References

A Note on Chronology

and the Historical Background

Most, but not all, of the poetry included in this volume appeared during the nineteenth century. Its authors can be conveniently grouped as follows:

1. Preromantics: Akenside, Thomson, Collins, Gray, Smart, Burns, and Blake. Of these the most important are Burns and Blake. Practically all the preromantic poetry included here appeared during the eighteenth century.

2. Romantics. Romanticism covers roughly the first quarter of the nineteenth century (1800-1825). The romantic poets can be divided into two groups, earlier and later. The major poets of the first group were Wordsworth and Coleridge, whose best poetry was written in the decade or so following 1798, when their Lyrical Ballads appeared (it contained The Ancient Mariner and Tintern Abbey, among other poems). The second group consists of Byron, Shelley, and Keats, whose major poetry appeared during the fifteen-year period 1810-25. (By 1824 all three were dead.)

3. Victorians. The rest of the poetry in the volume, with the exception of The Lotos-Eaters and The Lady of Shalott (1832), came out during the Victorian era. (Queen Victoria came to the throne in 1837 and reigned till the end of the century.)

The chief poem not strictly covered by the above scheme is Wordsworth’s Prelude, published after its author’s death in 1850. It was written, however, in substantially its present form, before the end of the first decade of the nineteenth century.

The period during which the romantic sensibility was created and came to dominate English poetry (roughly, 1775-1910) was the period that ushered in modern times. During it England was industrialized; political power shifted within the nation; and scientific rationalism became increasingly important and influential. By 1800 a workable steam engine had been perfected; during the first two decades of the nineteenth century the textile industry moved from cottage production like the clothes-making described in Wordsworth’s Michael to a centralized system of factories and power looms; during the 1840’s occurred the widespread introduction of railroads; by 1871, 55 per cent of the population lived in villages, towns, or cities (as compared to 40 per cent in 1800). In 1789 the French Revolution began; in 1832 the English Parliament was reconstituted so as to give heavier representation to the new urban bourgeois and less power to a group of privileged landowners; and throughout the last half of the century the English franchise was being continually extended. Scientific rationalism invaded social studies with the theories of laissez-faire economists such as Smith and utilitarian philosophers such as the Mills; while such philosophers laid increasing emphasis on the satisfaction of man’s animal needs, the theories of Darwin and his predecessors dramatized the animality of man’s nature. In general, then, the period was one of increasing urbanization, mechanization, collectivization, and accumulation of financial power; it saw the weakening of degree as a factor in a society becoming progressively more fluid and less stable, as a comparison of Tom Jones (1749) and Vanity Fair (1847-8) would suggest; and it was marked by a general decline of traditional attitudes and beliefs together with an increase in scientific skepticism, curiosity, and discovery.

This ferment and these changes affected imaginative literature in two markedly different ways. In the novel, which during the nineteenth century assumed major importance as a literary form, a powerful effort was made to symbolize, to comprehend, and to interpret in terms of value the increasing complexities of modern society, both in respect to individuals and to wide areas of relationship between individuals. The scope of the novel became vast, as Bleak House and Middlemarch demonstrate; though simpler and more limited in texture than the greatest poetry, nevertheless in imaginative reach and fecundity such works compare with Lear or the Canterbury Tales.

The important poets of the period—who were never the same people as the important novelists—reacted otherwise to their age. In general it may be said that they reacted away from most of the historical tendencies described above. Frequently the age drove them either inward, to sensitive analyses of the individual soul, or outward to remote and exotic nations or centuries. To urbanization and the factory they opposed a natural landscape and rural countryside valued as never before; to collectivization, they opposed an individualism almost anarchic in some of its forms; to animalism they opposed the spirit; to rationalism, the creative imagination; to skepticism, faith. By contrast to the contemporary novelists and to the poets of earlier centuries—Pope, Dryden, or Chaucer—they seem to have sought less to understand their world than to understand themselves. All my works, said the most famous poet of the era, are fragments of a great confession.

Nature

Much of the poetry in this volume, whether preromantic, romantic, or Victorian, has to do with the world of external nature: rivers, mountains, trees, plants, the sky, the wind, night and day, the seasons, animals, the ocean. As a recent critic remarks, such poetry, in general, reads meanings into the landscape. This is true whether the poet be Gray, who sees the dark unfathomed caves of ocean as an emblem of the obscurity of village life; or Arnold, to whom the night tide retreating down the pebbly beach suggests the ebbing away of religious faith during his own scientifically minded epoch. The long day wanes as Ulysses, his life almost at an end, prepares to set forth on his final voyage; while on the unchanging Grecian urn the happy boughs can never shed their leaves, nor the heifer lowing at the skies ever reach the green altar where he is to be sacrificed. We might compare, in earlier poetry, the festal scene briefly painted in the opening lines of the Canterbury Tales; or Adam and Eve’s unfallen world in Milton, with its flowers of all hue, and without thorn the rose.

