯨ª®¢¨¬¨ ä®à¬ ¬¨ (¤¨¢. â ¡«. 5).

62
6.1. „¨§'⨢­÷ â  ª®­'⨢­÷ ­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨

’ ¡«. 5. Š àâ  Š à­® ¤«ï äã­ªæ÷ù f (¡¥§ ¬÷­÷¬÷§ æ÷ù)

x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1

¥à¥¡÷à â㯨ª®¢¨å ä®à¬ ¯®ç­¥¬® § ¯®ªà¨ââï ®¤¨­¨æ÷, é® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ

ª®­'î­ªâã x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . –î ®¤¨­¨æî ¬®¦­  ¯®ªà¨â¨ «¨è¥ ®¤­¨¬

¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬, ¯«®éã 类£® ­¥ ¬®¦­  §¡÷«ìè¨â¨ { æ¥ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª,

é® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ ª®­'î­ªâã x1 ∧ x3 (â ¡«. 6).

’ ¡«. 6. Š àâ  Š à­® ¤«ï äã­ªæ÷ù f (ª®­'î­ªâ x1 ∧ x3 )

x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1

„ «÷ ஧¡¥à¥¬® ¬®¦«¨¢÷ ¯®ªà¨ââï ®¤¨­¨æ÷ x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . –î ®¤¨­¨-

æî ¬®¦­  ¯®ªà¨â¨ ®¤­¨¬ § ¤¢®å ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª÷¢, ¯«®éã ïª¨å ­¥ ¬®¦­ 

§¡÷«ìè¨â¨ { æ¥ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª¨, é® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ îâì ª®­'⠬ x1 ∧x2 ∧x3 â 

x1 ∧x3 ∧x4 (âãâ ÷ ­ ¤ «÷ ¬¨  ­ «÷§ãõ¬® «¨è¥ â÷ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª¨, ¯«®é  直å
õ æ÷«¨¬ á⥯¥­¥¬ ç¨á«  2).  ¢¥¤¥¬® ¤¢÷ ª à⨠Š à­® § 樬¨ ¯àאַªãâ-

­¨ª ¬¨, ¢à å®¢ãîç¨ à ­÷è¥ § ä÷ªá®¢ ­¨© ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª, é® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ

ª®­'î­ªâã x1 ∧ x3 (¤¨¢. â ¡«. 7 â  8).

’ ¡«. 7 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 â  ’ ¡«. 8 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 â 

x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1

63
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

1.   ª àâ÷ § ª®­'⠬¨ x1 ∧ x3 â  x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 (â ¡«. 7) ஧¡¥à¥¬®

¢ à÷ ­â¨ ¯®ªà¨ââï ®¤¨­¨æ÷ x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . –î ®¤¨­¨æî ¬®¦­  ¯®ªà¨â¨

¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨ { ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬ x1 ∧ x2 (â ¡«. 9) â  ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬

x2 ∧x3 ∧x4 (â ¡«. 10). ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ¯«®éã ¦®¤­®£® § æ¨å ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª÷¢

­¥ ¬®¦­  §¡÷«ìè¨â¨ â ª, 鮡 ¯«®é  § «¨è¨« áì æ÷«¨¬ á⥯¥­¥¬ ¤¢÷©ª¨.

’ ¡«. 9 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 , ’ ¡«. 10 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 ,

x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1

1.1.   ª àâ÷ § ª®­'⠬¨ x1 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 â  x1 ∧ x2 (â ¡«. 9)

஧¡¥à¥¬® ¢ à÷ ­â¨ ¯®ªà¨ââï ®¤¨­¨æ÷ x1 ∧x2 ∧x3 ∧x4 . –î ®¤¨­¨æî ¬®¦­ 

¯®ªà¨â¨ ¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨ { ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 11) â 

¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬ x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 12).

’ ¡«. 11 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 , ’ ¡«. 12 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 ,

x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 , x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1

1.1.1.   ª àâ÷ § ª®­'⠬¨ x1 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 â 

x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 11) ஧¡¥à¥¬® ¢ à÷ ­â¨ ¯®ªà¨ââï ®áâ ­­ì®ù ®¤¨­¨-

æ÷ { x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . –î ®¤¨­¨æî ¬®¦­  ¯®ªà¨â¨ ¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨ {

¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬ x2 ∧x3 ∧x4 (â ¡«. 13) â  ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬ x1 ∧x4 (â ¡«. 14).

64
6.1. „¨§'⨢­÷ â  ª®­'⨢­÷ ­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨

’ ¡«. 13 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 , ’ ¡«. 14 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 ,

x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ,
x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 x1 ∧ x4
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1

Š àâ  Š à­® ­  â ¡«. 13 ¢¨§­ ç õ â㯨ª®¢ã „” § ¤ ­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù:

(x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ).

Ž¤­ ª ª àâ  Š à­® ­  â ¡«. 14 ­¥ ¢¨§­ ç õ â㯨ª®¢®ù ä®à¬¨, ®áª÷«ìª¨

¢á÷ ®¤¨­¨æ÷ ª®­'î­ªâ  x1 ∧ x2 ¤ã¡«îîâìáï ÷­è¨¬¨ ª®­'⠬¨ { x1 ∧ x3 ,

x1 ∧ x4 â  x2 ∧ x3 .
1.1.2.   ª àâ÷ § ª®­'⠬¨ x1 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 â 

x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 12) ஧¡¥à¥¬® ¢ à÷ ­â¨ ¯®ªà¨ââï ®áâ ­­ì®ù ®¤¨­¨æ÷

{ x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . –î ®¤¨­¨æî ¬®¦­  ¯®ªà¨â¨ ¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨ { ¯àï-

¬®ªãâ­¨ª®¬ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 15) â  ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬ x1 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 16).

’ ¡«. 15 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 , ’ ¡«. 16 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 ,

x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 , x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 , x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ,
x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 x1 ∧ x4
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1

Š àâ  Š à­® ­  â ¡«. 15 ­¥ ¢¨§­ ç õ â㯨ª®¢®ù ¤¨§'⨢­®ù ä®à-

¬¨, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ª®­'î­ªâ x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ¯®¢­÷áâî ¯®ªà¨¢ õâìáï ª®­'⠬¨

x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 â  x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . Ž¤­ ª ª àâ  ­  â ¡«. 16 ¢¨§­ ç õ â㯨ª®¢ã
¤¨§'⨢­ã ä®à¬ã:

(x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x4 ).

65
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

1.2.   ª àâ÷ § ª®­'⠬¨ x1 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 10)

â 

஧¡¥à¥¬® ¢ à÷ ­â¨ ¯®ªà¨ââï ¤¢®å ®áâ ­­÷å ®¤¨­¨æì { x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4

â  x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . ‹¥£ª® §à®§ã¬÷â¨, é® æ÷ ®¤¨­¨æ÷ ¬®¦­  ª®à¥ªâ­® (¡¥§

¤ã¡«î¢ ­­ï ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª÷¢) ¯®ªà¨â¨ ¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨: ®¤­¨¬ ¯àאַªãâ-

­¨ª®¬ { x1 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 17); ¤¢®¬  ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª ¬¨ { x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 â  x1 ∧ x2

(â ¡«. 18).

’ ¡«. 17 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 , ’ ¡«. 18 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 ,

x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x1 ∧ x4 x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ,
x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x1 ∧ x2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1

Žâਬ ­÷ ª à⨠Š à­® ¢¨§­ ç îâì â㯨ª®¢÷ ¤¨§'⨢­÷ ä®à¬¨,  «¥

ª àâ  ­  â ¡«. 18 §¡÷£ õâìáï § ª àâ®î ­  â ¡«. 13. ‚¨¯¨è¥¬® â㯨ª®¢ã

¤¨§'⨢­ã ä®à¬ã, 猪 ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ ª àâ÷ Š à­® ­  â ¡«. 17:

(x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x4 ).

2.   ª àâ÷ § ª®­'⠬¨ x1 ∧ x3 â  x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ஧¡¥à¥¬® ¢ à÷ ­â¨

¯®ªà¨ââï ®¤¨­¨æ÷ x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . –î ®¤¨­¨æî ¬®¦­  ¯®ªà¨â¨ ¤¢®¬ 

ᯮᮡ ¬¨ { ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬ x1 ∧x2 ∧x3 â  x2 ∧x3 ∧x4 . Ž¤­ ª ¢á÷ ¢ à÷ ­â¨

§ ª®­'⠬¨ x1 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 â  x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ¡ã«¨ ஧÷¡à ­÷ ¢ ¯ã­ªâ÷ 1.

 ¢¥¤¥¬® ª àâ㠊 à­® § ª®­'⠬¨ x1 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 â  x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4

(â ¡«. 19).

’ ¡«. 19. Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 , x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4

x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1

66
6.1. „¨§'⨢­÷ â  ª®­'⨢­÷ ­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨

  â ¡«. 19 ­¥¯®ªà¨â¨¬¨ § «¨è îâìáï ¤¢÷ ®¤¨­¨æ÷ { x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4

â  x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 . ‹¥£ª® §à®§ã¬÷â¨, é® æ÷ ®¤¨­¨æ÷ ¬®¦­  ª®à¥ªâ­®

¯®ªà¨â¨ ¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨: ®¤­¨¬ ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª®¬ { x1 ∧ x2 (â ¡«. 20);

¤¢®¬  ¯àאַªãâ­¨ª ¬¨ { x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 â  x1 ∧ x4 (â ¡«. 21).

