PALAEOHISTORIA ACTA ET COMMUNICATIONES INSTITUTI ARCHAEOLOGICI UNIVERSITATIS GRONINGANAE 57/58 (2015/2016) University of Groningen / Groningen Institute of Archaeology & Barkhuis Groningen 2016 Editorial staff P.A.J. Attema, E. Bolhuis, R.T.J. Cappers, P.D. Jordan, M.A. Los-Weijns, J.H.M. Peeters, S. Voutsaki, S.L. Willemsen (coordinator/editor) Drawing ofice S.E. Boersma, E. Bolhuis (coordinator), M.A. Los-Weijns, S. Tiebackx Address University of Groningen Groningen Institute of Archaeology Poststraat 6 9712 ER Groningen The Netherlands gia@rug.nl Website www.palaeohistoria.nl Publisher’s address Barkhuis Kooiweg 38 9761 GL Eelde the Netherlands info@barkhuis.nl www.barkhuis.nl Typesetting Hannie Steegstra Cover design S.E. Boersma Cover Bronze ibula with three pinned-on rings from Crustumerium, Monte Del Bufalo burial ground, Tomb 153 (photo G.J.M. van Oortmerssen, RUG/GIA). ISSN 0552-9344 ISBN 9789492444592 Copyright © 2016 Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, the Netherlands. All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronical, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen. Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the information herein, no reponsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the authors for any damage to property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein. CONTENTS IN MEMORIAM WIM VAN ZEIST R.T.J. Cappers & P.B. Kooi 1 BLIOGRAPHY OF WIM VAN ZEIST R.T.J. Cappers, K. van der Ploeg & M. Schepers 4 IN MEMORIAM JAAP BOERSMA & OTTO HARSEMA 11 PREHISTORIC OCCUPATION OF THE LOWER PONTINE PLAIN (LAZIO, CENTRAL ITALY): THE EVIDENCE FROM RECENT FIELD SURVEYS M. La Rosa, T.C.A. de Haas & G.W. Tol 21 THE NEOLITHIC STONE CIST AT HEVESKESKLOOSTER (PROV. OF GRONINGEN, THE NETHERLANDS) H.K. Kamstra, J.H.M. Peeters & D.C.M. Raemaekers 37 HEATHLAND AND THE PALYNOLOGY OF PREHISTORIC BARROWS. REFLECTIONS ON THE INTERRELATION BETWEEN SOIL FORMATION AND POLLEN INFILTRATION W. Groenman-van Waateringe & T. Spek 55 A BRONZE HARVEST: DUTCH BRONZE AGE SICKLES IN THEIR EUROPEAN CONTEXT S. Arnoldussen & H. Steegstra 63 LATE ENEOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGE FUNERARY EVIDENCE FROM THE SANT’ANGELO IV CAVE (NORTHEASTERN CALABRIA, ITALY) F. Ippolito 111 EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS AT CRUSTUMERIUM (ROME), CA. 850-725 BC F. di Gennaro, B. Belelli Marchesini & A.J. Nijboer 117 CITY, COUNTRY AND CRISIS IN THE AGER CRUSTUMINUS. CONFRONTING LEGACY DATA WITH RESURVEY RESULTS IN THE TERRITORY OF ANCIENT CRUSTUMERIUM J.F. Seubers & G.W. Tol 137 DIE TERRA SIGILLATA AUS FRIESISCHEN TERPEN T.B. Volkers (mit einem Beitrag von M. Polak) 235 EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS AT CRUSTUMERIUM (ROME), CA. 850-725 BC F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER University of Groningen, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, The Netherlands ABSTRACT: Crustumerium was located about 14 km north of ancient Rome up the Tiber valley, at the boundary of the Latin territory with the lands of the Etruscans, Faliscans-Capenates and Sabines. From 850 BC to its incorporation into the Roman state around 500 BC, it grew into a considerable settlement extending over a tufa plateau of 60 hectares. Of the 400 tombs legally excavated at Crustumerium until 2013, only 23 can be assigned to the Iron Age settlement. In spite of their low number, the archaeological record is suficient to allow a discussion of the distribution, the main architectural features, the funerary rituals and the grave goods of the earliest tombs. The features of the Early Iron Age tombs will be examined, including their apparent low number and the way they are distributed in relation to the subsequent topographical development of the cemeteries, and the evolution of rituals and funerary architecture during the subsequent Orientalizing period. KEYWORDS: Early Iron Age, Latium, cemetery. 1. INTRODUCTION Crustumerium is a Latin frontier settlement that developed alongside Rome until the early 5th century BC when it became deinitively incorporated into the rising Roman state; the archaeological record, provided by 30 years of research, indicates that it ceased to be a settlement centre around 500 BC. Ancient authors too mention that Crustumerium and its territory were added to the ager Romanus antiquus as the irst tribus rustica named after its territory and not after its clan name in 495, following an invasion of the Romans in 499 (Tribus Clustumina: Liv. 2,19,2; 2,21,7; Quilici & Quilici Gigli 1980: 30-33; Cornell 1995: 174 and footnote 4). From that time onwards Crustumerium was no longer documented as an urban centre but noted by ancient authors for its fertile soil and territory (Liv. 1,11; Cicero, pro Flacco XXIX,71; Quilici & Quilici Gigli 1980: 24, 35-36), cited as ager Crustuminus (Varro, r.r. I, 14, 3; Liv. XLI, 9, 4-5) and as Crustumini montes (Liv. V, 37,7). In the preceding three and a half centuries, from c. 850 BC onwards, Crustumerium grew into a considerable settlement, extending over a tufa plateau of 60 hectares. It is now part of the Marcigliana Vecchia estate. Crustumerium is located about 14 km north of ancient Rome, up the Tiber valley at the intersection of the boundaries between Latins, Etruscans, Faliscans-Capenates and Sabines (ig. 1). Its development was boosted by its strategic position. It was crossed by a main road connecting Etruria and Campania. It was also touched by another major route for overland transport leading from the Tyrrhenian to the Adriatic Sea across the Apennines, dating at least to the Iron Age. It comprised various tracks running through the hills and a later track going through the plain (named Via Salaria in the Roman period); upon reaching the territory of Cures Sabini, all these parallel trails converged into a single mountain road (Cifarelli & di Gennaro 2000). This article will present the available data on the oldest tombs uncovered in the cemeteries surrounding Crustumerium until 2013. It will especially examine the geographic position of the Early Iron Age tombs and their particular features as well as those few components of the funerary ritual that persisted into the subsequent Orientalizing period, such as the selection of speciic pottery shapes. There were several burial grounds around the settlement plateau (ig. 2). Up till now, about 400 tombs have been legally excavated at Crustumerium and they represent an estimated 10% of the total number of tombs that surrounded the settlement from the late 9th to the end of the 6th century BC (Nijboer & Willemsen 2012: 36-38). Only 23 of the tombs excavated up to 2013 can be assigned to the early settlement, i.e. to Latial periods IIB and III (from 830 to 725 BC).1 The archaeological inds in the settlement - both from surveys and excavations attest that its occupation too dates back to this period, although a small part of the plateau was frequented even during the Early Bronze Age (di Gennaro, Schiappelli & Amoroso 1998: 151-154 and 163-171, ig. 11; Barbaro, Barbina & Borzetti 2013: 28-33, igs. 11-15). The chronological framework is the following: Latial period Absolute chronology Relative chronology IIA 950/925 - c. 875 BC Early Iron Age I IIB III IV Palaeohistoria 57/58 (2015/2016), p. 117 c. 875 - c. 830 BC c. 830 - 730/725 BC Early Iron Age II 730/725 - 580 BC Orientalizing period 118 F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER Tevere Falerii La Ferriera Nepi Nazzano FALISCI Campo del Pozzo Farfa Narce ja Tre CAPENATES Capena Monte S.Angelo Cures Passo Corese Lucus Feroniae Vaccareccia Colle del Forno iar Ch Eretum SABINI o an Fiora Cretone Veio Galeria Nomentum Crustumerium Torre di Prima Porta Fidenae ETRUSCHI Colle Ospedaletto Montecélio Marco Simone Vecchio Antemnae Ponte Mammolo Colle S.Agata Roma La Rústica Monte Roncione Tivoli ene Ani Corcolle Gabii Ost. D.Osa LATINI Teve r e Tellenæ Ficana Ostia Palestrina Acqua Acetosa Laurentina Castel di Décima M.Cavo 0 20km Fig. 1. Crustumerium and its surroundings (map RUG/GIA). Fig. 2. Crustumerium, the settlement indicated with a black line and the surrounding cemeteries in grey (map RUG/GIA). Early Iron Age Tombs at Crustumerium (Rome), ca. 850-725 BC The number of Early Iron Age tombs at Crustumerium is modest. The majority of the tombs are assigned to the 7th century BC and consist of individual fossa tombs or “a loculo” tombs containing one or two depositions.2 From the late 7th century onwards, chamber tombs are predominant, accommodating several burials probably pertaining to one family, and relecting a period of profound social and cultural transformation (Willemsen 2014). The limited number of Early Iron Age tombs at Crustumerium in relation to the sizeable number of tombs assigned to the subsequent Orientalizing period raises some questions. It might be caused by the preliminary stage of our ieldwork and/or by erosion. The early fossa tombs seem to be shallower than the later ones, and as the 7th- and 6th-century BC tombs are frequently ploughed out, we may expect this to have happened to Early Iron Age tombs as well. Another hypothesis that needs to be explored is selectivity in funerary practices per site or region. In the Middle-Tyrrhenian area a large number of Early Iron Age tombs are found next to the largest settlements, while the number of Early Iron Age tombs in the interior towards the Apennines is limited, as, for example, in the nearby Sabina. Despite their small number, the available data on the earliest tombs around Crustumerium do help to shed light on the choices made by the community with respect to funerary rituals and the veneration of ancestors, and on the development of the burial grounds. 2. TOPOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS The 23 Early Iron Age tombs at Crustumerium discussed here were found at six locations around the settlement area; all of these cemeteries have provided evidence of subsequent use for burials, except for the Inviolatella area, where no investigation has been performed (di Gennaro 1999: 14; Attema et al. 2014: ig. 3). One tomb is situated in the large burial ground at Sasso Bianco (ig. 2) which faced the Tiber valley, which was partially excavated in 1987 (di Gennaro 1988: 122-123, ig. 9; Belelli Marchesini 2013: 97, ig. 3). The chronological evidence is provided by a single typical small jar, a so-called olletta a rete (Belelli Marchesini 2013: ig. 7)3 from SB Tomb 21, a shallow and poorly preserved feature which could no longer be studied in detail. This tomb is located next to a dense cluster of later tombs and possibly belonged to an early cemetery which was erased by erosion. Iron Age surface inds, 250 m SW from Sasso Bianco, may derive from a partially ploughed-out burial ground, located close to the settlement area. On the opposite side of the settlement, another isolated early tomb was discovered at the electricity plant near Crustumerium in the Inviolatella estate (ig. 2), containing fragments of incised ceramics, three or four ibulae and a suspension ring. This tomb was probably part of a 119 burial plot on the road to Fidenae, the next centre along the Tiber and the Via Salaria, 6 km SW of Crustumerium. The other 21 tombs assigned to the Early Iron Age are found in the Monte Del Bufalo (MDB) cemetery (ig. 2), at four different locations. Three of the locations still need to be fully investigated, whereas the last one can be examined in detail. MDB Tomb 18 is an apparently isolated, female and intact tomb assigned to the Early Iron Age II. It is located among later graves in the western part of the MDB cemetery (ig. 3, B) and close to the settlement boundary. Tomb 18 has been presented in an earlier publication to note the close resemblance between the Iron Age material culture at Veii and Crustumerium (di Gennaro, Schiappelli & Amoroso 1998: 151, ig. 2-3). MDB tombs 2 and 3 belong to a cluster of tombs next to the Trincea Viaria, one of the main entrances to the settlement in the form of a road cutting (ig. 3, C). This cluster has been partially explored (di Gennaro 1988: 116-121). The third location is in the northeastern side of the MDB cemetery (ig. 3, D) and features MDB tomb 339, which is a badly eroded male tomb with a spearhead and a dagger. Subsequent excavations in this same area during campaigns in 2014, 2015 and 2016 suggest that it may be part of a small group of Early Iron Age II burials with weapons. The bulk of the Early Iron Age tombs, 17 in total, are found in the MDB-Via della Marcigliana cluster of tombs (ig. 3, A; Belelli Marchesini & Pantano 2014: 12-23). At Crustumerium there are clusters of various types, ranging from small family clusters consisting of a limited number of tombs that frequently intersect and in their inal phase also feature chamber tombs, to larger concentrations of tombs in the vicinity of older ones. Such larger concentrations of tombs, closely arranged, are best illustrated by the Via della Marcigliana cluster, which includes a small but meaningful group of Early Iron Age tombs. This group of tombs is so far unique for Crustumerium. Together with the surrounding, later tombs, it covers an area of about 2000 square metres, forming the largest coherent cluster of tombs at the site so far (ig. 4). This cluster consists of 88 tombs, including 7 chamber tombs of the late 7th and 6th centuries BC. Over a period of 250 to 300 years, new tombs were added speciically in this section of the burial ground, resulting in a close packing of tombs and representing the demographic and social evolution of a speciic group within the community living at Crustumerium. In our view, this cluster represents a prominent extended family of a clan or gens, who traced their ancestry into a distant past. Comparable, though less long-lived clusters of tombs have been recorded at Veii (Toms 1986; Guidi 1993; Pacciarelli 1999: 267-276, ig. 143) in Etruria, at Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 785-787), at Acqua Acetosa Laurentina (Bedini 1984; Bedini 1990: 48-50) and at Satricum (Waarsenburg 1995: 315-317) in Latium Vetus, as well as at Torre Galli (Pacciarelli 1999: 67-106, 120 F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER Fig. 3. Crustumerium, Monte Del Bufalo burial ground. Map with topographical distribution of the 21 Early Iron Age tombs in this necropolis (map M. Sabatini, elaboration B. Belelli Marchesini). Early Iron Age Tombs at Crustumerium (Rome), ca. 850-725 BC 121 Fig. 4. Crustumerium, Monte Del Bufalo burial ground. The Via della Marcigliana group, with numbers of Early Iron Age tombs inserted (in grey). The burial area is delimited to the SW by a natural depression (map M. Sabatini, elaboration B. Belelli Marchesini). igs. 22-25) and Pontecagnano (Gastaldi 2006: 113-114, ig. 2) in Campania and many other Iron Age sites in Italy. The topographical distribution of Early Iron Age tombs in the Via della Marcigliana cluster suggests that similar tight groups may have existed elsewhere around the settlement. 3. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FOSSA TOMBS’ STRUCTURE During much of the late 9th and 8th centuries BC the funerary structure is the plain, individual, trench or fossa grave. Of the 21 Monte Del Bufalo tombs reviewed here, 15 were strictly rectangular (MDB 2, 3, 18, 129, 136, 139, 141, 149, 153, 155, 156, 188, 198, 201 and 205): the trenches exhibit parallel, mostly rectilinear and vertical long sides with straight or slightly convex and vertical short sides. The short sides of a single grave might differ somewhat, possibly to mark the orientation of the tomb. Thus the short side near the skull of the deceased is usually convex. Some tombs differ from the above description: the fossa of MDB tomb 147 is very irregular and MDB tomb 142 is tapering, while both have a convex short side at the foot. The size of the tombs varies somewhat, but the average lies around 240-250 in length and 65-75 cm in width. The smallest tomb is MDB 3, of a girl aged 2 to 4 years, measuring 121 by 57-60 cm, while the largest fossa tomb, belonging to an adult female, is MDB tomb 156, measuring 270 by 65-75 cm. The orientation of the tombs appears to be fairly strict, being NNE to ENE, and was respected in the subsequent early Orientalizing period as well. There are a few exceptions: MDB 201, for example, points WNW with the head. The uniformity of the tomb architecture during most of the 8th century BC contrasts with the variety and complexity of tomb types that we ind at Crustumerium during the late 8th and 7th centuries BC (di Gennaro 2006; di Gennaro & Belelli Marchesini 2010; Belelli Marchesini 2013). The 17 Early Iron Age tombs in the MDB-via della Marcigliana cluster are distributed over the southern section of the burial ground, arranged in rows with regular spacing, and might belong to a few separate small groups, each exhibiting a slightly different orientation. Several tombs of this cluster have been disturbed and few skeletal remains are preserved, hence the gender of 40% of the individuals could not be determined either through archaeological or through anthropological analysis. From different kinds of evidence, 40% of the individuals were identiied as females, and males made up the remaining 20%. Age composition can be reconstructed on the basis of skeletal remains, which were preserved only in half of the tombs: all of these inhumations were of adult individuals, except for the child aged 2-4 years. 