Earlier poetry, however, can give no clear idea of the peculiarly nineteenth-century ways of handling nature. Since some of these began making their appearance among the preromantics, we may begin their study with a comparison of two eighteenth-century poems, Akenside’s Ode on the Winter Solstice and Collins’s Ode to Evening.

Akenside’s ode, in its central structure, is logical and explicit. Winter is unfavorable to human activities; the poet therefore looks forward to the return of spring, season of young love. The first proposition is illustrated in a number of specific ways (by an ironical excess of heat in the opening stanza, for example); the contrast between seasons is bridged by the philosophic seventh stanza, which asserts an ultimate meaning behind life’s unpleasanter aspects; and in the last four stanzas, winter now disposed of, the poet turns to consider his own human gratifications—literature, companionship, and love—to which nature forms merely an appropriate incidental background. The pattern of the poem is a series of contrasts (between England and Bolivia, city and country, solitude and friendship); and just enough detail is given to sharpen each. Flowers and dews and streaming light is sufficiently evocative of spring for Akenside’s purpose; he is not embarking on a full-dress characterization of the season, and the speaker’s state of mind (disciplined exuberance) is not complex. Eudora, of course, might be anyone; the reader’s imagination is deliberately left at liberty to provide her with such dimensions and attributes as he deems most appropriate.

Collins’s heroine, Evening, is presented with infinitely more particularity. The poet’s subject is the transitional hour of twilight personified as a maiden whose temperament is related to the mood induced in the speaker by that period of the day, and whose attributes spring from the concrete experience of a landscape perceived through the half-lights of sundown. Instead of the pointed contrasts of Akenside, Collins evokes a mixture of qualities (neither light nor dark, neither noise nor silence) and sense-impressions which range from the vividly immediate (short shrill shriek) to the blurred and remote (hamlets brown and dim-discover’d spires). The whole scene is poised on the edge of disappearance (upland fallows grey / Reflect its last cool gleam). The poet appears in the poem as a spectator; as the recipient of impressions mainly emotional; and his statements form no logical pattern but merely pass from one sort of evening, one set of impressions, to another. By comparison to the social ease and learned toil of the Solstice ode, the abstractions in the last stanza of Evening are fairly gratuitous, what relation they have to the rest of the poem never being made explicit. How little the poem’s appeal depends on gratifying a reader’s logical powers may be also inferred from the way one stanza, grammatically speaking, often melts into the next, so that by the time the end of a long sentence is reached its original structure may have slipped one’s mind; in Akenside, stanzas and statements are co-terminous.

In Akenside, then, certain general aspects of nature are so arranged as to create an orderly effect and reinforce a chain of ideas; in Collins, sharp natural details are blended with hazier suggestive ones to build up, in cumulative fashion, a complex of emotions. The contrast, of course, is not exclusive: it would be wrong to say that Akenside had no feelings and Collins no ideas; but there is a contrast nevertheless. Akenside’s method, it can be said in general, is closer to Milton’s and Pope’s; Collins’s to that of Wordsworth, Keats, Shelley, and Tennyson. Milton’s Garden of Eden, for example, represents a kind of circumscribed perfection; its details are chosen and arranged to make that perfection explicit; they are followed by a series of comparisons to ether, less perfect Paradises. The Garden, like Pope’s rose that causes aromatic pain, is in the poem to serve a hard logical underlying purpose, however many immediate emotional nuances it may evoke. Furthermore, the reader is placed at one remove from Milton’s Garden: Milton does not present it as it burst on his eyes, but on Satan’s. Whereas the typical nineteenth-century poet, like Collins and even more than Collins, places himself (and us) in the immediate center of any natural scene, sacrificing dramatic or ironic detachment to direct, imperative appeal.

We can see this appeal at work, for example, in Wordsworth’s Tintern Abbey, in which the poet’s sister, whom he addresses in the final paragraph, is a sort of surrogate for the reader. The poem is cast in the form of a meditative soliloquy in which we are invited to stand with the speaker on the banks of this delightful stream, to retrace the steps in his emotional development, and to share in his concluding exhortations. So much that nature represented to the poets of this epoch is concentrated in the hundred and fifty lines of Tintern Abbey that the poem provides a convenient epitome of several important meanings that in those days could be, and often were, read into landscape.