’ ¡«. 20 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 , ’ ¡«. 21 . Š®­'⨠x1 ∧ x3 ,

x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x1 ∧ x2 x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 , x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ,
x1 ∧ x4
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1
x3 x4 1 1 1 x3 x4 1 1 1
Žâ¦¥, ¬¨ §­ ©è«¨ ¢á÷ â㯨ª®¢÷ ¤¨§'⨢­÷ ä®à¬¨ § ¤ ­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù

f (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ). ‚¨¯¨è¥¬® æ÷ ä®à¬¨.

1. (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 )

(â ¡«. 13).

2. (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x4 ) (â ¡«. 16).

3. (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x4 ) (â ¡«. 17).

4. (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ) (â ¡«. 20).

5. (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x4 )

(â ¡«. 21).

Œ¥â®¤ Š¢ ©­  { Œ ª-Š« áª÷ ¯¥à¥¤¡ ç õ, é® ¡ã«¥¢  äã­ªæ÷ï § ¤ ­  ã

¢¨£«ï¤÷ „„”. ‘ãâì ¬¥â®¤ã ¯®«ï£ õ ã § áâ®á㢠­­÷ ¤¢®å â®â®¦­®á⥩:

1) (A ∧ x) ∨ (A ∧ x) = (A ∧ x) ∨ (A ∧ x) ∨ A (­¥¯®¢­¥ ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï);

2) (A ∧ B) ∨ A = A (¯®£«¨­ ­­ï).
’®â®¦­®áâ÷ § áâ®á®¢ãîâì §«÷¢  ­ ¯à ¢®; ᯮç âªã § áâ®á®¢ãîâì ­¥-

¯®¢­¥ ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï ¤®â¨, ¯®ª¨ æ¥ ¬®¦«¨¢®,   ¯®â÷¬, ¯®ª¨ ¬®¦«¨¢® { ¯®-

£«¨­ ­­ï. ¥§ã«ìâ â®¬ ஡®â¨  «£®à¨â¬ã õ ᪮à®ç¥­  „” (¤¨§'î­ªæ÷ï

¢á÷å ¯à®áâ¨å ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â). ÷¤ªà¥á«¨¬®, é® áª®à®ç¥­  „” ­ ©ç áâ÷è¥ ­¥

õ â㯨ª®¢®î.

67
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

Š®­'î­ªâ K , ®âਬ ­¨© ­  ¯¥à讬㠥⠯÷ ­¥¯®¢­¨¬ ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï¬

ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢ K1 ÷ K2 , ­  ¤à㣮¬ã ¥â ¯÷ ùå ¯®£«¨­¥. ‘¯à ¢¤¦ãõâìáï ÷ §¢®à®â-

­¨© ­ á«÷¤®ª: ­  ¤à㣮¬ã ¥â ¯÷ ¯®£«¨­ îâìáï â÷ © â÷«ìª¨ â÷ ª®­'î­ªâ¨,

ïª÷ ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠«¨áï ­  ¯¥à讬㠥⠯÷ ¤«ï ­¥¯®¢­®£® ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï. ’®-

¬ã ­  ¯¥à讬㠥⠯÷ á«÷¤ 㪠§ã¢ â¨, ïª÷ á ¬¥ ª®­'⨠¢¨ª®à¨á⮢ã-

îâìáï ¤«ï ­¥¯®¢­®£® ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï, ­ ¢÷âì ïªé® ®¤¨­ ª®­'⠬®¦­ 

®âਬ â¨ ª÷«ìª®¬  ¢ à÷ ­â ¬¨.

“ ª®¬¯'îâ¥à­÷© ॠ«÷§ æ÷ù  «£®à¨â¬ã ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢ãîâì ᯥæ÷ «ì­ã ­ã-

¬¥à æ÷î ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢: ª®¦­÷© §¬÷­­÷© xk áâ ¢«ïâì ã ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­÷áâì ®¤¨­ ÷§

âàì®å ᨬ¢®«÷¢: ý1þ, ïªé® xk ¢å®¤¨âì ¤® ª®­'î­ªâã ¡¥§ ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï; ý0þ,

ïªé® xk ¢å®¤¨âì ¤® ª®­'î­ªâã § ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï¬; ý{þ, ïªé® xk ¢§ £ «÷ ­¥

¢å®¤¨âì ¤® ª®­'î­ªâã. Žâਬ ­÷ ª®¤¨ ஧¡¨¢ îâì ­  £à㯨 §  ª÷«ìª÷á-

âî ¢å®¤¦¥­ì ᨬ¢®«  ý1þ, é® áãââõ¢® ¯÷¤¢¨éãõ ¥ä¥ªâ¨¢­÷áâì ¯®èãªã

ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢ ¤«ï ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ¤®áâ â­ì® ¯¥à¥¢÷àï⨠¯ à¨ ª®¤÷¢ ÷§

ýáãá÷¤­÷åþ £à㯠[2].

à¨ª« ¤ 6.3. Œ¥â®¤®¬ Š¢ ©­ -Œ ª-Š« áª÷ §­ ©â¨ ᪮à®ç¥­ã „”

¤«ï äã­ªæ÷ù, § ¤ ­®ù ᢮ù¬ ¢¥ªâ®à®¬ §­ ç¥­ì: f = (1111 1110 0001 0011).
„®áª®­ «  „” § ¤ ­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù ¡ã«  §­ ©¤¥­  ¢ ¯à¨ª« ¤÷ 6.1. ‚¨¯¨-

襬® ª®¤¨ ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢ æ÷õù „„”, ஧¡¨¢è¨ ùå ­  £à㯨 §  §à®áâ ­­ï¬

ª÷«ìª®áâ÷ ᨬ¢®«÷¢ ý1þ.

1. 0000
2. 0100
3. 0010
4. 0001
5. 0110
6. 0101
7. 0011
8. 1110
9. 1011
10. 1111
‡ áâ®á㢠¢è¨ § ª®­ ­¥¯®¢­®£® ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï, ®âਬãõ¬® ¤®¤ âª®¢® 13

ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢ (㠤㦪 å ¢ª § ­® ­®¬¥à  ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢, é® ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠«¨-

áï). ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é®, § ¢¤ïª¨ £àã¯ã¢ ­­î ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢ ¯® £àã¯ å §  ª÷«ì-

ª÷áâî ®¤¨­¨æì, ¤®¢¥«®áì ¯¥à¥¢÷à¨â¨ 1 · 3 + 3 · 3 + 3 · 2 + 2 · 1 = 20; ¡¥§

2
£àã¯ã¢ ­­ï ¤®¢¥«®áï ¡ §à®¡¨â¨ C10 = 45 ¯¥à¥¢÷ப.
11. 0 00 (1, 2)
12. 00 0 (1, 3)

68
6.1. „¨§'⨢­÷ â  ª®­'⨢­÷ ­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨

13. 000 (1, 4)

14. 01 0 (2, 5)
15. 010 (2, 6)
16. 0 10 (3, 5)
17. 001 (3, 7)
18. 0 01 (4, 6)
19. 00 1 (4, 7)
20. 110 (5, 8)
21. 011 (7, 9)
22. 111 (8, 10)
23. 1 11 (9, 10)
Žâਬ ­÷ ª®­'⨠¤®¯ã᪠îâì ¯®¤ «ìè¥ § áâ®á㢠­­ï ­¥¯®¢­®£®

᪫¥î¢ ­­ï, ®âਬãîç¨ 3 ª®­'⨠(ª®¦¥­ ÷§ ­¨å ¤¢®¬  ᯮᮡ ¬¨).

24. 0 0 (11, 16)(12, 14)

25. 0 0 (11, 18)(13, 15)
26. 00 (12, 19)(13, 17)
®¤ «ìè¥ § áâ®á㢠­­ï ­¥¯®¢­®£® ᪫¥î¢ ­­ï ­¥¬®¦«¨¢¥. ‡ áâ®áã-

¢ ­­ï § ª®­ã ¯®£«¨­ ­­ï §¢®¤¨âìáï ¤® ¢¨ªà¥á«î¢ ­­ï â¨å ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢,

ïª÷ å®ç à § ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠«¨áï ­  ¯¥à讬㠥⠯÷ - æ¥ ª®­'⨠1{19. Žâ-

¦¥, § ¤ ­  äã­ªæ÷ï f ¤®¯ã᪠õ 7 ¯à®áâ¨å ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â { ª®­'⨠20{26,

⮡⮠äã­ªæ÷ï f ¬ õ â ªã ᪮à®ç¥­ã „”:

(x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 )∨

∨(x1 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ).