122 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Fig. 5. Assemblage of grave goods inside the Early Iron Age tombs of Crustumerium (table authors). TERNA MDB339 MDB205 MDB201 MDB198 MDB188 MDB170 MDB160 MDB156 MDB155 MDB154 MDB153 MDB149 MDB147 MDB142 MDB141 MDB139 MDB136 MDB129 MDB18 MDB 3 MDB 2 SB 21 F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER Early Iron Age Tombs at Crustumerium (Rome), ca. 850-725 BC 4. THE ASSEMBLAGE OF GRAVE GOODS The grave goods of the Early Iron Age tombs so far excavated at Crustumerium (ig. 5) include a maximum of 5 impasto objects per burial. A restricted number of shapes is usually represented: the cup with high-raised handle, the mug, the jug and the biconical neck-jar. The objects are placed in three main locations: next to the head, along the right side of the body or beside the feet. The number of disturbed tombs and the poor preservation of the skeletons do not allow a detailed study of the combinations of grave goods, their ritual deposition in the tomb nor the relation between the objects and the body. Nevertheless, in those tombs that are fully preserved, their arrangement is mostly fairly standard. For example, the cup with high-raised handle is usually placed above or beside the head, whereas the jug is placed next to the feet or on top of the knees and the shinbones, sometimes on the right side of the body. The position of the mug varies: it seems to be associated either with the cup or with the jug, and not to occupy a speciic location with respect to the deceased. During the subsequent early Orientalizing period, when the funerary customs changed signiicantly by separating the goods from the body, the mug is often placed next to the deceased and most probably had a ritual meaning. The female ornaments of the Early Iron Age frequently comprise one or a couple of ibulae, small suspension rings, fermatrecce and a necklace (Belelli Marchesini & di Gennaro 2011: 323-325). The poor preservation of many of the skeletons does not allow identiication of the exact position of the ibulae with respect to the body: they are generally placed on the chest, below the chin. In MDB tomb 18, there is a third ibula which was next to the right femoral head (hip joint) and may belong to a shroud. Occasionally a spindle-whorl is found in a female burial, placed either next to the head or near the right arm/ hand; whereas a spearhead, in one case associated with a sword, points to a male inhumation. The high incidence of eroded or robbed tombs also affects the possibility of a detailed study of the composition of the grave goods with respect to the representation of the social persona in the Early Iron Age. Nevertheless, the presence of sheet-metal objects seems to be rare and is possibly intended to stress a speciic social status of the dead. In MDB tomb 156, belonging to an adult woman, the exceptional meaning of the bronze cup among the standardized set of funerary goods is underlined by its position: it was separated from the pottery and placed next to the feet, whereas the impasto cup was on the opposite short side of the trench, beyond the head. In the later MDB tomb 3, belonging to an infant burial, a poorly preserved bronze object (possibly a basin) was found next to the personal ornaments. The pottery forms appearing as standard grave goods are designed for containing, serving and drinking a 123 beverage, which suggests the consumption of wine as the focus of funerary ideology (Iaia 1999: 65). Among the shapes, the cup with a high-raised handle seems to have a particular symbolic value, which is highlighted by its role in a local development of the burial rite. In the subsequent Orientalizing tombs of Crustumerium, the grave goods include and repeat all the shapes which are involved in the presentation, dilution and distribution among the participants in the communal consumption of wine: a peculiar feature is the large number of small cups with a raised handle (up to 55) and their circular disposition around a jar, so as to suggest that they were tied together through the handles in the funerary context, after being used by a group of mourners (circumpotatio). The cup, as its Greek name kyathos suggests, was used not only to draw a speciic amount of liquid from the jar, but also to measure the quantity of wine each member of the group was entitled to. The Orientalizing grave goods also include vessels which were used for eating, such as bowls and plates, providing evidence for the social and cultural transformation that occurred from the late 8th century onwards. Among the Early Iron Age tombs so far excavated, only MDB tomb 3, which belongs to the transition from Latial periods III and IV, includes a bowl that can be interpreted as a sign of the changing funerary ritual. The small amphora on a circular stand from MDB tomb 153 (ig. 13) is so far a unique example at Crustumerium and can be interpreted as a ceremonial vase: its shape recalls the typical Latin calefattoio, interpreted as a ritual stand (Torelli 1997: 583-595) for the presentation of food or beverages (Colonna 1988: 428; Mandolesi 2005: 276) or hinting at the preparation of food (di Gennaro et al. 2009: 155-158). The spindle-whorl is present only in ive burials of adult women. Even if we assume that the absence of the spindle-whorl is sometimes caused by the poor preservation of most graves, the low number is meaningful and suggests a relationship with a speciic social role and maybe also with a speciic age group. It should be noted that in Latium the spindle-whorl is present in all female depositions belonging to the periods I and II, since it represented the social role all women were entrusted with from their birth (Bietti Sestieri 2008; 2012: 7-9), whereas in the following periods spinning and mostly weaving implements are often associated with high-status graves (De Santis 2007) and relect a progressive transformation of the social order. The excavated Early Iron Age tombs at Crustumerium do not preserve any other traces of ritual acts during the funeral, such as food offerings or intentionally broken objects included in the ill of the grave. Nevertheless, the peculiar position of the mug in MDB tomb 153 suggests that it was used during the funeral but not given to the deceased: in fact it was placed on top of a rough bank made of rubble and earth beside the grave, whereas the actual grave goods were lying on the bottom of the pit. 124 F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER Fig. 6. Crustumerium, Early Iron Age mugs (drawings M. Sabatini, elaboration S. Boersma, RUG/GIA). 5. NOTES ON THE TYPO-CHRONOLOGY A preliminary typo-chronological discussion of the artefacts in the Early Iron Age tombs is feasible, based on the available documentation. We present mugs, jugs, double-handled biconical neck-jars, cups, amphoras, double-handled cups and suspension rings. 5.1 Mugs The mugs can be divided into two main groups, each The mugs can be divided into two main groups, each comprising several types: mugs with a short vertical strap handle on the shoulder (in Italian: boccale), and mugs with a raised handle (in Italian: boccale-attingitoio). The mugs belonging to the irst group have a large lat base and a more or less laring body with incurving rim. The mugs with a more elliptical body shape (ig. 6, 1-2) are comparable to type Toms VII 1 of Veii (Toms 1986: 88, ig. 20: phases IC-IIB). Possibly belonging to the same group is a fragmentary mug with rich incised decoration (ig. 6, 3), parallels for which are offered by a mug from Veii, Quattro Fontanili, tomb E-F 11-12, no. 12 (Bedello & Fabbricotti 1975: 133, ig. 46, phase Toms IIB) and by a similar mug with a stemmed foot and an animal protome, from tomb DD7-8 (Ward-Perkins et al. 1967: 117, no. 1, igs. 16 and 118, no. 6). The second group of mugs, those with a raised handle, comprises at least two different types. The irst type, with a regular, convex, short body on a large base (ig. 6, 4) is comparable to type Bettelli V3 (Bettelli 1997: 45, pl. 8:5; Gierow 1966: ig. 35:11, type XIVK, from Marino); Osteria dell’Osa, tomb 26 (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 761, ig. 3a.412) and type 17a (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 274, pl. 20, Latial periods II to IV). Parallels for the second type, with asymmetrical proile (ig. 6, 5), are found at Osteria dell’Osa, tomb 475, no. 1 (Bietti Sestieri 1992: ig. 3a. 218 (with shorter handle), phase IIB2) and tomb 26, no. 1 (Bietti Sestieri 1992: ig. 3a. 412, phase IIB); Mentana, Quarto della Conca, tomb I (Gierow 1966: 148, ig. 35:12). The shape here deined as a mug precedes the so-called “attingitoio a botticella”, documented in Orientalizing tombs from Latium Vetus, as well as from Etruria. 