1. In the first place, there is the sense of returning to an earlier world. For the past two centuries at least, the most striking movement of peoples in the Western nations has been from country to city, as industrialism increases and draws population more and more into the urban vortex; and it is probably no accident that much very popular poetry has associated the country, the village, the out-of-doors with childhood and with nostalgia for early youth.

Such, such were the joys

When we all, girls & boys,

In our youth-time were seen

On the Ecchoing Green.

So Blake, in his Songs of Innocence. If the poet himself happened to have been, like Coleridge, city-bred, he could still imagine a country childhood and promise one to his own offspring—as Coleridge does in Frost at Midnight, a poem parallel in several respects to Tintern Abbey. Wordsworth’s Prelude is the great exemplar of the childhood-landscape relation, its theme being essentially the effect on a sensitive man’s total life of early years spent among mountains and lakes remote from any metropolis.

Childhood is generally a time of fresh and vivid impressions, good health, and unreflecting spontaneity—a time of glad animal movements, aching joys, and dizzy raptures, as Tintern Abbey puts it. The sense of a return to nature as a turning-back to something that can never be quite recaptured, some haunting quality never vouchsafed save to the pure, and in their purest hour, enriches the perception of nature in Wordsworth’s Intimations Ode and, to some extent, in Coleridge’s Dejection. It is probably related to the emotions felt by many romantic writers for symbols of the unrecoverable past in general: such symbols as the time-hallowed pile in the Ode to Evening.

2. Connected with such feelings about nature and early youth in Tintern Abbey is the further conception of external nature as an environment in close, deep, and harmonious affinity with man. How often, says Wordsworth addressing the river, how often has my spirit turned to thee. Without such a conception much of the finest 19th-century poetry could never have been written. Nature’s education of Wordsworth’s Lucy by silent sympathy is a dramatic instance:

She shall be sportive as the fawn

That wild with glee across the lawn

Or up the mountain springs;

And hers shall be the breathing balm,

And hers the silence and the calm

Of mute insensate things.

The floating clouds their state shall lend

To her; for her the willow bend;

Nor shall she fail to see

Even in the motions of the storm

Grace that shall mould the maiden’s form

By silent sympathy.

The stars of midnight shall be dear

To her; and she shall lean her ear

In many a secret place

Where rivulets dance their wayward round,

And beauty born of murmuring sound

Shall pass into her face.

The variety of this catalogue implies completeness; surely no phase or feature of the outer natural world is without its appropriate counterpart in the inner world of human personality. Nature, then, can be all things to all men. To the revolutionary Shelley, the rough wind wails, like the poet himself, for the world’s wrong; or it lifts his own thoughts to scatter them like leaves, like glowing ashes, over the world in an apocalyptic prophecy of the coming Utopian spring. To Keats, beset by longing and heart-ache, the happiness of the nightingale’s song intensifies an unbearable consciousness of unattainable pleasures. To the grief-stricken Tennyson, the transient blossoms of the graveyard yew-tree correspond to the transience of his own momentary relief from sorrow:

Thy gloom is kindled at the tips,

And passes into gloom again.

Such a relationship is often dramatized, some character created by the poet engaging in a dialogue with some aspect of his natural environment. An example from the preromantics is the half-humorous, half-human affection of Burns’s auld farmer for one of his work-animals. Tennyson’s mariners find their own world-weariness reflected and embodied in a land in which it seemed always afternoon, a land where like a downward smoke, the slender stream / Along the cliff to fall and pause and fall did seem. Browning’s lover, in Two in the Campagna, searches for his own half-forgotten thought among the yellowing fennel and feathery grasses of the slope on which he sits. A unity, even a mating, between human and cosmic nature is strikingly exemplified in the figure of Tennyson’s Tithonus, the successful wooer of Aurora, goddess of Dawn. An older poet—Ovid or Spenser—would have treated such a subject by first wholly personifying and humanizing the goddess. Tennyson allows dawn to remain dawn, but his human protagonist to describe how he

. . . felt my blood

Glow with the glow that slowly crimsoned all

Thy presence and thy portals, while I lay,

Mouth, forehead, eyelids growing dewy-warm

With kisses balmier than half-opening buds

Of April, and could hear the lips that kissed

Whispering I knew not what of wild and sweet . . .

Man and morning dissolve in a love-embrace.