„«ï §­ å®¤¦¥­­ï â㯨ª®¢¨å „” §  ᪮à®ç¥­®î „” ¤®æ÷«ì­®

᪫ á⨠÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­ã â ¡«¨æî, à浪¨ 类ù ­ã¬¥àãîâì ¯à®á⨬¨ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­-

â ¬¨,   á⮢¯æ÷ { ª®­'⠬¨ ¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨, ïª÷ ¢å®¤ïâì ¤® ᪫ ¤ã

„„” § ¤ ­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù. “ ª®¬÷ન ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­®ù â ¡«¨æ÷ ¢¯¨áãîâì ᨬ-

∗
¢®« ý þ, ïªé® ¯à®áâ  ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â , é® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ à浪㠪®¬÷ન, ¯®£«¨­ õ

ª®­'⠯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨, 直© ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ á⮢¯æî. ®¡ã¤®¢  â㯨ª®¢®ù

„” §¢®¤¨âìáï ¤® §­ å®¤¦¥­­ï ­¥­ ¤«¨èª®¢®ù ¬­®¦¨­¨ ¯à®áâ¨å ÷¬¯«÷-

ª ­â, ïª÷ ¡ ã áãªã¯­®áâ÷ ¯®£«¨­ «¨ ¢á÷ ª®­'⨠¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ § ¤ ­®ù

äã­ªæ÷ù.

„ «÷ ¤®æ÷«ì­® ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ ï¤à®¢÷ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨ (â÷ ¯à®áâ÷ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨, ïª÷

ã¢÷©¤ãâì ¤® ᪫ ¤ã ¡ã¤ì-类ù â㯨ª®¢®ù „” § ¤ ­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù),   â ª®¦

69
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

ª®­'⨠¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨, ïª÷ ¯®£«¨­ îâìáï ï¤à®¬. Žç¥¢¨¤­®, é® ï¤-

஢÷ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨ â  ª®­'⨠¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨, ïª÷ ¯®£«¨­ îâìáï ï¤à®¬,

¬®¦­  ¢¨ª«îç¨â¨ ÷§ ¯®¤ «ì讣® ஧£«ï¤ã, ⮡⮠¯®è㪠â㯨ª®¢¨å ä®à¬

§¢®¤¨âìáï ¤® ¯®ªà¨ââï ­¥ï¤à®¢¨¬¨ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â ¬¨ â¨å ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢ ¯®¢­®ù

¤®¢¦¨­¨, ïª÷ ­¥ ¯®£«¨­ã«® ï¤à®.

Žâ¦¥, ¤®æ÷«ì­® ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ á¯à®é¥­ã ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­ã â ¡«¨æî, ïªã ®âà¨-

¬ãîâì ÷§ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­®ù â ¡«¨æ÷ ¢¨ªà¥á«î¢ ­­ï¬ â¨å à浪÷¢, ïª÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ -

îâì ï¤à®¢¨¬ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â ¬, â  â¨å á⮢¯æ÷¢, ïª÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ îâì ª®­'⠬

¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨, é® ¯®£«¨­ îâìáï ï¤à®¬.

‡ ã¢ ¦¥­­ï 8. ‡  ¯®¡ã¤®¢®î, ª®¦¥­ á⮢¯ç¨ª á¯à®é¥­®ù ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â-

­®ù â ¡«¨æ÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ ª®­'î­ªâã ¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨, 直© ¯®£«¨­ õâìáï

¯à¨­ ©¬­÷ ¤¢®¬  ­¥ï¤à®¢¨¬¨ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â ¬¨.

à¨ª« ¤ 6.4. ®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­ã â ¡«¨æî, ¢¨§­ ç¨â¨ ï¤à® â 

¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ á¯à®é¥­ã ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­ã â ¡«¨æî ¤«ï äã­ªæ÷ù, § ¤ ­®ù ᢮ù¬

¢¥ªâ®à®¬ §­ ç¥­ì: f = (1111 1110 0001 0011).

‘ª®à®ç¥­  „” (ä ªâ¨ç­® { ¯à®áâ÷ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨) § ¤ ­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù ¡ã-

«  §­ ©¤¥­  ¢ ¯à¨ª« ¤÷ 6.3. ®¡ã¤ãõ¬® ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­ã ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­ã â ¡«¨æî

(â ¡«. 22).
’ ¡«. 22

0000 0100 0010 0001 0110 0101 0011 1110 1011 1111
110 ∗ ∗
011 ∗ ∗
111 ∗ ∗
1 11 ∗ ∗
0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
00 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

ö¬¯«÷ª ­â  0 0 ï¤à®¢ , ®áª÷«ìª¨ â÷«ìª¨ ¢®­  ¯®£«¨­ õ ª®­'⠯®-

¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ 0101 (¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­¨© á⮢¯¥æì ¬÷áâ¨âì «¨è¥ ®¤¨­ ᨬ¢®« ý∗þ).

Žáª÷«ìª¨ ÷­è÷ á⮢¯æ÷ ¬÷áâïâì ¯à¨­ ©¬­÷ ¤¢  ᨬ¢®«¨ ý∗þ, ÷­è÷ ¯à®áâ÷

÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨ ­¥ï¤à®¢÷. Ÿ¤à®¢  ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â  0 0 ¯®£«¨­ õ 4 ª®­'⨠¯®¢-

­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨: 0000, 0100, 0001, 0101. ‚¨ªà¥á«¨¢è¨ § ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­®ù â ¡-

«¨æ÷ à冷ª, 直© ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ õ¤¨­÷© ï¤à®¢÷© ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â÷ 0 0 ,   â ª®¦ 4

á⮢¯æï, ïª÷ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ îâì ª®­'⠬ ¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ 0000, 0100, 0001

â  0101, é® ¯®£«¨­ îâìáï ï¤à®¬, ®âਬãõ¬® á¯à®é¥­ã ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­ã â ¡-

«¨æî (â ¡«. 23).

70
6.1. „¨§'⨢­÷ â  ª®­'⨢­÷ ­®à¬ «ì­÷ ä®à¬¨

’ ¡«. 23

0010 0110 0011 1110 1011 1111

110 ∗ ∗
011 ∗ ∗
111 ∗ ∗
1 11 ∗ ∗
0 0 ∗ ∗
00 ∗ ∗

Œ¥â®¤ ¥âà÷ª  ¯®èãªã â㯨ª®¢¨å ä®à¬ §  á¯à®é¥­®î ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­®î

â ¡«¨æ¥î ¯®«ï£ õ ã §÷áâ ¢«¥­­÷ ª®¦­÷© ­¥ï¤à®¢÷© ¯à®áâ÷© ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â÷ S

¢¨á«®¢«¥­­ï AS = ýö¬¯«÷ª ­â  S ¢å®¤¨âì ¤® â㯨ª®¢®ù „”þ. „ «÷, ¤«ï
ª®¦­®£® ª®­'î­ªâ  K ã ᪫ ¤÷ ¢¨å÷¤­®ù „„” ¡ã¤ãîâì ¢¨á«®¢«¥­­ï

BK = ýK ¯®£«¨­ õ ¯à¨­ ©¬­÷ ®¤­  ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â  â㯨ª®¢®ù „”þ, 瘟, ®ç¥-

¢¨¤­®, õ ¤¨§'î­ªæ÷õî â¨å ¢¨á«®¢«¥­ì AS , ¤«ï 直å S ¯®£«¨­ õ ª®­'î­ªâ

K.  à¥èâ÷, ã ª®à¥ªâ­® ¯®¡ã¤®¢ ­÷© â㯨ª®¢÷© „” ¯à®áâ÷ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­-

⨠¬ îâì ¯®£«¨­ â¨ ¢á÷ ª®­'⨠¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ ÷§ ¢¨å÷¤­®ù „„”,

⮡⮠ª®à¥ªâ­÷áâì â㯨ª®¢®ù „” ®§­ ç õ ÷á⨭­÷áâì ª®­'î­ªæ÷ù ¢á÷å ¢¨-

á«®¢«¥­ì BK . Œ¥â®¤ ¯¥à¥¤¡ ç õ §¢¥¤¥­­ï ®âਬ ­®ù ä®à¬ã«¨  «£¥¡à¨

¢¨á«®¢«¥­ì ¤® „” § áâ®á㢠­­ï¬ § ª®­÷¢ ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®áâ÷ â , ïªé®

æ¥ ¬®¦«¨¢®, ¯®£«¨­ ­­ï:

1) (A + B)&C = (A&C) + (B&C) (¤¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâì);

2) (A + B)&(A + C) = A + (B&C) (¤¨áâਡã⨢­÷áâì);

3) (A&B) + A = A (¯®£«¨­ ­­ï),

¤¥ ý+þ â  ý&þ ¯®§­ ç îâì ®¯¥à æ÷ù ­ ¤ ¢¨á«®¢«¥­­ï¬¨ { ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­®

¤¨§'î­ªæ÷î â  ª®­'î­ªæ÷î ¢  «£¥¡à÷ ¢¨á«®¢«¥­ì. ‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ¤«ï §¢¥-

¤¥­­ï ¢¨à §ã ¤® „” ¤®áâ â­ì® ¢¨ª®à¨áâ ­­ï § ª®­ã ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®á-

â÷ 1,  «¥ ¢¨ª®à¨áâ ­­ï (ïªé® ¬®¦«¨¢®) ¤¨áâਡã⨢­®áâ÷ 2 ¤®§¢®«ïõ ®â-

ਬ â¨ „” § ¬¥­è®î ª÷«ìª÷áâî ª®­'î­ªâ÷¢.

