Neurotransmitter: A Tutorial Study Guide
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About this ebook
“Neurotransmitter” is a part of the college-level Principles of Biology course series and the Neuropsychopharmacology course series textbooks. It is a tutorial written in questions and answers format to describe the various types of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system and their functions.
It is a study guide with in-depth explanations. Each section is a modular unit that is self-contained for easy reading. The principles and concepts are introduced systematically so students can learn and retain the materials intuitively.
Nicoladie Tam
Dr. Nicoladie Tam, Ph.D., is a writer and a professor who does research in emotions and the brain. She is an expert in neuropsychology, neurophysiology, brain imaging, computational neuroscience, and bioengineering. She has a Ph.D. degree in Physiology, and three Bachelor of Science degrees in Computer Science, Physics and Astrophysics. She has also been a suicide and crisis counselor, with extensive counseling experience in relationships and crisis management. She is also a life coach, who does relationship coaching and executive coaching, inspires others in achieving the very best.
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Neurotransmitter - Nicoladie Tam
Preface
Neurotransmitter
is a part of the college-level Principles of Biology course series and the Neuropsychopharmacology course series textbooks. It is a tutorial written in questions and answers format to describe the various types of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system and their functions.
It is a study guide with in-depth explanations. Each section is a modular unit that is self-contained for easy reading. The principles and concepts are introduced systematically so students can learn and retain the materials intuitively.
*~*~*~*~*
Textbooks by Nicoladie Tam, Ph.D., in the Principles of Biology course series:
Principles of Biology textbook in one volume:
Principles of Biology: Animal Systems
ISBN 9781301691739
Individual chapters of the Principles of Biology textbook series:
Biological System
ISBN 9781301003891
Scientific Methods
ISBN 9781301898688
Biological Principles
ISBN 9781310803666
Origin of Species
ISBN 9781301352456
Nervous System
ISBN 9781301053025
Neuron
ISBN 9781301119646
Action Potential
ISBN 9781301115372
Synapse
ISBN 9781301374120
Reflex
ISBN 9781301991266
Neurotransmitter
ISBN 9781301268610
Sensory System
ISBN 9781301660070
Motor System
ISBN 9781301500895
Endocrine System
ISBN 9781301642939
Reproductive System
ISBN 9781301424078
Circulatory System
ISBN 9781301262410
Respiratory System
ISBN 9781301805389
Immune System
ISBN 9781301452309
Renal System
ISBN 9781301927111
Digestive System
ISBN 9781301317097
Textbooks by Nicoladie Tam, Ph.D., in the Neuropsychopharmacology course series:
Neuropsychopharmacology textbook in one volume:
Neuropsychopharmacology
ISBN 9781311596178
Individual chapters of Neuropsychopharmacology textbook series:
Neuropsychopharmacology: An Introduction
ISBN 9781301482733
Scientific Methods
ISBN 9781301898688
Mind-Brain Connection
ISBN 9781301903405
Pharmacology: In Introduction
ISBN 9781301843534
Pharmacokinetics
ISBN 9781301010776
Dose-Response Curve
ISBN 9781301541812
Learning Mechanisms
ISBN 9781301729531
Cognitive Learning
ISBN 9781301966455
Experimental Methods in Neuropsychopharmacology
ISBN 9781301966455
Brain Imaging Techniques
ISBN 9781311863638
Nervous System
ISBN 9781301053025
Neuron
ISBN 9781301119646
Action Potential
ISBN 9781301115372
Synapse
ISBN 9781301374120
Reflex
ISBN 9781301991266
Neurotransmitter
ISBN 9781301268610
Neurotransmitter Pathways
ISBN 9781301696666
Cytoplasmic Release of Neurotransmitters
ISBN 9781311978615
Executive Functions
ISBN 9781301125968
ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
ISBN 9781301318445
Schizophrenia
ISBN 9781301972692
Affective Disorders: Depression, Mania and Bipolar Disorder
ISBN 9781311988416
Anxiety Disorders
ISBN 9781311060419
*~*~*~*~*
Table of Contents
Cover Page
Preface
Neurotransmitter
Classes of Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Dopamine
Glutamate
GABA
Endorphins and Enkephalin
Substance P
Nitric Oxide
Anandamide
Drugs
Neurotransmitter: Review
About the Author
Other Books Published by the Author
*~*~*~*~*
1.
