About the Author

Marian K. Kazimierczuk is Frederick A. White Distinguished Professor of Electrical Engineering at Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA. He received the M.S., Ph.D., and D.Sc. degrees from Warsaw University of Technology, Department of Electronics, Warsaw, Poland. He is the author of six books, over 180 archival refereed journal papers, over 210 conference papers, and seven patents.

His research interests are in power electronics, including RF high-efficiency power amplifiers and oscillators, PWM dc–dc power converters, resonant dc–dc power converters, modeling and controls of power converter, high-frequency magnetic devices, electronic ballasts, active power factor correctors, semiconductor power devices, wireless charging systems, renewable energy sources, energy harvesting, green energy, and evanescent microwave microscopy.

Professor Kazimierczuk is a Fellow of the IEEE. He served as Chair of the Technical Committee of Power Systems and Power Electronics Circuits, IEEE Circuits and Systems Society. He served on the Technical Program Committees of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS) and the IEEE Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems. He also served as Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, Part I, Regular Papers, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, International Journal of Circuit Theory and Applications, and Journal of Circuits, Systems, and Computers, and as Guest Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. He was an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer.

Professor Kazimierczuk received the Presidential Award for Outstanding Faculty Member at Wright State University in 1995. He was Brage Golding Distinguished Professor of Research at Wright State University in 1996–2000. He received the Trustees’ Award from Wright State University for Faculty Excellence in 2004. He received the Outstanding Teaching Award from the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) in 2008. He was also honored with the Excellence in Research Award, Excellence in Teaching Awards, and Excellence in Professional Service Award in the College of Engineering and Computer Science, Wright State University. He is listed in Top Authors in Engineering and Top Authors in Electrical & Electronic Engineering.

Professor Kazimierczuk is the author or co-author of six books: Resonant Power Converters, 2nd Ed., Wiley, Pulse-Width Modulated DC–DC Power Converters, IEEE Press/Wiley, High-Frequency Magnetic Components, 2nd Ed. (translated in Chinese), Wiley, RF Power Amplifiers, 2nd Ed. (translated in Chinese), Wiley, Electronic Devices, A Design Approach, Pearson/Prentice Hall, and Laboratory Manual to Accompany Electronic Devices, A Design Approach, 2nd Ed., Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Preface

This book is about switching-mode dc–dc power converters with pulse-width modulation (PWM) control. It is intended as a power electronics textbook at the senior and graduate levels for students majoring in electrical engineering, as well as a reference for practicing engineers in the area of power electronics. The purpose of the book is to provide foundations for semiconductor power devices, topologies of PWM switching-mode dc–dc power converters, modeling, dynamics, and controls of PWM converters. The book is devoted to energy conversion.

The first part of the book covers topologies of transformerless and isolated PWM converters, such as buck, boost, and buck–boost, flyback, forward, half-bridge, and full-bridge converters. The second part covers small-signal circuit models of PWM converters, transfer functions of PWM converter power stages, voltage-mode control, and current-mode control of PWM converters. The third part presents silicon and silicon carbide power devices.

The textbook assumes that the student is familiar with general circuit analysis techniques and electronic circuits. Complete solutions for all problems are included in the Solutions Manual, which is available from the publisher for those instructors who adopt the book for their courses.

I am pleased to express my gratitude to Dr. Nisha Kondrath and Agasthya Ayachit for MATLAB® figures, proofreading, suggestions, and critical evaluation of the manuscript.

Throughout the entire course of this project, the support provided by John Wiley & Sons was excellent. I wish to express my sincere thanks to Ella Mitchell, Associate Commissioning Editor, Electrical Engineering; Peter Mitchell, Publisher, Engineering Technology; and Richard Davis, Senior Project Editor. It has been a real pleasure working with them. Last but not least, I wish to thank my family for the support.

The author would welcome and greatly appreciate suggestions and corrections from the readers, for the improvements in the technical content as well as the presentation style.

Marian K. Kazimierczuk

Nomenclature

1

Introduction

1.1 Classification of Power Supplies

Power supply technology is an enabling technology that allows us to build and operate electronic circuits and systems [1–28]. All active electronic circuits, both digital and analog, require power supplies. Many electronic systems require several dc supply voltages. Power supplies are widely used in computers, telecommunications, instrumentation equipment, aerospace, medical, and defense electronics. A dc supply voltage is usually derived from a battery or an ac utility line using a transformer, rectifier, and a filter. The resultant raw dc voltage is not constant enough and contains a high ac ripple that is not appropriate for most applications. Voltage regulators are used to make the dc voltage more constant and to attenuate the ac ripple.