‚ ®âਬ ­÷© „” ª®¦¥­ ª®­'⠧ ¤ õ ¯¥¢­ã â㯨ª®¢ã „”: ª®¦-

­  «÷â¥à  ã ᪫ ¤÷ ª®­'î­ªâ  ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤ õ ¢å®¤¦¥­­î ¤® â㯨ª®¢®ù „”

¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­®ù ¯à®áâ®ù ­¥ï¤à®¢®ù ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨.

à¨ª« ¤ 6.5. Œ¥â®¤®¬ ¥âà÷ª  §­ ©â¨ ¢á÷ â㯨ª®¢÷ „” ¤«ï äã­ª-
æ÷ù, § ¤ ­®ù ᢮ù¬ ¢¥ªâ®à®¬ §­ ç¥­ì: f = (1111 1110 0001 0011).
Ÿ¤à®¢÷ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨ â  á¯à®é¥­  ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â  â ¡«¨æï ¡ã«¨ §­ ©¤¥­ 

¢ ¯à¨ª« ¤÷ 6.4. „«ï ¯®¡ã¤®¢¨ â㯨ª®¢¨å „” ¯à®­ã¬¥àãõ¬® ­¥ï¤à®¢÷

¯à®áâ÷ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨ «÷â¥à ¬¨ A{F , ïª÷ ¯®§­ ç îâì 㬮¢ã ¢å®¤¦¥­­ï ¢÷¤-

71
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

¯®¢÷¤­®ù ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨ ¤® â㯨ª®¢®ù „”; ¤«ï §àãç­®áâ÷ ­ ¢¥¤¥¬® á¯à®é¥-

­ã ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â­ã â ¡«¨æî § 樬¨ ¯®§­ ç¥­­ï¬¨:

’ ¡«. 24

0010 0110 0011 1110 1011 1111

A 110 ∗ ∗
B 011 ∗ ∗
C 111 ∗ ∗
D 1 11 ∗ ∗
E 0 0 ∗ ∗
F 00 ∗ ∗

‚¨¯¨è¥¬® ã ¢¨£«ï¤÷ ä®à¬ã«¨  «£¥¡à¨ ¢¨á«®¢«¥­ì 㬮¢ã ª®à¥ªâ­®á-

â÷ â㯨ª®¢®ù „” (¯à®áâ÷ ÷¬¯«÷ª ­â¨ ¬ îâì ¯®£«¨­ â¨ ¢á÷ ª®­'î­ªâ¨

¯®¢­®ù ¤®¢¦¨­¨ ÷§ ¢¨å÷¤­®ù „„”):

(E + F )&(A + E)&(B + F )&(A + C)&(B + D)&(C + D).

‡¢¥¤¥¬® æî ä®à¬ã«ã ¤® „”, ª®à¨áâãîç¨áì ¤¢®¬  § ª®­ ¬¨ ¤¨á-

âਡã⨢­®áâ÷ (§­ ª ý &þ ¤«ï ᪮à®ç¥­­ï § ¯¨áã ®¯ã᪠⨬¥¬®):

(E + F )(A + E)(B + F )(A + C)(B + D)(C + D) =

= ((E + F )(E + A))((B + F )(B + D))((C + A)(C + D)) =
= (E + AF )(B + DF )(C + AD) =
= BCE + ABDE + CDEF + ADEF +
+ABCF + ABDF + ACDF + ADF.
‡ áâ®á㢠¢è¨ § ª®­ ¯®£«¨­ ­­ï, ®âਬãõ¬® ®áâ â®ç­ã 㬮¢ã

BCE + ABDE + CDEF + ABCF + ADF,

é® ®§­ ç õ ­ ï¢­÷áâì ¯'ï⨠â㯨ª®¢¨å ä®à¬:

T1 = (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x4 );

T2 = (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x4 );
T3 = (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 );
T4 = (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 );
T5 = (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ x4 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ).
Žâਬ ­÷ â㯨ª®¢÷ „” §¡÷£ îâìáï ÷§ §­ ©¤¥­¨¬¨ ¤«ï æ÷õù äã­ªæ÷ù

¬¥â®¤®¬ ª à⠊ à­® (¤¨¢. ¯à¨ª« ¤ 6.2): T1 { â ¡«. 17, T2 { â ¡«. 21, T3 {

â ¡«. 16, T4 { â ¡«. 13, T5 { â ¡«. 20.

72
6.2. ”ã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­  ¯®¢­®â  ­ ¡®àã ¡ã«¥¢¨å äã­ªæ÷©

6.2. ”ã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­  ¯®¢­®â  ­ ¡®àã ¡ã«¥¢¨å

äã­ªæ÷©

„®á«÷¤¨â¨ ­ «¥¦­÷áâì § ¤ ­¨å äã­ªæ÷© ª®¦­®¬ã § ¯'ï⨠®á­®¢­¨å

äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨å ª« á÷¢ (§¢÷¢è¨ ¤ ­÷ ã â ¡«¨æî ®áâ ) ÷ ¤«ï

ª®¦­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù § ¤ ­®£® ­ ¡®àã ¯®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ ¯®«÷­®¬ †¥£ «ª÷­ . ‡à®¡¨-

⨠¢¨á­®¢®ª 鮤® äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®ù ¯®¢­®â¨ § ¤ ­®£® ­ ¡®àã äã­ªæ÷©.

1. (x ∧ y) → z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∨ z), x ∨ y ;

2. (x ∨ y) → z , (x ∧ y) ↔ (x ∨ z), x ∧ y ;

3. (x ∧ y) ← z , (x ↔ y) ↔ (x ∨ z), x ⊕ y ;

4. (x ∨ y) ← z , (x ↔ y) ↔ (x ∧ z), x → y ;

5. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∨ z), x → y ;

6. (x → y) ∧ z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∨ z), x → y ;

7. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∨ z), x ← y ;

8. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∨ z), x ← y ;

9. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∨ z), x ↔ y ;

10. (x → y) ∧ z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∧ z), x ⊕ y ;

11. (x → y) ∧ z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∧ z), x → y ;

12. (x → y) ∧ z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∧ z), x ↔ y ;

13. (x ∧ y) → z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∧ z), x ⊕ y ;

14. (x ∧ y) → z , (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∧ z), x ∧ y ;

15. (x ∨ y) → z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∨ z), x ∨ y ;

16. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∨ z), (x ∨ y) ∧ z ;

17. (x ∨ y) ← z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∨ z), (x ∧ y) ∨ z ;

18. (x ∨ y) ← z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∨ z), x ∨ y ∨ z ;

19. (x ∨ y) ← z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∨ z), x ∧ y ∧ z ;

73
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

20. (x → y) ∧ z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∨ z), (x ∨ y) ∧ z ;

21. (x → y) ∧ z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∧ z), (x ∧ y) ∨ z ;

22. (x → y) ∧ z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∧ z), x ∨ y ∨ z ;

23. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∧ z), x ∧ y ∧ z ;

24. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∧ z), x ∨ y ∨ z ;

25. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∧ z), x ∨ y ∨ z ;

26. (x → y) ∧ z , (x ↔ y) ⊕ (x ∧ z), x ∧ y ∧ z ;

27. (x → y) ∨ z , (x ↔ y) ∧ (x ⊕ z), x ∧ y ∧ z ;

28. (x ∧ y) → z , (x ↔ y) ∧ (x ⊕ z), x ⊕ y ⊕ z ;

29. (x ∨ y) → z , (x ↔ y) ∧ (x ⊕ z), x ⊕ y ⊕ z ;

30. (x ∨ y) ← z , (x ↔ y) ∧ (x ⊕ z), x ⊕ y ⊕ z .

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

„«ï ¯¥à¥¢÷ન äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®ù ¯®¢­®â¨ ­ ¡®àã ¡ã«¥¢¨å äã­ªæ÷© ª®-

à¨áâãîâìáï ⥮६®î ®áâ : ­ ¡÷à ¡ã«¥¢¨å äã­ªæ÷© K õ äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®

¯®¢­¨¬ ⮤÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ ¢÷­ ­¥ õ ¯÷¤¬­®¦¨­®î ¦®¤­®£® § ®á­®¢­¨å

äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨å ª« á÷¢:



 ∃ f T0 ∈ K : f T0 ∈
/ T0 ;




 ∃ f T1 ∈ K : f T1 ∈
/ T1 ;
K { äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­® ¯®¢­¨© ⇔ ∃ fM ∈ K : fM ∈ / M;



 ∃ fS ∈ K : fL ∈ / S;


∃ f ∈ K : f ∈
L L / L.