Neurotransmitter
Objectives
Understand the functions and characteristics of different neurotransmitters
Concepts to Learn
Classes of neurotransmitters
Characteristics of different neurotransmitters
Functions of glutamate
Functions of GABA
Functions of glycine
Functions of serotonin
Functions of dopamine
Functions of norepinephrine
Functions of Acetylcholine
Functions of opioid
Functions of anandamide
Synaptic actions of neurotransmitters
Binding with post-synaptic receptor subtypes
Distribution (localization) of different neurotransmitters in the brain
Physiological and psychological functions associated with different neurotransmitters
Pathological conditions associated with neurotransmitter deficits
Molecular mechanisms of pharmacological treatment of mental disorders
Relationship between neurotransmitter level and mental functions
Role of blockade of transporters in enhancing the effects of neurotransmitters
Role of blockade of enzymes in enhancing the effects of neurotransmitters
Difference between agonist and antagonist drugs
*~*~*~*~*
1.1.
Classes of Neurotransmitters
Objectives
Understand the characteristics of each class of neurotransmitters
Concepts to Learn
Physiological classes of neurotransmitter
Excitatory neurotransmitters
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
Chemical classes of neurotransmitter
Amino acid neurotransmitters
Biogenic neurotransmitters
Neuropeptides
Neuormodulators
Neurotransmitters are biochemicals that bind with the receptors of the post-synaptic neuron. They can be classified based on the physiological or chemical characteristics. Thus, the brain can be considered as stimulated by the excitatory neurotransmitters and inhibited by the inhibitory neurotransmitters. There is usually a balance between excitation and inhibition that provides the normal function.
Physiologically, neurotransmitters can be subdivided by either excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory neurotransmitters stimulate the neuron by increasing its excitability once it is bound to the post-synaptic receptor, making the neuron more likely to fire action potentials. This usually brings the membrane potential closer to threshold by depolarizing the neuron. Inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit the neuron by decreasing its excitability by making the neuron less likely to fire action potentials. This usually brings the neuron farther away from threshold by hyperpolarizing the neuron.
Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter whereas GABA and glycine are inhibitory neurotransmitters. The other neurotransmitters can be either excitatory or inhibitory depending on the post-synaptic receptor. It is because the depolarization or hyperpolarization of the post-synaptic receptor that determines whether it is excitatory or inhibitory. So binding with different post-synaptic receptor can result in different responses in excitation or inhibition. It just happened that all glutamate receptors are excitatory, and all GABA and glycine receptors are inhibitory. The other neurotransmitter receptors are not as simple.
Neurotransmitters can also be subdivided by the chemical characteristics. Generally, they can be classified into: amino acids, biogenic amines, and neuropeptides. Amino acids are often the amino acids found in food. They are glutamate, GABA, and glycine. These are the strictly excitatory and strictly inhibitory neurotransmitters.
The other class of neurotransmitters is the biogenic amines. They are synthesized in the brain. These neurotransmitters are dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine and serotonin. Because of how these neurotransmitters are evolved to serve different functions, these neurotransmitters are often not strictly related to any particular function. In general, dopamine is involved in motor control, reward and cognitive functions. Norepinephrine and epinephrine are involved in stimulating the CNS and body in case of emergency and stress. Serotonin is involved in modulating and regulating the well-being function of the animal, such as mood and feeding, drinking and reproductive behavior.
Another class of neurotransmitters is neuropeptides, because they belong to the chemical class called peptides (long chain amino acids). Examples of neuropeptides are substance P, endorphins and enkephalin. Substance P is used to transmit pain. Endorphins and enkephalin are used to block pain transmission.
Another class of neurotransmitters is neuromodulator. Neuromodulators are similar to classical neurotransmitters except that they can influence the neighboring synapses, whereas classical neurotransmitters are often restricted to the local