5.2 Jugs (in Italian: orciolo) The jugs comprise at least three different typological groups. The irst group (ig. 7, 1) has an ovoid-globular body on a lat base, with outturning rim and one vertical strap handle on the shoulder. It is comparable to type 11h at Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 264, pl. 18, Latial period II), which has parallels in Pontecagnano and Sala Consilina, and is similar to a jug from tomb BB8-9 at Veii, Quattro Fontanili (Ward-Perkins et al. 1967: 106, ig. 8, no. 1, phase Toms IIA). The second group includes biconical jugs with a conical body on a lat base, convex shoulder, conical neck and outturning rim. Within this group two different types are represented by one item each: the irst (ig. 7, 2) has a squat shoulder and a large mouth, and may be compared Early Iron Age Tombs at Crustumerium (Rome), ca. 850-725 BC 125 Fig. 7. Crustumerium, Early Iron Age jugs (drawings M. Sabatini, elaboration S. Boersma, RUG/GIA). to type Bettelli 5 which has three knobs (Bettelli 1997: 48 and 140, pl. 12:1, phase IIB1-IIB2); the second (ig. 7, 3) is attested by a fragmentary jug with a convex shoulder and a tapering neck, which is akin to Osteria dell’Osa type 12a (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 266-267, pl. 19, Latial period II). The third group is that of biconical decorated jugs on a stemmed foot, which can be divided into two different types. The irst one (ig. 7, 4) has a globular, compressed body on a stemmed foot; high convex tapering neck, with everted rim. The neck is decorated with a band of hooked swastikas delimited by two horizontal single zigzag lines. The body is decorated with angular patterns on the shoulder, four different metopes at its widest circumference and a double zigzag line encircling the bottom. The foot is decorated with a single-line meander. A zigzag line encircles the inner side of the rim. It is close to types Bettelli VI 3C1 (Bettelli 1997: 47, pl. 10:2 and 63:4, phase IIA2-IIB1, with narrower mouth and lower foot), Osteria dell’Osa 12b1 (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 268, pl. 19) and Gierow V5 (Gierow 1966: 170, ig. 150:5). 126 F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER Fig. 8. Crustumerium, Early Iron Age double-handled neck-jars (drawings M. Sabatini, elaboration S. Boersma, RUG/GIA). The second type (ig. 7, 5) has a conical body but slightly compressed and has a short, tapering, almost straight neck; the decoration is simpliied and displays angular patterns on the shoulder as well as zigzag lines. 5.3 Double-handled biconical neck-jars (in Italian: vaso a collo su piede) The double-handled neck-jars are typical vessels of the Latial Early Iron Age, with a body reminiscent of the jugs, but always with a foot and a pair of horizontal handles. Our sample can be divided into two main groups. The irst subtype is the jar with a short and distinct cylindrical neck and a short everted rim (ig. 8, 1), which is almost identical to those from Osteria dell’Osa, tomb 126:7 (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 564-565, ig. 3a. 21, phase IIA1) and from Tivoli, tomb 45 (Colonna et al. 1976: 195, tav. XXXIV:2, but decorated) and corresponds with type 10a of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 258, pl. 17, Latial period II). The second group includes two different jars with a tapering neck. The irst example (ig. 8, 2) has a compressed globular body with slight grooves on the upper part of the body. It is comparable to type Bettelli 5c (Bettelli 1997: 41, tav. 3:2) and to type 10a of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 258, pl. 17, Latial period II). The second example (ig. 8, 3) has an ovoid body with incised decoration consisting of a zigzag line on the shoulder, near the transition to the neck; an incised band of three double-angle motifs on the shoulder, between the handles; an incised single-line meander encircling the foot; and a single double-angle motif above the handles. It is akin to type Bettelli 4 (Bettelli 1997: 41, table 3, no. 4, and table 71, phases IIB2-III A). 5.4 Cups (in Italian: tazza) All cups have a raised, biforal handle and can be divided into two main groups: cups with an upright rim and cups with a wide and squat body. The irst group comprises three cups of different types. The irst type (ig. 9, 1) has a conical, deep body with a slightly concave proile, convex shoulder, short upright lip and three knobs at the widest point of the body. It is similar to a cup from Veii, Grotta Gramiccia, tomb 779 (Berardinetti & Drago 1997: ig. 20, irst half of 8th century BC), associated with an imported chevron skyphos dated 780-770 BC (Boitani 2004: 321, tav. 3:1). The shape corresponds with type Toms V8 (Toms 1986: 85, ig. 20, phases IC-IIB) and Guidi 34F (Guidi 1993: 28, ig. 2:7, phase IIA). It is also similar to a cup from Castel di Decima, tomb 132 (Castel di Decima 1975: 387, ig. 24, Early Iron Age Tombs at Crustumerium (Rome), ca. 850-725 BC 127 Fig. 9. Crustumerium, Early Iron Age cups(drawings M. Sabatini, elaboration S. Boersma, RUG/GIA). no. 13), dated to Latial period IIB2 (Bartoloni & Nizzo 2005: 412). Besides, it is akin to cups from tomb 22 at Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 748, ig. 3a.389, no. 3, Latial period II, maybe IIB), and tomb 14B (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 746, ig. 3a.386, no. 2, Latial period II, maybe IIB) and corresponds to type Bettelli 9B (Bettelli 1997: 66, pl. 29:2, phase IIA2). The second type (ig. 9, 2) has a handle with a saddle-shaped top and transversally grooved front; the incised decoration includes a one-line meander encircling the rim and the base, a band with zigzag lines alternating with angular patterns, and a zigzag line on the body, just below the widest point. It is similar to type 21a of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 290, pl. 23, with everted lip, Latial period II) and to cups from Veii, with a slightly deeper body and a stemmed foot, but identical decoration (Toms 1986: 84, ig. 22; Ward-Perkins et al. 1967: 106, tomb BB8-9, ig. 8, no. 2, phase IIA), and from Latium (Gierow 1966: 117, ig. 23:6, type VIID). The third type (ig. 9, 3) has a deep tronco-conical body and a large, lat base. It is decorated with vertical grooves at its widest point. It is akin to cups from Veii, Quattro Fontanili tomb EEFF11, no. 1 (Ward-Perkins et al. 1967: 146, ig 28, phase Toms IIA) and tomb FF7-8, no. 3 (Ward-Perkins et al. 1967: 151, ig 39, p. 151, phase Toms IIB). The shape is also similar to Osteria dell’Osa, type 20a (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 280, table 21, p. 280: Latial period II). The cups belonging to the second group are decorated on their widest point with a band of N-shaped angular motifs (similar to De Angelis 2001: 27, pl. 2, type 6A2) delimited by horizontal lines, and with grooves on the front of the handle. The irst type (ig. 9, 4) features a high biforal handle and horn-shaped projections; parallels are type Bettelli 19B3 (Bettelli 1997: 73 pl. 34: 10 and 70, phase IIB2) and Toms V5 (Toms 1986: 84, ig. 22, phase IIA of Veii). The last type of cup at Crustumerium (ig. 9, 5) has a saddle-shaped handle and can be compared to Veii’s types Guidi 36C (Guidi 1993: 28-30, ig. 5:9, phase IIA-IIB1) and Toms V3 (Toms 1986: 84, ig. 2,: conined to phase IIA); it is also similar to type 22d of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 295, pl. 23, with everted rim, period II) and type Bettelli 19A2 (Bettelli 1997: 72, pl. 34:6, phases IIB2-IIIA). 5.4 Amphoras (in Italian: anforetta) The small amphora (ig. 10,1) is similar to examples from Latium (Ampolo et al. 1980: 1, tav. 13:5), e.g. Praeneste (Gatti 2013: 318, ig. 14), and can be dated to phase IIIB2 (Gusberti 2005: 161, ig. 2, 4). Fig. 10. Crustumerium, Early Iron Age double-handled cups and amphorae (drawings M. Sabatini, elaboration S. Boersma, RUG/GIA). 