Œ¨ ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢ãõ¬® áâ ­¤ àâ­÷ ¯®§­ ç¥­­ï ¤«ï ®á­®¢­¨å äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-

§ ¬ª­¥­¨å ª« á÷¢:

• T0 { ª« á äã­ªæ÷©, ïª÷ §¡¥à÷£ îâì 0;

• T1 { ª« á äã­ªæ÷©, ïª÷ §¡¥à÷£ îâì 1;

• M { ª« á ¬®­®â®­­¨å äã­ªæ÷©;

74
6.2. ”ã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­  ¯®¢­®â  ­ ¡®àã ¡ã«¥¢¨å äã­ªæ÷©

• S { ª« á á ¬®¤¢®ùáâ¨å äã­ªæ÷©;

• L { ª« á «÷­÷©­¨å äã­ªæ÷©.

‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ¤«ï ¯¥à¥¢÷ન äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®ù ¯®¢­®â¨ (­¥¯®¢­®â¨)

­ ¡®àã K ­ ©ç áâ÷è¥ ­¥ ¯®âà÷¡­® ¯à®¢®¤¨â¨ ¯®¢­¥ ¤®á«÷¤¦¥­­ï ­ 

­ «¥¦­÷áâì ª®¦­®ù äã­ªæ÷ù § ­ ¡®àã K ª®¦­®¬ã ÷§ ¯'ï⨠®á­®¢­¨å

äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨å ª« á÷¢. ’ ª, ¤«ï ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®ù

¯®¢­®â¨ ­ ¡®àã K K : ®¤­ã äã­ªæ÷î, é® ­¥ ­ «¥¦¨âì ª« áã

á«÷¤ §­ ©â¨ ¢

T0 ; ®¤­ã äã­ªæ÷î, é® ­¥ ­ «¥¦¨âì ª« áã T1 ; ®¤­ã äã­ªæ÷î, é® ­¥ ­ «¥-

¦¨âì ª« áã M ; ®¤­ã äã­ªæ÷î, é® ­¥ ­ «¥¦¨âì ª« áã S ; ®¤­ã äã­ªæ÷î,

é® ­¥ ­ «¥¦¨âì ª« áã L (æ¥ ­¥ ®¡®¢'離®¢® ¬ îâì ¡ã⨠¯'ïâì äã­ª-

æ÷©, ®áª÷«ìª¨ ®¤­  äã­ªæ÷ï ¬®¦¥ ­¥ ­ «¥¦ â¨ ¤¢®¬  ¡® ¡÷«ìè¥ ®á­®¢­¨¬

äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨¬ ª« á ¬). ‡ ÷­è®£® ¡®ªã, ¤«ï ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï ­¥¯®¢-

­®â¨ ­ ¡®àã K ¤®áâ â­ì® ¤®¢¥áâ¨, é® ®¤¨­ ÷§ äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨å

ª« á÷¢ ¬÷áâ¨âì ¢á÷ äã­ªæ÷ù ­ ¡®àã K.

à¨ª« ¤ 6.6. ¥à¥¢÷à¨â¨ äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­ã ¯®¢­®âã ­ ¡®àã ¡ã«¥¢¨å

äã­ªæ÷©:

K = {(x ∧ y) → z, (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∧ z), x ∧ y}.

1. „®á«÷¤¨¬® ­  ­ «¥¦­÷áâì ®á­®¢­¨¬ äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨¬ ª« -
á ¬ äã­ªæ÷î f1 (x, y, z) = (x ∧ y) → z . ¥à¥¯¨è¥¬® äã­ªæ÷î ã ¢¨£«ï¤÷,

§àãç­®¬ã ¤«ï ¤®á«÷¤¦¥­­ï:

f1 (x, y, z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ z = x ∨ y ∨ z.

¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® ¯¥à¥¢÷àïõâìáï: f1 ∈
/ T 0 , f1 ∈ T 1 .
¥à¥¢÷à¨¢è¨ §­ ç¥­­ï f1 ­  ­ ¡®à å (0, 0, 0) â  (1, 0, 0), ¬®¦­  ¢¯¥¢-

­¨â¨áì ã ­¥¬®­®â®­­®áâ÷ f1 :

f1 (0, 0, 0) = 1, f1 (1, 0, 0) = 0,

⮡⮠f1 ∈
/ M.
Ž¡ç¨á«¨¬® äã­ªæ÷î, ¤¢®ùáâã ¤® f1 :

f1∗ (x, y, z) = x ∨ y ∨ z = x ∧ y ∧ z.

‹¥£ª® ¯¥à¥ª®­ â¨áì, é® f1∗ ̸= f1 : ­ ¯à¨ª« ¤, f1 (0, 0, 0) ̸= f1∗ (0, 0, 0). Žâ¦¥,

f1 ∈
/ S.

75
 6. ã«¥¢÷  «£¥¡à¨

 à¥èâ÷, ¯®«÷­®¬ †¥£ «ª÷­  ¤«ï f1 «¥£ª® ®¡ç¨á«¨â¨, ¢¨ª®à¨áâ ¢è¨

§®¡à ¦¥­­ï f1 ç¥à¥§ ª®­'î­ªæ÷î â  ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï:

f1 (x, y, z) = x∨y ∨z = x ∧ y ∧ z = 1⊕x(y ⊕1)(z ⊕1) = 1⊕x⊕xy ⊕xz ⊕xyz.

Žâ¦¥, f1 ∈
/ L.
2. „®á«÷¤¨¬® ­  ­ «¥¦­÷áâì ®á­®¢­¨¬ äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨¬ ª« -
á ¬ äã­ªæ÷î f2 (x, y, z) = (x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∧ z). ¥à¥¯¨è¥¬® äã­ªæ÷î ã

¢¨£«ï¤÷, §àãç­®¬ã ¤«ï ¤®á«÷¤¦¥­­ï:

f2 (x, y, z) = x ⊕ y ⊕ (x ∧ z) = x ⊕ y ⊕ (x ∧ (z ⊕ 1)) ⊕ 1 = y ⊕ (x ∧ z) ⊕ 1.

¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® ¯¥à¥¢÷àïõâìáï: f2 ∈
/ T 0 , f2 ∈ T 1 .
¥à¥¢÷à¨¢è¨ §­ ç¥­­ï f2 ­  ­ ¡®à å (0, 0, 0) â  (0, 1, 0), ¬®¦­  ¢¯¥¢-

­¨â¨áì ã ­¥¬®­®â®­­®áâ÷ f2 :

f2 (0, 0, 0) = 1, f2 (0, 1, 0) = 0,

⮡⮠f2 ∈
/ M.
Ž¡ç¨á«¨¬® äã­ªæ÷î, ¤¢®ùáâã ¤® f2 :

f2∗ (x, y, z) = y ⊕ (x ∧ z) ⊕ 1 = y ⊕ (x ∧ z) ⊕ 1 = x ⊕ y ⊕ z ⊕ (x ∧ z).

‹¥£ª® ¯¥à¥ª®­ â¨áì, é® ̸ f2 : ­ ¯à¨ª« ¤, f2 (0, 0, 0) ̸= f2∗ (0, 0, 0). Žâ¦¥,

f2∗ =
f2 ∈
/ S.
 à¥èâ÷, ¯®«÷­®¬ †¥£ «ª÷­  ¤«ï f2 «¥£ª® ®¡ç¨á«¨â¨, ¢¨ª®à¨áâ ¢è¨

§®¡à ¦¥­­ï f2 ç¥à¥§ ®¯¥à æ÷î ý ⊕þ, ª®­'î­ªæ÷î â  ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï:

f2 (x, y, z) = y ⊕ (x ∧ z) ⊕ 1 = 1 ⊕ y ⊕ xz.

Žâ¦¥, f2 ∈
/ L.
3. „®á«÷¤¨¬® ­  ­ «¥¦­÷áâì ®á­®¢­¨¬ äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨¬ ª« -
á ¬ äã­ªæ÷î f3 (x, y) = x ∧ y . ¥§¯®á¥à¥¤­ì® ¯¥à¥¢÷àïõâìáï: f3 ∈ T 0 ,
f3 ∈
/ T1 .
¥à¥¢÷à¨¢è¨ §­ ç¥­­ï f3 ­  ­ ¡®à å (0, 1) â  (1, 1), ¬®¦­  ¢¯¥¢­¨â¨áì
ã ­¥¬®­®â®­­®áâ÷ f3 :

f3 (0, 1) = 1, f3 (1, 1) = 0,

⮡⮠f3 ∈
/ M.

76
6.2. ”ã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­  ¯®¢­®â  ­ ¡®àã ¡ã«¥¢¨å äã­ªæ÷©

Ž¡ç¨á«¨¬® äã­ªæ÷î, ¤¢®ùáâã ¤® f3 :

f3∗ (x, y) = x ∧ y = x ∨ y.

‹¥£ª® ¯¥à¥ª®­ â¨áì, é® f3∗ ̸= f3 : ­ ¯à¨ª« ¤, f3 (0, 0) ̸= f3∗ (0, 0). Žâ¦¥,

f3 ∈
/ S.
 à¥èâ÷, ¯®«÷­®¬ †¥£ «ª÷­  ¤«ï f3 «¥£ª® ®¡ç¨á«¨â¨, ¢¨ª®à¨áâ ¢è¨

§®¡à ¦¥­­ï f3 ç¥à¥§ ª®­'î­ªæ÷î â  ¤®¯®¢­¥­­ï:

f3 (x, y) = x ∧ y = (1 ⊕ x)y = x ⊕ xy.