Nature as a harmonious setting for human nature sometimes evokes, by way of contrast, unhappy reflections about less favorable climates and atmospheres. Wordsworth in Tintern Abbey has left lonely rooms and the din / Of towns and cities to return to his sylvan Wye; Arnold’s wandering scholar-gipsy sits upon the river bank o’ergrown, Where black-winged swallows haunt the glittering Thames, and owes his imagined immortality to the fact that tired of knocking at preferment’s door he has abandoned forever the intellectual and spiritual bafflements of the world. Keats’s nightingale, not born for death, is in a similar condition; and the Ode gives us a glimpse of what specifically such bafflements consisted of in the line No hungry generations tread thee down, a reference to Malthus’s theory, propounded in the early nineteenth century, that since population always tends to outrun food supply, human poverty and famine can never be ultimately alleviated. A rural landscape (pastoral farms, green to the very door; some lone ale-house in the Berkshire moors; or the grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild) offered a refuge from the teeming city and the bad dreams bred or begotten there.

And more than a refuge. One corollary of the theory that rural nature is inherently attuned to human nature is the conception of a regenerative process, a source in the out-of-doors for the reintegration of one’s personality. This is a particularly important theme in poems like Wordsworth’s Resolution and Independence, where the metaphors comparing the leech-gatherer to a rock and a sea-beast help convey the sense of revitalizing power; or Arnold’s Thyrsis, where still the haunt beloved a virtue yields. In other poems the very failure or absence of such regenerative power sometimes provides a subject, as in Coleridge’s Dejection: an Ode or Shelley’s Stanzas Written in Dejection near Naples. The implication of poems like these latter two is that there ought to be a reciprocal communion, a reinvigorating harmony, between man and his surroundings, but that the human speaker is incapacitated to enter into it:

My genial spirits fail;

And what can these avail

To lift the smothering weight from off my breast?

It were a vain endeavor,

Though I should gaze forever

On that green light that lingers in the west:

I may not hope from outward forms to win

The passion and the life, whose fountains are within.

3. Tintern Abbey also embodies yet another conception of nature important to many nineteenth-century poets and philosophers—nature as a source and center of order, knowledge, certainty, stability—as an emanation, indeed, of God, of Eternal Mind. Wordsworth says, in lines as famous as any printed in this volume, that he is a lover of the mountains and the woods because he finds in them a sense sublime / Of something far more deeply interfused that rolls through all things. Nature in this view can be a guide and source of wisdom for human life, or an implicit assurance of life’s ultimate significance.

The origins of this conception, which arose chiefly during the two hundred years before the publication of the Lyrical Ballads, are partly religious and partly scientific. An older poet like Milton, if he asked ultimate questions about life, turned chiefly to two sources for answers: faith and reason, the Scripture in the Book and the Scripture in the Breast. So also the Canterbury Pilgrims usually base their convictions on authority (ancient writings, sacred or profane) and philosophical debate. The Wife of Bath, however, begins her own discourse by citing experience; and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as a body of scientific knowledge accumulated in several fields, experience, taking the form of hypothesis, experiment, and observation of the physical world, became as influential as theology in forming the conceptions of the universe held by educated people. It was sometimes combined with theology, as in the writings of the great scientists Newton and Priestley; if so, the newly found natural laws were cited in illustration of the wisdom of nature’s creator. In other thinkers the initial scepticism which is a part of the scientific method undermined traditional beliefs in God, redemption, or immortality. But in either case intense attention was devoted to the workings and the details of the natural universe itself.

Both points of view emerge among the romantic poets. Wordsworth found in the skylark the soul of a pilgrim, and took the bird for an emblem of traditional moral wisdom; in Tintern Abbey he predicts that nature will feed his sister with lofty thoughts. Shelley, who early in his career devoted a pamphlet to The Necessity for Atheism, finds a source of intense joy in man’s increasing knowledge of and power over the universe:

The lightening is his slave; heaven’s utmost deep

Gives up her stars, and like a flock of sheep

They pass before his eye, are numbered, and roll on!

The tempest is his steed, he strides the air;

And the abyss shouts from her depth laid bare,

Heaven, hast thou secrets? Man unveils me; I have none.

The more cynical Byron attributed cosmic speculations, when his callow hero Don Juan indulged in them, to the force of puberty and awakening desire. Later, in the Victorian age, with its new theories about the natural origin of man and of life itself, joy in the advantages of natural knowledge for man decreased, although nature remained a major element in poetry. The stars in Meredith’s sonnet may be an army of unalterable law; but to Tennyson the evidences of unalterable law in actual operation are the reverse of comforting: man who trusted God was love indeed / And love Creation’s final law seems destined only to Be blown about the desert dust / Or sealed within the iron hills.