128 F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER Fig. 11. Crustumerium, Early Iron Age suspension rings (drawings M. Sabatini, elaboration S. Boersma, RUG/GIA). 5.5 Double-handled cups (in Italian: tazza biansata) The specimen from Crustumerium (ig. 10, 2) belongs to type 100a of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 333, tav. 30, period IV; Ampolo et al. 1980: tav. 13, tipo 5, Latial period III) and to type Carafa 174 (Carafa 1995: 74), which is documented in tombs 88 and 89 of the Esquiline, Rome (Gjerstad 1956: 230, ig. 206:2, 237, ig. 211:7) and in tomb M of the Forum Romanum (Gjerstad 1966: ig. 41:1). 5.6 Suspension rings (in Italian: anello da sospensione) Suspension rings with ibulae can be divided into two groups according to their size. The irst group includes three rings (diameter 5,5/6 cm) with a different section. The irst ring (ig. 11, 1) has a diamond-shaped, slightly asymmetrical section and is decorated with a zigzag line on both sides. It corresponds with type 45g of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 383, table 40), Gierow type VIb (Gierow 1966: 332) and type Bettelli XXXVI7A1 (Bettelli 1997: 116, pl. 53:8); it can be dated to Latial period IIIB1 (Gusberti 2005: 164, ig. 5:1-2). The second ring (ig. 11, 2) has a diamond-shaped section and is undecorated. It corresponds with type 45b of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 381-382, table 4, periods II-III) and type Gierow VIa (Gierow 1966: 332, ig. 94). It is also documented at Caere, Sorbo (Pohl 1972: 204, ig. 181, tomb 441:1; 206, tomb 443, nos 8-9, ig. 183; 209, tomb 451, no. 6, ig. 185; 237, tomb 214, no. 1, ig. 225; 263, tomb 440, no. 1, ig. 266). The third ring (ig. 11, 3) is larger and has an elliptical section, which might be due to erosion; it has no parallels. The second group consists of a ring (ig. 11, 4) with a diamond-shaped, symmetrical section, decorated on both sides with a zigzag line (diameter 9 cm). It corresponds to type Bettelli VA3 (Bettelli 1997: 116, tav. 53:4 and pl. 72, phases IIB2-IIIA) and type Gierow VIb (Gierow 1966: 332, ig. 94), and can be dated to Latial period IIIB1 (Gusberti 2005: 164, ig. 5:1-2). 6. NOTE ON THE CHRONOLOGY The evidence so far indicates that no tombs at Crustumerium predate Latial period IIB. Of course this does not imply that occupation of the urban plateau itself cannot be earlier, but it should be stressed that the possibility of closely dating the artefacts depends on the overall knowledge of the Latin material culture of this period and the relation between the typo-chronological sequences of Latium Vetus and Veii as presented above. In this respect, parallels for some artefacts at Crustumerium sometimes suggest a date in Latial period IIA, but most of these types continue into IIB; however, the associated ornaments that can be more accurately assigned to a phase, indicate the transition between periods II and III. This is therefore the most probable date for the earliest tombs at Crustumerium. 7. CONCLUSIONS The available evidence for the few earliest tombs recovered at Crustumerium until 2013, which pertains to Latial Period IIB and Period III, c. 850 to 725 BC, and includes the evidence from partially preserved tombs, sheds light on the following archaeological aspects: the topographical distribution of the earliest tombs and their small number; the period of the settlement’s foundation; the cultural features of the local community and the possible attribution to one of the historical “ethnic” groups that faced each other in this area. As regards the location of the earliest tombs, these are found at various locations around the settlement, indicating that several cemeteries were used from the start, as was the case at some other prominent Iron Age settlements in central Italy. The cemeteries at Crustumerium expanded signiicantly in the subsequent Orientalizing period. An intriguing aspect is the small number of Early Iron Age II tombs at Crustumerium compared to those of the Orientalizing period. Restricted access to formal burial during this period remains a possible explanation, Early Iron Age Tombs at Crustumerium (Rome), ca. 850-725 BC in spite of two important conlicting factors: the presumably large number of tombs destroyed by natural erosion and as a result of agricultural activities and secondly, as a result of the creation of later tombs. The incomplete anthropological and archaeological data do not allow the identiication of any category (in terms of age, gender, role etc.) that might have had privileged access to formal burial. As regards the hypothesis of the loss of fossa tombs, we would also like to point to the reuse of 8th-century tomb markers, known as cippi. Some of these cippi were found in the ill of tombs that were constructed in the late Orientalizing period, at least a century later (Belelli Marchesini 2013: ig. 8). The reused cippi, also in areas where we did not ind Iron Age tombs, indicate that originally there must have been more Early Iron Age tombs at Crustumerium, many of which will have been ploughed out in past centuries. Naturally it is impossible to say whether any, and if so how many, Early Iron Age tombs in Crustumerium were destroyed even in Antiquity by the expansion of tomb clusters; the available data from the cemeteries suggest a conscientious treatment of previous burials up till c. 625-600 BC, when chamber tombs came into use at Crustumerium. With respect to the social ordering of the community at Crustumerium, we emphasize that so far no elaborate warrior tombs with sheet-bronze tableware have been recovered, like those occasionally excavated at some other sites such as “Villanovan” Veii and Tarquinia (e.g. Iaia 2005a). These lavishly furnished male tombs of the 8th century BC precede the even richer tombe principesche of the Early Orientalizing period, neither kind found at Crustumerium so far. It is certainly too early to say that the social stratiication was not expressed ostentatiously in the funerary architecture and artefacts as at nearby Etruscan Veii and, later, at Sabine Eretum. However, elaborate Early Iron Age II warrior tombs are rare in Latium Vetus, nor are they documented in nearby Sabina. At Crustumerium there are a few male tombs dating to the 8th century BC with a limited number of weapons and these may well relect the distinctive attitude towards arms in Latium Vetus, as pointed out for nearby Osteria dell’Osa where the male inhumation tomb 262, dated to around 800 BC, was the irst to receive a functional weapon, a bronze javelin head (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 785786).4 The treatment of weapons in male tombs at both Osteria dell’Osa and Crustumerium is comparable, characterised by a limited deposition of functional weapons early on, but increasing during the 7th century BC. At Osteria dell’Osa weapons are found in 58 male tombs assigned to periods III and IV - mainly spearheads and swords, except for warrior tomb 600, which is unique and interpreted as that of an immigrant from southern Etruria (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 511-512). The partial expression of social status in the tombs at Crustumerium might be related to the conservative features observed in its funerary record, but this requires 129 some relection, especially as regards MDB tomb 141, to be presented comprehensively in the catalogue below. The tomb contains the poorly preserved skeleton of a child aged 2 to 4 years. In Early Iron Age Latium, infant tombs are underrepresented in the necropolises. From the beginning of the 8th century, several children were buried inside the settlements and next to dwellings (De Santis in Bietti Sestieri 1992: 786; Modica 2007: 218220). In Latin cemeteries some infants were inserted in family clusters (Modica 1993:10). However, MDB tomb 141 contains ornaments and a complete set of pottery that matches infant burials at other sites (e.g. Osteria dell’Osa: Bietti Sestieri 1992: 504). This conirms that in certain child tombs the distinction between adult and infant burials diminishes from c. 800 BC onwards. However, taking into account the death rate of children more in general, the archaeological data from Latium Vetus indicate that only few children were buried in the settlement or in the necropolises. Historical