Žâ¦¥, f3 ∈
/ L.
‡ ¯®¢­¨¬® â ¡«¨æî ®áâ  (â ¡«¨æî ­ «¥¦­®áâ÷ äã­ªæ÷© ®á­®¢­¨¬

äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨¬ ª« á ¬) ¤«ï § ¤ ­®£® ­ ¡®àã äã­ªæ÷© K

(â ¡«. 25).

’ ¡«. 25. ’ ¡«¨æï ®áâ  ¤«ï ­ ¡®àã K.

T0 T1 M S L
(x ∧ y) → z − + − − −
(x ⊕ y) ↔ (x ∧ z) − + − − −
x∧y + − − − −

Žâ¦¥, ¤«ï ª®¦­®£® § ¯'ï⨠®á­®¢­¨å äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­®-§ ¬ª­¥­¨å ª« -

á÷¢ ÷á­ãõ ¯à¨­ ©¬­÷ ®¤­  äã­ªæ÷ï ÷§ ­ ¡®àã K, 猪 æ쮬㠪« áã ­¥ ­ -

«¥¦¨âì (¢ ª®¦­®¬ã ÷§ ¯'ï⨠á⮢¯æ÷¢ â ¡«¨æ÷ 25 õ ¯à¨­ ©¬­÷ ®¤¨­ §­ ª

−'). ’ ª¨¬ 稭®¬, §  ⥮६®î ®áâ  ­ ¡÷à K

' õ äã­ªæ÷®­ «ì­® ¯®¢­¨¬.

77
 7. €¢â®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï ⥮६

7. €¢â®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï ⥮६

7.1. „®¢¥¤¥­­ï § £ «ì­®§­ çãé®áâ÷ ä®à¬ã«¨

„®¢¥á⨠§ £ «ì­®§­ çãé÷áâì § ¤ ­®ù ä®à¬ã«¨ ¢  «£¥¡à÷ ¯à¥¤¨ª â÷¢:

1) ¯®¡ã¤®¢®î ᥬ ­â¨ç­®£® ¤¥à¥¢ ;

2) ¬¥â®¤®¬ १®«îæ÷©.

1. (∀ x B(x, c) → ∃ x A(f (x))) ↔ ∃ x (∀ x B(x, c) → A(f (x)));

2. (∀ x B(f (x), c) → ∃ x A(x)) ↔ ∃ x (∀ x B(f (x), c) → A(x));

3. (∃ x B(x, c) → ∃ x A(f (x))) ↔ ∃ x (∃ x B(x, c) → A(f (x)));

4. (∃ x B(f (x), c) → ∃ x A(x)) ↔ ∃ x (∃ x B(f (x), c) → A(x));

5. (∀ x B(x, c) → ∀ x A(f (x))) ↔ ∀ x (∀ x B(x, c) → A(f (x)));

6. (∀ x B(f (x), c) → ∀ x A(x)) ↔ ∀ x (∀ x B(f (x), c) → A(x));

7. (∃ x B(x, c) → ∀ x A(f (x))) ↔ ∀ x (∃ x B(x, c) → A(f (x)));

8. (∃ x B(f (x), c) → ∀ x A(x)) ↔ ∀ x (∃ x B(f (x), c) → A(x));

9. (∀ x A(x, c) → ∃ x B(f (x))) ↔ ∃ x (∀ x A(x, c) → B(f (x)));

10. (∀ x A(f (x), c) → ∃ x B(x)) ↔ ∃ x (∀ x A(f (x), c) → B(x));

11. (∀ x A(x, c) → ∀ x B(f (x))) ↔ ∀ x (∀ x A(x, c) → B(f (x)));

12. (∀ x A(f (x), c) → ∀ x B(x)) ↔ ∀ x (∀ x A(f (x), c) → B(x));

13. (∃ x A(x, c) → ∀ x B(f (x))) ↔ ∀ x (∃ x A(x, c) → B(f (x)));

14. (∃ x A(f (x), c) → ∀ x B(x)) ↔ ∀ x (∃ x A(f (x), c) → B(x));

15. (∀ x B(x, c) ← ∃ x A(f (x))) ↔ ∀ x (∀ x B(x, c) ← A(f (x)));

16. (∀ x B(f (x), c) ← ∃ x A(x)) ↔ ∀ x (∀ x B(f (x), c) ← A(x));

17. (∃ x B(x, c) ← ∃ x A(f (x))) ↔ ∀ x (∃ x B(x, c) ← A(f (x)));

18. (∃ x B(f (x), c) ← ∃ x A(x)) ↔ ∀ x (∃ x B(f (x), c) ← A(x));

19. (∀ x B(x, c) ← ∀ x A(f (x))) ↔ ∃ x (∀ x B(x, c) ← A(f (x)));

78
7.1. „®¢¥¤¥­­ï § £ «ì­®§­ çãé®áâ÷ ä®à¬ã«¨

20. (∀ x B(f (x), c) ← ∀ x A(x)) ↔ ∃ x (∀ x B(f (x), c) ← A(x));

21. (∃ x B(x, c) ← ∀ x A(f (x))) ↔ ∃ x (∃ x B(x, c) ← A(f (x)));

22. (∃ x B(f (x), c) ← ∀ x A(x)) ↔ ∃ x (∃ x B(f (x), c) ← A(x));

23. (∀ x A(x, c) ← ∃ x B(f (x))) ↔ ∀ x (∀ x A(x, c) ← B(f (x)));

24. (∀ x A(f (x), c) ← ∃ x B(x)) ↔ ∀ x (∀ x A(f (x), c) ← B(x));

25. (∃ x A(x, c) ← ∃ x B(f (x))) ↔ ∀ x (∃ x A(x, c) ← B(f (x)));

26. (∃ x A(f (x), c) ← ∃ x B(x)) ↔ ∀ x (∃ x A(f (x), c) ← B(x));

27. (∀ x A(x, c) ← ∀ x B(f (x))) ↔ ∃ x (∀ x A(x, c) ← B(f (x)));

28. (∀ x A(f (x), c) ← ∀ x B(x)) ↔ ∃ x (∀ x A(f (x), c) ← B(x));

29. (∃ x A(x, c) ← ∀ x B(f (x))) ↔ ∃ x (∃ x A(x, c) ← B(f (x)));

30. (∃ x A(f (x), c) ← ∀ x B(x)) ↔ ∃ x (∃ x A(f (x), c) ← B(x)).

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

à®¤¥¬®áâàãõ¬® § áâ®á㢠­­ï ¬¥â®¤ã ᥬ ­â¨ç­¨å ¤¥à¥¢ â  ¬¥â®¤ã

१®«îæ÷© ­  ª®­ªà¥â­®¬ã ¯à¨ª« ¤÷.

à¨ª« ¤ 7.1. „®¢¥á⨠§ £ «ì­®§­ çãé÷áâì ¬¥â®¤®¬ ᥬ ­â¨ç­¨å

¤¥à¥¢ â  ¬¥â®¤®¬ १®«îæ÷©:

(∀ x B(x, c) → ∃ x A(f (x))) → ∃ x (∀ x B(x, c) → A(f (x))).

Žáª÷«ìª¨ ®¡¨¤¢  ¬¥â®¤¨ (ᥬ ­â¨ç­¨å ¤¥à¥¢ â  à¥§®«îæ÷©) ¤®§¢®«ï-

îâì ¤®¢®¤¨â¨ ¯à®â¨à÷ç­÷áâì, ¬¨ ¬ õ¬® §¢¥á⨠§ ¤ çã ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï § £ «ì-

­®§­ çãé®áâ÷ ¤® § ¤ ç÷ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï ¯à®â¨à÷ç­®áâ÷: ä®à¬ã«  õ § £ «ì­®§­ -

çãé®î ⮤÷ ÷ â÷«ìª¨ ⮤÷, ª®«¨ ù ù § ¯¥à¥ç¥­­ï ¯à®â¨à÷ç­¥. à¨ ¯®¤ «ìè¨å

¯¥à¥â¢®à¥­­ïå (§¢¥¤¥­­ï ¤® ¯®¯¥à¥¤­ì®ù ­®à¬ «ì­®ù ä®à¬¨ â  áªã«¥¬÷¢-

á쪮ù áâ ­¤ àâ­®ù ä®à¬¨) ¬®¦¥ ¯®àãè㢠â¨áï «®£÷ç­  ¥ª¢÷¢ «¥­â­÷áâì,

®¤­ ª §¡¥à÷£ õâìáï ¯à®â¨à÷ç­÷áâì ç¨ ­¥¯à®â¨à÷ç­÷áâì.

Žâ¦¥, ¢÷§ì¬¥¬® § ¯¥à¥ç¥­­ï ¢÷¤ § ¤ ­®ù ä®à¬ã«¨ ÷ §¢¥¤¥¬® ®âਬ ­ã

ä®à¬ã«ã ¤® ¯®¯¥à¥¤­ì®ù ­®à¬ «ì­®ù ä®à¬¨.