4. The problem of immortality, which Tennyson considers in In Memoriam and resolves eventually by means of faith in a Being beyond and outside of nature, is also a central problem in Shelley’s Adonais. The forty-seventh stanza of this elegy, with its Spirit’s plastic stress which sweeps through the dull dense world recalls strongly Wordsworth’s something far more deeply interfused in Tintern Abbey. But nine stanzas later Shelley is speaking of how

Life, like a dome of many-colored glass

Stains the white radiance of Eternity,

and we are carried above, beyond, or behind the natural universe of sense-experience. A like extinction of the universe is implied in Tintern Abbey (we are laid asleep / In body, and become a living soul) and asserted very explicitly in the passage of Wordsworth’s Prelude devoted to the crossing of the Alps. To such apparently mystic experiences, as well as to the doctrine that nature itself is essentially a key to some eternal, nonnatural essence, the name of transcendentalism is sometimes given. According to this doctrine, as Coleridge put it in Frost at Midnight, nature is an eternal language uttered by God.

Man

Transcendentalism, at least among the important poets, did not survive the Romantic movement; but while it flourished it contributed largely to the conception of the hieratic function of the poet, a conception with which much writing of this period is concerned. A preromantic example is Blake:

Hear the voice of the Bard!

Who Present Past & Future sees . . .

or

Bring me my Bow of burning gold

Bring me my arrows of desire . . .

In Adonais Shelley speaks of Keats as semi-divine:

A godlike mind soars forth, in its delight

Making earth bare and veiling heaven . . .

and in a later stanza suggests a parallel between himself and Christ. His appeals to the muse Urania in this poem remind us of Milton’s invocations, and of the fact that the romantics were not the first poets to look upon prophecy or special insight as one feature of their art. It was a cardinal belief among them that they had reintroduced the shaping spirit of imagination into English poetry after the prosaic age of the eighteenth century (all except Byron united in attacking the poetic techniques of the Augustan masters). Wordsworth in particular felt strongly his own affinity with Milton in respect to prophecy and law-giving. The Snowdon section of his Prelude, a passage ringing with echoes of Paradise Lost, leads up to a description of a majestic mind (undoubtedly the poet’s mind whose growth the Prelude as a whole delineates)—

. . . a mind

That feeds upon infinity, that broods

Over the dark abyss, intent to hear

Its voices issuing forth to silent light

In one continuous stream; a mind sustained

By recognitions of transcendent power . . .

The passage, too long to quote here in full, goes on to suggest that such godlike minds can send forth mutations from themselves and, in simple terms, create a better world. Such a world, in romantic ideology generally, could evidently be either an internal one, brought about by regeneration of individual personality, or an external one, brought about by reform of existing social institutions—or, of course, both.

Milton had lived during an English revolution, which he advocated and supported. A fact contributing to make the romantics feel they were his spiritual heirs was that they saw themselves, with some justification, as living in a period of world revolution: of Greeks against Turks, Italians against Austrians, Negroes against whites, Americans against British, and, of course, Frenchmen against Frenchmen. Wordsworth interested himself in the abolition of the slave trade, Coleridge once dreamed of founding a Utopian community in the New World, Blake saw existing European churches and governments as the engines of Satan, Shelley and Byron envisioned a new Hellas arising out of the ashes of the old Greece, and Byron himself, after aiding for some time the Italian underground, died in Greece trying to bring the new Hellas about.

Nor did their ardor exhaust itself on politics. Shelley at one time advocated vegetarianism; Shelley and Byron, each in his different way, attacked the institution of marriage as shackling the individual personality; Wordsworth hoped that his poetry would check what he saw as the disintegration of the British family.

Along with such endeavors went two widely held attitudes toward man: a belief in his perfectibility—or at least in the ultimate perfectibility of the individual—and a sense of disillusion arising out of the contrast between what man might be and what he is.

Wordsworth, for example, was in France during the early years of the revolution there; he had friends among one revolutionary party (the idealistic Girondists), and for a time greeted the movement with enthusiasm. But when France and England went to war, and when the extremists of the Terror replaced the moderates within France, Wordsworth was faced with a spiritual crisis from which his comparatively conservative later beliefs ultimately emerged.