sources show that in agricultural communities before the 19th century AD the rate of infant mortality was high (e.g. Scheidel 1999: 266; Morris 1989: 57-62).5 If up to 50% of all children in the Early Iron Age failed to reach the age of 5, child burials should have constituted a considerable proportion of the tombs. In Iron Age central Italy the percentage of children’s graves is far from this high, and the burial of small children in a necropolis is considered exceptional (e.g. Nijboer & Willemsen 2012: 38). When children did come to be selected for formal burial in a family plot, they must have been deemed special and these burials require a detailed reading. At some important sites in central Italy, children’s graves that appear from c. 800 BC onwards are accompanied by status goods and even symbols of power. The 8th- and 7th-century tombs of children containing such artefacts, like a chariot, an array of weapons or a bulla, are often interpreted as evidence of social stratiication (e.g. Pacciarelli 2001: ig. 139, 265-276; Bartoloni 2003: 102-105; Emiliozzi 1999: 326; Becker & Nowlin 2011). These tombs demonstrate that social status was assigned at birth. MDB tomb 141 might belong to this group of exceptional children’s tombs but, in our view, the accompanying artefacts are not distinctive enough to prove the existence of social classes at Crustumerium from c. 800 BC onwards. Even so, it remains intriguing that the body of this little girl was singled out to be buried in this cluster of tombs at Crustumerium, with artefacts comparable to those in the Early Iron Age II adult female tombs in her vicinity. We would inally like to emphasize the signiicance of this cluster of 17 Early Iron Age II tombs, of which three are fully presented below: MDB tombs 141, 153 and 156 (igs. 4, 12, 13 and 14). The cluster of tombs of which these graves form part, situated next to the Via della Marcigliana, emerged around 825 BC and remained in use as a burial plot for at least two and a half centuries, roughly ten generations (Belelli Marchesini & Pantano 130 F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER 2014: 14-24). As a designated area for burials, it was in use by an extended family who interred some of their relatives here. If they all received a formal burial, ten generations of an extended family would have resulted in far more graves than the 88 recorded ones. Yet the selection criteria for those to be buried in this plot remain unclear, as was also pointed out in the discussion of MDB tomb 141, above. Cemeteries in central Italy may contain tomb clusters of various types: of a family, an extended family or a kinship group. Some consider such clusters that through time develop around the oldest tombs as an indication for the existence of clans or gentes.6 These clusters on average contain tens of tombs, covering a period of 100 to 150 years, or four to six generations. It follows that burial in such a plot was highly selective; the vast majority of the group represented by such a cluster were not interred at this location. Christopher Smith rightly points out that such individual clusters are not indicative for the existence of gentes. He argues that the clusters are too small and too short-lived to record lasting clan lines that might comprise hundreds or thousands of people, resulting in thousands of tombs if all were buried for several generations.7 Such numbers are only found in whole necropolises and not in individual clusters of tombs in Italy. The clusters more probably relect kinship groups that used a speciic burial plot for generations. It is likely, though, that the separate cemeteries around primary settlements in central Italy originally each represented a clan, since they were made up of several clusters or kinship groups. It is known that the settlement of Crustumerium did not go back to to the Final Bronze Age. So the time of its founding falls between the beginning of the Iron Age and the terminus ante quem represented by the graves described here, Latial Period IIB. The material culture at Crustumerium relates it to the Latins; both the artefacts and the funerary rite show connections with the area to the south of Crustumerium. Yet it needs to be stressed that the 8th-century funerary culture of the nearby Sabines is still poorly understood. Remarkable is the highly traditional or conservative nature of some artefacts associated with funerary ritual at Crustumerium. As mentioned in the notes on the typo-chronology above, several ceramic vessels and ornaments, such as the mug, the cup with a raised handle and the suspension ring, present in the oldest tombs, were still being placed in tombs during much of the 7th century BC. Even so, the 17 Early Iron Age tombs that represent the oldest phase of the long-lived Via della Marcigliana cluster are highly representative for Crustumerium as far as their features and contents are concerned. To show this in detail, we close this paper with illustrations and a full catalogue of three well-preserved Early Iron Age tombs from this cluster. 8. CATALOGUE The catalogue includes three Early Iron Age tombs from the ‘Via della Marcigliana’ cluster of tombs at Crustumerium (ig. 4), which preserve both ornaments and grave goods, which were restored by the Laboratory of Conservation of the Groningen Institute of Archaeology. The parallels are mainly provided to address the cultural relationships of Crustumerium with Latium Vetus and with the other Fig. 12. Restored artefacts from Tomb 141 (photo G.J.M. van Oortmerssen, RUG/GIA). Early Iron Age Tombs at Crustumerium (Rome), ca. 850-725 BC side of the Tiber: the Etruscan town of Veii and the territory of the Faliscans. 8.1 MDB 141 (ig. 12) The tomb, oriented to the N-E, is 50-55 cm wide and 170 cm long. It contains a poorly preserved skeleton of a girl, aged 2-4 years: just some teeth and fragments of the skull were traced. The child was buried with a relatively rich set of ornaments: a pair of bronze ibulae, each one adorned with aring, on the chest; a string of beads, which was found where the right arm must have been. The beads may belong either to a bracelet or to a necklace. The pottery was placed above the head (nos 1, 2) and next to the feet (nos 3, 4). The tomb can be assigned to the transition between Latial Period IIB2 and Period III, around 825-800 BC. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Impasto cup (inv. SSBAR 507376) with straight rim, convex shoulder, deep tronco-conical body and large, lat base. It is decorated with vertical grooves at its widest point. The handle is missing. Diam. mouth 6.5; Diam. base 3.1; Height 4.9. It is akin to cups from Veii, Quattro Fontanili: tomb EEFF11, no. 1 (WardPerkins et al. 1967: 146, ig 28, phase Toms IIA); tomb FF7-8, no. 3 (Ward-Perkins et al. 1967: 151, ig 39, phase Toms IIB). The shape is similar to Osteria dell’Osa, type 20a (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 280, table 21, Latial period II). Impasto mug (inv. SSBAR 507377) with ovoid convex body, incurving rim and a large lat base; the lower attachment of the handle is preserved. It is decorated with an incised zigzag line just below the rim; an incised zigzag line combined with angular motifs at its widest point and an incised single-line meander just above the base. Diam. mouth 6; Diam. base 5.5; Height 7.8. It is comparable to a mug from Veii, Quattro Fontanili, tomb E-F 11-12, no. 12 (Bedello & Fabbricotti 1975: 133, ig. 46, phase Toms IIB) and is similar to another mug with a stemmed foot and an animal protome from tomb DD7-8 (Ward-Perkins et al. 1967: 117, no. 1, igs. 16 and 118:6). Impasto jug/“orciolo” (inv. SSBAR 507378) with deep conical body on a lat base, convex shoulder, conical neck and outturning rim. A vertical strap handle is attached to the shoulder and the widest point of the body. Diam. mouth 10.8; Diam. base 5.2; Height 13. The shape of the body corresponds with type Bettelli 5 (Bettelli 1997: 48 and 140, pl. 12:1, phase IIB1-IIB2), which has three knobs. Double-handled biconical neck-jar (inv. SSBAR 507379) with deep ovoid body on a low stemmed foot and convex shoulder; a carination between body and conical neck and outturning rim. Two opposing horizontal handles are applied to the widest part of the body. The decoration consists of an incised zigzag line on the shoulder, next to the transition to the neck; an incised band of three double-angle motifs (Bietti Sestieri 1992: table 6, type XIIb) on the shoulder, between