79
 7. €¢â®¬ â¨ç­¥ ¤®¢¥¤¥­­ï ⥮६

¬ ((∀ x B(x, c) → ∃ x A(f (x))) → ∃ x (∀ x B(x, c) → A(f (x)))) ⇔

⇔ ¬ (¬(¬∀ x B(x, c) ∨ ∃ x A(f (x))) ∨ ∃ x (¬∀ x B(x, c) ∨ A(f (x)))) ⇔
⇔ (¬∀ x B(x, c) ∨ ∃ x A(f (x))) ∧ ¬∃ x (¬∀ x B(x, c) ∨ A(f (x))) ⇔
⇔ (∃ x ¬B(x, c) ∨ ∃ x A(f (x))) ∧ ∀ x (∀ x B(x, c) ∧ ¬A(f (x))) ⇔
⇔ (∃ x1 ¬B(x1 , c) ∨ ∃ x2 A(f (x2 ))) ∧ ∀ x3 (∀ x4 B(x4 , c) ∧ ¬A(f (x3 ))) ⇔
⇔ ∃ x1 ∃ x2 ∀ x3 ∀ x4 ((¬B(x1 , c) ∨ A(f (x2 ))) ∧ B(x4 , c) ∧ ¬A(f (x3 )))
„«ï §¢¥¤¥­­ï ®âਬ ­®ù ä®à¬ã«¨ ¤® áªã«¥¬÷¢á쪮ù áâ ­¤ àâ­®ù ä®à-

¬¨ ­¥®¡å÷¤­® ¯®§¡ ¢¨â¨áì ª¢ ­â®à÷¢ ÷á­ã¢ ­­ï. ‡à®¡¨¬® æ¥, ¢¨ª®à¨áâ®-

¢ãîç¨ áâ ­¤ àâ­¥ ¯à ¢¨«® ¢¢¥¤¥­­ï áªã«¥¬÷¢áìª¨å ª®­áâ ­â (äã­ªæ÷©):

∃ x1 ∃ x2 ∀ x3 ∀ x4 ((¬B(x1 , c) ∨ A(f (x2 ))) ∧ B(x4 , c) ∧ ¬A(f (x3 )))

∀ x3 ∀ x4 ((¬B(a, c) ∨ A(f (b))) ∧ B(x4 , c) ∧ ¬A(f (x3 ))) .
‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® ¥«÷¬÷­ æ÷ï ª¢ ­â®à÷¢ ÷á­ã¢ ­­ï ­¥ õ ¯¥à¥å®¤®¬ §  ¥ª¢÷-

¢ «¥­â­÷áâî, ¯à®â¥ æï ®¯¥à æ÷ï §¡¥à÷£ õ ¯à®â¨à÷ç­÷áâì â  ­¥¯à®â¨à÷ç-

­÷áâì (¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­¨© ¯¥à¥å÷¤ ¯®§­ ç¥­® ᨬ¢®«®¬ ' ').

Žáâ ­­÷¬ ªà®ª®¬ ¯¥à¥å®¤ã ¤® áªã«¥¬÷¢á쪮ù áâ ­¤ àâ­®ù ä®à¬¨ ¬ õ

áâ â¨ §¢¥¤¥­­ï ý¯÷¤ª¢ ­â®à­®ùþ ç á⨭¨ ä®à¬ã«¨ ¤® ª®­'⨢­®ù ä®à-

¬¨ (Š”) . à®â¥, ¢ ¤ ­®¬ã ¢¨¯ ¤ªã ¯÷¤ª¢ ­â®à­  ç á⨭  ä®à¬ã«¨ ¢¦¥

§­ å®¤¨âìáï 㠊”, ®â¦¥ ¬¨ ®âਬ «¨ áªã«¥¬÷¢áìªã áâ ­¤ àâ­ã ä®à¬ã.

‚¨¯¨è¥¬® ®âਬ ­ã ¬­®¦¨­ã ¤¨§'î­ªâ÷¢:

1. ¬B(a, c) ∨ A(f (b));

2. B(x4 , c);
3. ¬A(f (x3 )).
„®¢¥¤¥¬® ¯à®â¨à÷ç­÷áâì ®âਬ ­®ù ¬­®¦¨­¨ ¤¨§'î­ªâ÷¢ § ¤ ­¨¬¨ ¬¥-

⮤ ¬¨.

1. Œ¥â®¤ ᥬ ­â¨ç­¨å ¤¥à¥¢.

„«ï ®âਬ ­®ù ¬­®¦¨­¨ ¤¨§'î­ªâ÷¢ ¥à¡à ­÷¢á쪨© ã­÷¢¥àá㬠H â 

¥à¡à ­÷¢á쪨© ¡ §¨á A ­¥áª÷­ç¥­­÷:

H = {a, b, c, f (a), f (b), f (c), f (f (a)), f (f (b)), f (f (c)), . . . };

A = {A(a), A(b), A(c), B(a, a), B(a, b), B(a, c), . . . , B(c, c),
A(f (a)), A(f (b)), A(f (c)), B(a, (f (a)), . . . }.

80
7.1. „®¢¥¤¥­­ï § £ «ì­®§­ çãé®áâ÷ ä®à¬ã«¨

à¨ ¯®¡ã¤®¢÷ ᥬ ­â¨ç­®£® ¤¥à¥¢ , § ¬¥â®î ¯à¨áª®à¥­­ï ¯à®æ¥áã

஧¢'易­­ï § ¤ ç÷, ¢¨ª®à¨á⮢㢠⨬¥¬® ¢ ¯¥àèã ç¥à£ã â÷ ¥«¥¬¥­â¨

¥à¡à ­÷¢á쪮£® ¡ §¨áã, ïª÷ á¯à®á⮢ãîâì «÷â¥à¨ ¬­®¦¨­¨ ¤¨§'î­ªâ÷¢

(à¨á. 13).

A(f(b)) ØA(f(b))

B(a,c) ØB(a,c)
(3; b /x3)
(1) (2; a /x4)

¨á. 13

÷«ï á¯à®á⮢ãîç¨å ¢ã§«÷¢ (¯®§­ ç¥­÷ åà¥á⨪ ¬¨) 㠤㦪 å § ¯¨á -

­® ­®¬¥à ¤¨§'î­ªâ , 直© á¯à®á⮢ãõ ¤ ­¨© ¢ã§®«,   â ª®¦ ¢÷¤¯®¢÷¤­÷

¯÷¤áâ ­®¢ª¨.

2. Œ¥â®¤ १®«îæ÷©.

‡ áâ®á®¢ãîç¨ ¬¥â®¤ १®«îæ÷©, ®âਬãõ¬® ¯®à®¦­÷© ¤¨§'⠧  ¤¢ 

ªà®ª¨:

1. ¬B(a, c) ∨ A(f (b));

2. B(x4 , c);
3. ¬A(f (x3 ));

4. A(f (b)) (R(1, 2), a/x4 );

5.  (R(4, 3), b/x3 ).

81
 8. ¥ç÷âª÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨

8. ¥ç÷âª÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨

8.1. ‚÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï ­¥ç÷âª¨å ¬­®¦¨­

®¡ã¤ã¢ â¨ ®¡à § § ¤ ­¨å ­¥ç÷âª¨å ¬­®¦¨­ ­  R §  § ¤ ­®î ç¨á«®-

¢®î äã­ªæ÷õî.

1. 5. μA
μA
1
1

x
-δ1 0 δ2 x
-δ1 0 δ2
d1 > d2 > 0, f (x) = e−x
2
.
A · f (A), f (x) = 1
x
.

2. 6.
μA
μA
1
1 2 2
x +y =1

x
-1 0 1
x
-1 0 1 1
f (x) = x
.

f (x) = arctg x.
7. μ
μB 1 μA

x
3. b1 δ 0 δ b2 a1 δ δa a2
μA b b a

1 f (x1 , x2 ) = 2x1 + 3x2 .

x 8.
μ
0 δ 2δ 1
μA μB μC

f (x) = − x12 . 0 δb b δb
x
δa a δa δc c δc

f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 2x1 + x2 − 3x3 .

4.
μA 9.
μ
1
1
x
2
μA μB
y= - δ +12

x x
-δ 0 δ 0 π π
δa δa δb δb
3 2

1
f (x) = x
. f (x1 , x2 ) = sin(x1 + x2 ).

82
8.1. ‚÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï ­¥ç÷âª¨å ¬­®¦¨­

10. 16. μA μB
μA
1 1
1
x x
-δa 0 δa -δb 0 δb
x
-δ 0 δ f (x1 , x2 ) = ex1 x2 .
1
f (x) = x
.