Other romantics followed other patterns of development; but in romantic poetry generally it can be said that high hopes of human greatness and melancholy disappointment in human shortcomings are two recurrent themes. In many of the poems reprinted here—such as Wordsworth’s The world is too much with us, Coleridge’s Dejection ode, Shelley’s Stanzas near Naples, more than one of Keats’s odes, several digressions in Byron’s Don Juan—the melancholy (which also lives on into Victorian poetry) is more predominant than the hopes. When explicitly accounted for at all it often arises out of unfulfilled longings for an ideal perfection, some internal sense of inadequacy in the poet himself, or a feeling of spiritual isolation which is probably a corollary of the strong romantic emphasis on individualism.

This latter emphasis accounts for the highly personal tone of some of the poems. Wordsworth once defined poetry itself as the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; we have seen how, in Collins’s Ode, the central subject is the delineation by images of a complex mood in the poet himself. The personal lyric is one important vehicle for the treatment of man in nineteeth-century poetry. A second is the short vignette which suggests the emotional core of some situation without recounting its peripheral detail (Shelley’s Away, the moor is dark beneath the moon; Browning’s Meeting at Night and Parting at Morning). A third is the full-dress presentation of a situation in a poem of medium length—that is, a poem as short as Browning’s My Last Duchess or as long as the first canto (originally published as a unit) of Don Juan.

It is in these medium-length poems of human life that the nineteenth-century objectified most successfully, perhaps, its pervading sense of the dilemma within man’s nature. Michael, The Eve of St. Agnes, Andrea del Sarto—each in its different way presents an ideal confronted by circumscribing limitations: the half-built sheep-fold now a pile of stones, the sharp sleet against the windowpane breaking off the embraces of lovers who fled away into the storm, the painter whose very faultlessness is itself a fault. Not all the poems in this general category are equally effective, of course. The Eve of St. Agnes dramatizes perfectly both elements in its contrast (the palsy-twitched beldame and icy coats-of-mail set against the lucent syrups tinct with cinnamon); but in The Scholar-Gipsy one might object that the strange disease of modern life remains a series of abstract assertions uncrystallized into imagery, by comparison with the sensuously rendered environment of the scholar’s wanderings; or that the young lighthearted masters of the waves in the final metaphor seem an odd parallel to the sick fatigue and languid doubt from which the scholar has so fortunately fled. But in general the record of achievement in this kind of poetry is impressive.

What was peculiar to the nineteenth-century sensibility in such poetry can be inferred from a comparison of two poems more than a half-century apart: Burns’s Death and Dr. Hornbook and Browning’s A Toccata of Galluppi’s. These poems are alike in that each is ironic—i.e., the central figure in each is not all that he appears to be, and is thus set at a little distance from both the poet and the reader. Hornbook is a quack physician who, we are told, has had such immense success that he is able by his medical skill to outwit and frustrate Death itself. We are first made suspicious of him by the rowdy burlesque account of his methods (the catalogue of his pharmacopeia, his technique of long-distance diagnosis, etc.), and then by the melancholy and startling disclosure that although Hornbook can preserve the life of whomever he likes, he himself is a greater scourge upon the human race than Death ever was.

Whare I kill’d ane, a fair strae-death,

By loss o’ blood or want of breath,

This night I’m free to tak my aith

That Hornbook’s skill

Has clad a score i’ their last daith,

By drap an’ pill.

There follow, in three brilliant stanzas, particular illustrations of Hornbook’s destructive powers, illustrations which also insinuate the venality of the physician’s motives. There is even a suggestion that the narrator of the episode himself has been involved through moral laxity in the unhappy fate of one of the Doctor’s victims. The poem then concludes with a brief prediction of Death’s eventual victory over Hornbook.

Three figures are sketched in the poem—Death, the narrator, and Hornbook—each ironically. The narrator is a reeling toper who elaborately vouches for the veracity of his fantastic anecdote; Death, far from playing his usual role as the King of Terrors, is a frustrated spectre of wry pathos; and Hornbook, at first a comic benefactor, turns out to be an underhanded murderer.

Browning’s A Toccata of Galuppi’s presents only one character, the speaker. He is an Englishman, a geologist and mathematician who wrings secrets from nature’s close reserve, a lover of music who has a mathematician’s command over its technical terminology, and something of an antiquarian. The poem is an account of his mixed emotions as he listens to the music of Galuppi, an eighteenth-century Venetian composer, the light sparkle of whose rhythms is suggested by the three-syllable foot of the poem’s meter. At first the Englishman speaks of Galuppi’s old music, which makes him muse on the sensuous attractiveness of young love in the