the handles; an incised single-line meander encircling the foot; a single double-angle motif above the handles. Diam. mouth 12,3; Diam. base 8.3; Height 16.7. It is comparable to type Bettelli 4 (Bettelli 1997: 41, table 3, no. 4, and table 71; phases IIB2-IIIA). Bronze ibula (inv. SSBAR 507380); semi-circular leech bow 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 8.2 131 ibula with short catchplate. The decoration on the upper surface of the bow consists of transverse bands with a herringbone pattern, delimited by incised and dotted lines. A small ring is caught in the catch. L. 5. It corresponds with type 38x of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 364, table 36; Latial period III), and to the type Toms I.16 (Toms 1986: ig. 23, phase IIA-IIB) of Veii. The decoration corresponds with type i29 of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 357, table 35). Bronze ibula (inv. SSBAR 507381); semicircular leech bow ibula with short catchplate. The bow is decorated with six transverse, spaced bands of herringbone pattern, delimited by deep incised lines. L. 3.5. It corresponds with type Toms I.12 of Veii (Toms 1986: ig. 22, phase IIA), type Guidi 90A2 (Guidi 1993: 46, ig. 3:7, phase IIA), type 38x of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 364, table 36; Latial period III) and type Lo Schiavo 113b (Lo Schiavo 2010: 261-262, pl. 128). Bronze suspension ring (inv. SSBAR 507382). Diamond-shaped and slightly asymmetrical in section; decorated on both sides with a zigzag line. Attached to ibula no. 5. D. 5.5; W. 1.1. It corresponds with type 45g of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 383, table 40); type Gierow VIb (Gierow 1966: 332); type Bettelli XXXVI7A1 (Bettelli 1997: 116, pl. 53:8); it can be dated to Latial period IIIB1 (Gusberti 2005: 164, ig. 5:1-2). Bronze suspension ring (inv. SSBAR 507383). Diamond-shaped in section. Attached to ibula no. 6. Diam. 6; Width 0.9. It corresponds with type 45b of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 381-382, table 40, Latial periods II-III); Gierow 1966: 332, ig. 94, type Via. It is also documented at Caere, Sorbo (Pohl 1972: 204, ig. 181, tomb 441:1; 206, tomb 443, nos 8-9, ig. 183; 209, tomb 451, no. 6, ig. 185; 237, tomb 214, no. 1, ig. 225; 263, tomb 440, no. 1, ig. 266). String of twelve glass paste beads of different types and colours (inv. SSBAR 507384). ○ 3 complete and 2 fragmentary globular beads of blue glass, with white circular inlays. D. 0.8 (Osteria dell’Osa, type 89g: Bietti Sestieri 1992: pl. 46). ○ 4 globular beads of dark coloured glass. Diam. 0.5-0.6 (Osteria dell’Osa, type 89a: Bietti Sestieri 1992: pl. 46) ○ 1 white circular bead. Diam. 0.7. ○ 1 globular bead of light brown glass. Diam. 1.5. ○ 1 fragmentary long bead of blue glass paste with central perforation. Diam. 0.9. The position of the beads suggests that they may belong with a suspension ring corresponding with type 45h of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 383, pl. 40). Two fragmentary small bronze rings. Diam. 1.2; 1.6. They are similar to type 48evar I of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 392, pl. 39). MDB 153 (ig. 13) The tomb, oriented to the ENE, was transversally cut at the western edge by the deep, early Orientalizing tomb 150. It is 120 cm wide and more than 185 cm long. The associated artefacts and the preserved teeth indicate a woman aged 40-50 years, who was buried in a cofin in the southern half of the grave pit. The ornaments included 132 F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER Fig. 13. Restored artefacts from Tomb 153 (photo G.J.M. van Oortmerssen, RUG/GIA). a copper wire, which was found next to the head, and a ibula with suspension ring, which sat on the chest. On the right-hand side of the body there were a spindle whorl and a cup. An amphora on a stand was placed next to the feet: it probably was part of a group of objects which were accidentally moved in Antiquity during the digging of tomb 150, as is suggested by the presence of Early Iron Age sherds in its ill. In the northern half of the ditch and beside the cofin, there was a sort of ledge made up of tuff rubble and earth: on top of it was a mug, which may have been used for ceremonial purposes during the funeral. The tomb can be assigned to the transition from Latial period IIB2 to Period III, around 825-800 BC. 1. 2. Impasto mug (inv. SSBAR 508546); ovoid body with inturning rim, on a wide, lat base; raised vertical handle, ovoid in section. Diam. mouth 8.1; diam. base 5.2; Height 9.9. The shape of the body is similar to Osteria dell’Osa, tomb 475, no. 1 (Bietti Sestieri 1992: ig. 3a. 218, with shorter handle, phase IIB2) and tomb 26, no. 1 (Bietti Sestieri 1992: ig. 3a. 412, phase IIB); and to a specimen from Mentana, Quarto della Conca, tomb I (Gierow 1966: 148, ig. 35:12). Bronze fermatrecce/hair ornament (inv. SSBAR 508547); spiral double wire, circular in section; the ends are made with a repeatedly folded (a serpentina) lat wire, which is tied with a thin bronze thread. Diam. 5. This ornament corresponds with type 47d of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 388, pl. 40, phases II-III) and with type Bettelli 1B (Bettelli 1997: 118, pl. 54:6), which includes examples from Osteria dell’Osa and also Tivoli. It is documented at Veii, QF HH14 (Ward-Perkins et al. 1965: 143, ig. 60; phase Toms IIA), CC7 (Ward-Perkins et al. 1970: 223, ig. 25, no. 13; phase Toms IIB) corresponding with type Guidi142 (Guidi 1993: ig. 6:12); in the necropolis of Sorbo at Caere, tomb 96, no. 5: (Pohl 3. 4. 5. 1972: 23, ig. 18, no. 5), tomb 273 (Pohl 1972: ig. 58); at Narce, tomb 18B (Dohan 1942: 11-13 pl. IV, no. 29). Spindle whorl (inv. SSBAR 508548); ceramic, spheroid and ribbed. Diam. 3.6; Height 2.4. It corresponds with type 33c (medium size) of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 312, pl. 26, periods II-IV). Bronze ibula with three pinned-on rings (inv. SSBAR 508549); the ibula has a semi-circular, swollen bow, thickened in the middle, and a short, pointed catchplate. The incised decoration on the bow is poorly preserved: it consists of transverse bands with multiple lines alternating with a herringbone pattern; in the middle there is a pair of transverse zigzag lines. Length 8. The rings are lat to segmented in section, and are engraved with two zigzag lines. Diam. 3; Height 1.7. The ibula belongs to type 38v of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 363, pl. 36), which is an intermediate type between swollen-bow and leech brooches, and is assigned to the transition between periods II and III; (Toms 1986: ig. 16, type I4 (phase IBIIA) and ig. 22, type I8 (phase IIA)). The section and decoration of the rings resemble the rings of type 46m of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 386, pl 39, period III) and type Bettelli 7A1 (Bettelli 1997: 112, tav. 52, no. 5). Impasto amphora on a stand (inv. SSBAR 508550); low globular body with short oblique shoulder; large and slightly tapering neck and distinct everted rim. Opposing vertical strap-handles, from rim to shoulder (only one preserved). The shoulder is decorated with an encircling, incised zigzag line; the body at its widest point with an incised band of double-angle motifs (Bietti Sestieri 1992: table 6, type XIIb). The circular stand has a slightly convex and tapering proile and four irregular, rectangular openings at mid-height. Diam. mouth 8.6; Diam. base 9.7; Height 19.2. The amphora has no exact parallels. It is reminiscent of type 7j of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 246, pl.13, on a tall stemmed foot, Latial period II), and is similar to artefacts from Castel di Decima, tomb 212 (Zevi et al. 1975: 372, ig. 5 a) and Vigna Cavalletti Early Iron Age Tombs at Crustumerium (Rome), ca. 850-725 BC 133 Fig. 14. Restored artefacts from Tomb 156 (photo G.J.M. van Oortmerssen, RUG/GIA). 6. 