17.
μA
11.
μ
1
μA 1 μB

x
0 x
δa a δa δb
b
δb
0 π
2
π

f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 + x22 .
f (x) = tg x.
12.
μ
1
μA μB
18.
μA
0 x
δa a δa δb δb 1
x1
f (x1 , x2 ) = x22
.

x
13. -δ 0 δ
μA

1
f (x) = e− x2 .
1

x
0 δ 2δ
19.
μA

f (x) = √1 . 1
x

14.
μA
x
1
-δ 0 δ

f (x) = e− |x| .
1

x
0 δ 2δ

1
f (x) = x2
. 20.
μA

15.
μ
1
μA μB
x
x 0 δ 2δ
0 δa a δa δb b1 b2 δb

f (x1 , x2 ) = 2x1 + 3x2 . A · f (A), f (x) = 1

x
.

83
 8. ¥ç÷âª÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨

21. 26.
μ μ
1 1
μA μB μA μB

x x
-2δa -δa 0 δb 2δb -2δa -δa 0 δb 2δb

x1
f (x1 , x2 ) = x2
.
f (x1 , x2 ) = x2
.
x1

22. 27.
μA μA
1 1
y=cos x
y=cos x
x x
- π2 0 π
2 - π2 0 π
2

f (x) = arcsin x. f (x) = tg x.

23.
μ
1
28.
μA μB μA
1

x
-2δ -δ 0 δ 2δ x
x1 -δ 0 δ

f (x1 , x2 ) = e x2
. 1
f (x) = x2
.
24.
μA -x2
1 y =e
29.
μA
x 1
0

f (x) = ln x. 0 a1 a2 a3
x

25. 1
μA f (x) = x
.
1

30. μA μB
1 1
x
x x
 
0 δ 2δ
-δa 0 δa -δb 0 δb

x1 x2
A · f (A), f (x) = 1
.
f (x1 , x2 ) = ln 1 + d1 d2 .
x

Œ¥â®¤¨ç­÷ ¢ª §÷¢ª¨

¥å © X1 , X 2 , . . . , X n , Y { ª« á¨ç­÷ (ã­÷¢¥àá «ì­÷) ¬­®¦¨­¨, Ai ⊂ X i

( 1 6 i 6 n) { ¤¥ïª÷ ­¥ç÷âª÷ ¬­®¦¨­¨, f : X1 ×X2 ×· · ·×Xn → Y { ª« á¨ç­¥

¢÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï. ’®¤÷, §£÷¤­® § ¯à¨­æ¨¯®¬ 㧠£ «ì­¥­­ï ‹. €. ‡ ¤¥ (¤¨¢.,

­ ¯à¨ª« ¤, [29{32]), ®¡à § B = f (A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) ¢¨§­ ç¥­® ïª ­¥ç÷âªã

¬­®¦¨­ã B⊂Y § äã­ªæ÷õî ­ «¥¦­®áâ÷

mB (y) = sup min(mA1 (x1 ), . . . , mAn (xn )), (14)

(x1 ,...,xn )∈f −1 (y)

84
8.1. ‚÷¤®¡à ¦¥­­ï ­¥ç÷âª¨å ¬­®¦¨­

¢¢ ¦ îç¨ mB (y) = 0 ã ¢¨¯ ¤ªã

f −1 (y) = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ A1 × · · · × An : f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = y} = ∅.

‡ §­ ç¨¬®, é® f : X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn → Y ã ä®à¬ã«÷ (14) ¬®¦­  ஧£«ï-

¤ â¨ ïª äã­ªæ÷î § ®¡« áâî ¢¨§­ ç¥­­ï Df ⊂ X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn .


 0.1, x = −1;




1, x = 0;
à¨ª« ¤ 8.1. ¥å © A ⊂ R, mA (x) = 0.5, x = 1;



 0.3, x = 2;


0, x ∈/ {−1, 0, 1, 2},
f : R → R, f (x) = x2 . (
√ √
−1 {− y, y}; y > 0,
Žáª÷«ìª¨ f (y) = §  ä®à¬ã«®î (14) ®âਬã-
∅, y < 0,
õ¬®:

√
mA2 (0) = mA ( 0) = mA (0) = 1;
√ √
mA2 (1) = max(mA (− 1), mA ( 1)) = max(0.1, 0.5) = 0.5;
√ √
mA2 (4) = max(mA (− 4), mA ( 4)) = max(0, 0.3) = 0.3;
√ √
mA2 (y) = max(mA (− y), mA ( y)) = 0 ¤«ï y > 0, y ∈/ {0, 1, 4};
mA2 (y) = 0 ¤«ï y < 0.
Žáâ â®ç­® ®âਬãõ¬®:



 1, x = 0;

0.5, x = 1;
mA2 (x) =

 0.3, x = 4;


0, x ∈
/ {0, 1, 4}.
(
0, x ∈/ [−d, d];
à¨ª« ¤ 8.2. ¥å © A ⊂ R, mA (x) =
1 − xd2 , x ∈ [−d, d].
2

85
 ¥ª®¬¥­¤®¢ ­  «÷â¥à âãà 
1. ¨àª£®ä ƒ. ’¥®à¨ï à¥è¥â®ª [’¥ªáâ] / ƒ. ¨àª£®ä. { Œ. :  ãª , 1984.
{ 568 á. { 9400 ¯à.

2. ®­¤ à¥­ª® Œ. ”. „¨áªà¥â­  ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª  [’¥ªáâ] / Œ. ”. ®­¤ à¥­ª®,

. ‚. ÷«®ãá, €. ƒ. ã⪠á . { • àª÷¢ : ýŠ®¬¯ ­÷ï ‘Œö’þ, 2004.
{ 480 á. { 1000 ¯à. { ISBN 966-8530-10-1.

3. ‚ ­ ¤¥à ‚ à¤¥­ . €«£¥¡à  [’¥ªáâ] / . ‚ ­ ¤¥à ‚ à¤¥­. { Œ. :  ãª ,

2004. { 624 á. { 2000 íª§. { ISBN 5-8114-0552-9.

4. ‚¥à¥é £¨­ . Š. ‹¥ªæ¨¨ ¯® ¬ â¥¬ â¨ç¥áª®© «®£¨ª¥ ¨ ⥮ਨ  «£®à¨â¬®¢.

— áâì 1:  ç «  ⥮ਨ ¬­®¦¥á⢠[’¥ªáâ] / . Š. ‚¥à¥é £¨­, €. ˜¥­ì. {
Œ. : Œ®áª. 業âà ­¥¯à¥àë¢. ¬ â. ®¡à §®¢ ­¨ï, 1999. { 128 á. { 3000 íª§.
{ ISBN 5-900916-36-7.

5. ‚¨«¥­ª¨­ . Ÿ. Š®¬¡¨­ â®à¨ª  [’¥ªáâ] / . Ÿ. ‚¨«¥­ª¨­. { Œ. :  ãª ,

1969. { 327 á.

6. ‚¨­¡¥à£ . . Šãàá  «£¥¡àë [’¥ªáâ] / . . ‚¨­¡¥à£. { Œ. : ˆ§¤ â¥«ìá⢮

ý” ªâ®à¨ « à¥ááþ, 2002. { 544 á.

7. ‚« ¤¨¬¨à®¢ „. €. ã«¥¢ë  «£¥¡àë [’¥ªáâ] / „. €. ‚« ¤¨¬¨à®¢. { Œ. :

 ãª , 1969. { 320 á. { 15000 íª§.

8. ƒ ¢à¨«®¢ ƒ. . ‡ ¤ ç¨ ¨ ã¯à ¦¥­¨ï ¯® ¤¨áªà¥â­®© ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª¥ [’¥ªáâ]

/ ƒ. . ƒ ¢à¨«®¢, €. €. ‘ ¯®¦¥­ª®. { Œ. : ”¨§¬ â«¨â, 2005. { 416 á.
{ ISBN 5-9221-0477-2.

9. „®­áª®© ‚. ˆ. „¨áªà¥â­ ï ¬ â¥¬ â¨ª  [’¥ªáâ] / ‚. ˆ. „®­áª®©. { ‘¨¬-

ä¥à®¯®«ì : ‘Ž€’, 2000. { 360 á. { 5000 íª§. { ISBN 966-7347-42-7.

10. ‡ ¢ «® ‘. ’. Šãàá  «£¥¡à¨ [’¥ªáâ] / ‘. ’. ‡ ¢ «®. { Š. : ‚¨é  èª., 1985.

{ 503 á. { 2300 ¯à.

86
¥ª®¬¥­¤®¢ ­  «÷â¥à âãà 

11. Š«¨­¨ ‘. Š. Œ â¥¬ â¨ç¥áª ï «®£¨ª  [’¥ªáâ] / ‘. Š. Š«¨­¨. { Œ. : …¤¨â®-

ਠ« “‘‘, 2005. { 480 á. { 500 íª§. { ISBN 5-354-01011-X.

12. Š®«¬®£®à®¢ €. . «¥¬¥­âë ⥮ਨ ä㭪権 ¨ ä㭪樮­ «ì­®£®  ­ -

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32. ‘¯¥ªâ®à᪨© ˆ. Ÿ. ®á«¥¤®¢ â¥«ì­®á⨠ä㭪権 ¨ àï¤ë ’¥©«®à  á ­¥ç¥â-

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¬ æ÷©­÷ â¥å­®«®£÷ù. { 2014. { ’. 2. { ‘. 125{140

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