8.3 (Gierow 1966: 211, ig. 74:3, stand type 3 on a squarish base). The shape of the body is akin to an amphora from the infant tomb QF W3 of Veii (Ward-Perkins et al. 1970: 188, ig. 8:5, phase Toms Ic). Impasto cup (inv. SSBAR 508551); low, conical body with slightly concave proile, on a concave base; convex shoulder, with a slight carination, short upright lip; three knobs at the greatest circumference. High biforal handle, saddle-shaped on top and grooved on the front. The cup is decorated with a single-line meander on the rim and three angular motifs at its widest point (similar to De Angelis 2001: 27, pl. 2, type 6A2). The projections on the handle are decorated with an incised zigzag line. Diam. mouth 9.8; Diam. base 3.4; Height 4. It corresponds with types Guidi 36C (Guidi 1993: 28-30, ig. 5:9, phase IIA-IIB1) and Toms V3 (Toms 1986: 84, ig. 22, conined to phase IIA). It is similar to type 22d of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 295, pl. 23, with everted rim, Latial period II) and type Bettelli 19A2 (Bettelli 1997: 72, pl. 34:6, p. 72, phases IIB2-IIIA). MDB 156 (ig. 14) The tomb, oriented NE-SW, is 65-70 cm wide and 270 cm long. The skeletal remains were restricted to fragments of a femur, but the associated artefacts indicate an adult woman. The position of the deposition was marked by the ornaments, including a pair of ibulae, a suspension ring, a necklace and fermatrecce/ hair ornaments] (traces preserved). A cup (no. 1) was placed above the head and three impasto vases were aligned along the right-hand side of the body. A bronze cup was placed next to the feet. The pottery from this tomb can be dated to Latial period IIA2 and IIB, whereas the ornaments suggest a date in Latial period III. 1. Impasto cup (inv. SSBAR 508561); conical deep body with slightly concave proile; convex shoulder, short, upright lip; three knobs at the widest point of the body. High biforal handle, from rim to shoulder. Diam. mouth 9.5; Diam. base 4.5; Height 9. It is similar to a cup from Veii, Grotta Gramiccia, tomb 779 (Berardinetti & 2. 3. 4. 5. Drago 1997: ig. 20, irst half 8th century BC), associated with an imported chevron-ornamented skyphos dated 780-770 BC. (Boitani 2004: 321, tav. 3,1). The shape corresponds with type Toms V8 (Toms 1986: 85, ig. 20, Phases IC-IIB) and Guidi 34F (Guidi 1993: 28, ig. 2:7, Phase IIA). It is also similar to a cup from Castel di Decima, tomb 132 (Zevi et al. 1975: 387, ig. 24, no. 13) dated to the Latial period IIB2 (Bartoloni & Nizzo 2005: 412). It is almost identical to a cup from tomb 22 of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 748, ig. 3a.389, no. 3, Latial period II, maybe IIB), and 14B (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 746, ig. 3a.386, no. 2; Latial period II, maybe IIB) and corresponds with type Bettelli 9B (Bettelli 1997: 66, pl. 29:2, Phase IIA2) Impasto mug (inv. SSBAR 508562); deep ovoid body on a wide base, with incurving rim; one short vertical strap handle on the shoulder. Diam. mouth 7.4; Diam. base 6.4; Height 11.2. It corresponds to type Toms VII 1 of Veii (Toms 1986: 88, ig. 20, Latial period IC-IIB). Impasto jug (inv. SSBAR 508563); ovoid-globular body on a lat base, with outturning rim; one vertical strap handle on the shoulder. Diam. mouth 8; Diam. base 5.2; Height 13.6. It corresponds to type 11h of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 264, pl. 18, Latial Period II), which has parallels in Pontecagnano and Sala Consilina. It is similar to a jug from tomb BB 8-9 of Veii, Quattro Fontanili (Ward-Perkins et al. 1967: 106, ig. 8, no. 1, phase Toms IIA). Impasto double-handled biconical neck-jar (inv. SSBAR 508564); deep ovoid body on a short stemmed foot; short and distinct cylindrical neck, with everted rim. Two horizontal ring handles, with trapezoidal proile, on the widest point of the body. Diam. base 8; Diam. mouth 10; Height 15. It is almost identical to the jars from Osteria dell’Osa, tomb 126: 7 (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 564-565, ig. 3a.21, Latial period IIA1) and from Tivoli, tomb 45 (Colonna et al. 1976: tav. XXXIV:2, 195, but decorated) and corresponds with type 10a of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 258, pl. 17, Latial period II). Bronze ibula (inv. SSBAR 508565); semi-circular leech bow ibula with short, pointed catchplate. The decoration on the bow consists of spaced transverse bands of herringbone pattern. Length 6.4. It corresponds with type 38w of Osteria dell’Osa (Bietti Sestieri 134 6. 7. 8. 9. F. di GENNARO, B. BELELLI MARCHESINI & A.J. NIJBOER 1992: 364, pl. 36, Latial period III) and Toms I.12 (Toms 1986: pl. 22, phase Veii IIA). Bronze bowl with raised handle (inv. SSBAR 508566); convex body on a lattened base, short convex shoulder and laring, distinct rim. The embossed decoration includes short and close-set ridges encircling the base; a row of dots lanked by two rows of smaller dots at the transition from base to body; and vertical, widely spaced ridges on the body. Vertical handle attached to the inside of the rim and to the shoulder with rivets, showing an ancient repair. Diam. mouth 11.7; Height 3.8. This type of bowl is not common in comparison with the broad diffusion of the bowls that stem from the StillfriedHostomice type (Iaia 2005a:188-198; Iaia 2005b: 459-463). It is documented in Tarquinia (Müller 1959: Taf. 132: 1:3) and Veii (Toms 1986: 95, type XVI 1, ig. 22; 95, ig. 27, type XVI 4). A good parallel is provided by the decorated bowl from tomb HH14 of Veii, Quattro Fontanili (Ward-Perkins et al. 1965:138, ig. 61, phase Veii IIB); for the shape, see also the undecorated bowl from tomb EE10B (WardPerkins et al. 1967: 145, nos 14-15, ig. 30, phase Veii IIA). A similar bowl, with a more angular proile, is documented at Narce, Petrina, tomb 36 (Gamurrini 1894: 202, ig. 88). Bronze suspension ring (inv. SSBAR 508567); elliptical in section, decorated on both sides with a double zigzag line. Diam 6; Width 1.4; Thickness 0.5. It is akin to Osteria dell’Osa type 45g (Bietti Sestieri 1992: 383, pl. 40, Latial period III). Bronze ibula with two rings attached (inv. SSBAR 508568); semicircular leech bow ibula with short catchplate. The decoration consists of three transverse bands of herringbone pattern, on the middle section of the bow; at both ends, incised concentric circles in a row and a solid transverse line. Cylindrical rings, one of them with a midrib. Length 7.3. For parallels see ibula no. 5. Amber beads (inv. SSBAR 508570); three fragmentary beads: one seems to be globular (Diam. 1), the others are oblong (Diam. 1.1; 0.8. Length 3.1; 2) and have a longitudinal hole. 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ZEVI, F., et al., 1975. Castel di Decima (Roma). La necropoli arcaica. Notizie degli Scavi, 233-408. NOTES 1 In 2014, 2015 and 2016, a few male tombs with weapons pertaining to this period were excavated just in front of or beneath the tumulus/agger (so-called site Quilici O) in the NE side of the Monte Del Bufalo burial ground, that are not presented here because they await full examination. 2 3 4 5 6 7 The typological class of “a loculo” tombs (with a niche) was elaborated in Veii and is well documented in the Faliscan territory (di Gennaro 2007): it has a rectangular pit with one (Narce type) or two (Montarano type) individual loculi, closed with vertical stone slabs. The presence of more than one deposition in a loculus is extremely rare. This artefact is similar to type Bettelli 2 and comparable to the small jar from tomb 33 of the Esquiline in Rome, dated to the Latial period IIIA (Bettelli 1994: 145, tav. 4, no. 4). The ritual treatment of weapons has been pointed out for other periods and regions in Italy as well (Bietti Sestieri et al. 2013: 166167). Scheidel writes that precise igures on infant and child mortality cannot be given, but that they must have been very high. This is conirmed by historical accounts about surviving children of some Roman rulers and patricians (Scheidel 1999: 266-272). Cf. Bietti Sestieri 1992: 199-220, 241; Pacciarelli 2000: 155-159, 271-273. Pacciarelli records such tomb-clusters at several sites in Italy from the 9th century onwards. Smith 2006: 147-50. His argument on duration is somewhat puzzling because the funerary record in Latium Vetus reveals a sharp decline in 6th century BC tombs. Therefore Latin gentes can no longer be studied in the funerary record of the 6th and 5th centuries BC. The Via della Marcigliana cluster at Crustumerium is exceptional because it includes seven chamber tombs that date from 625 to well into the 6th century BC (Belelli Marchesini & Pantano 2014: 21-23). This is the reason why the use of this cluster can be recorded for nearly 250 years. Compared to other Latin sites, Crustumerium reveals relatively much evidence for 6th-century BC tombs (Willemsen 2014). It is also puzzling because Smith does correctly acknowledge that during the Republic the clans lost political signiicance due to the rise of other institutions and ongoing state formation.