A power supply is a constant voltage source with a maximum current capability. There are two general classes of power supplies: regulated and unregulated. The output voltage of a regulated power supply is automatically maintained within a narrow range, e.g., 1 or 2% of the desired nominal value, in spite of line voltage, load current, and temperature variations. Regulated dc power supplies are called dc voltage regulators. There are also dc current regulators, such as battery chargers.

Figure 1.1 shows a classification of regulated power supply technologies. Two of the most popular categories of voltage regulators are linear regulators and switching-mode power supplies (SMPS). There are two basic linear regulator topologies: the series voltage regulator and the shunt voltage regulator. The switching-mode voltage regulators are divided into three categories: pulse-width modulated (PWM) dc–dc converters, resonant dc–dc converters, and switched-capacitor (also called charge-pump) voltage regulators. In linear voltage regulators, transistors are operated in the active region as dependent current sources with relatively high voltage drops at high currents, dissipating a large amount of power and resulting in low efficiency. Linear regulators are heavy and large, but they exhibit low noise level and are suitable for audio applications.

Figure 1.1 Classification of power supply technologies.

In switching-mode converters, transistors are operated as switches, which inherently dissipate much less power than transistors operated as dependent current sources. The voltage drop across the transistors is very low when they conduct high current and the transistors conduct a nearly zero current when the voltage drop across them is high. Therefore, the conduction losses are low and the efficiency of switching-mode converters is high, usually above 80% or 90%. However, switching losses reduce the efficiency at high frequencies. Switching losses increase proportionally to switching frequency. Linear and switched-capacitor regulator circuits (except for large capacitors) can be fully integrated and are used in low-power and low-voltage applications, usually below several watts and 50 V. PWM and resonant regulators are used at high power and voltage levels. They are small in size, light in weight, and have high conversion efficiency.

Figure 1.2 shows block diagrams of two typical ac–dc power supplies that convert the widely available ac power to dc power. The power supply of Figure 1.2(a) contains a dc linear voltage regulator, whereas the power supply of Figure 1.2(b) contains a switching-mode voltage regulator. The power supply shown in Figure 1.2(a) consists of a low-frequency step-down power line transformer, a front-end rectifier, a low-pass filter, a linear voltage regulator, and a load. The nominal voltage of the ac utility power line is 110 Vrms in the United States and 230 Vrms in Europe. However, the actual line voltage varies within a range of about ± 20% of the nominal voltage. The frequency of the ac line voltage is very low (50 Hz in Europe, 60 Hz in United States, 400 Hz in aircraft applications, and 20 kHz in space applications). The line transformer provides dc isolation from the ac power line and reduces a relatively high line voltage to a lower voltage (ranging usually from 5 to 28 Vrms). Since the frequency of the ac line voltage is very low, the line transformer is heavy and bulky. The output voltage of the front-end rectifier/filter is unregulated and it varies because the peak voltage of the ac line varies. Therefore, a voltage regulator is required between the rectifier/filter and the load. There still exists a need for universal power supplies that can accept any utility line voltage in the world, ranging from 85 to 264 Vrms.

Figure 1.2 Block diagrams of ac–dc power supplies. (a) With a linear regulator. (b) With a switching-mode voltage regulator.

The power supply shown in Figure 1.2(b) consists of a front-end rectifier, a low-pass filter, an isolated dc–dc switching-mode voltage regulator, and a load. It is run directly from the ac line. The ac voltage is rectified directly from the ac power line, which does not require a bulky low-frequency line transformer. Hence, such a circuit is called an off-line power supply (plug into the wall). The switching-mode voltage regulator contains a high-frequency transformer to obtain dc isolation for the entire power supply. Since the switching frequency is much higher than that of the ac line frequency, the size and weight of a high-frequency transformer as well as inductors and capacitors is reduced. The switching frequency usually ranges from 25 to 500 kHz. To avoid audio noise, the switching frequency should be above 20 kHz. A PWM switching-mode voltage regulator generates a high-frequency rectangular voltage wave, which is rectified and filtered. The duty cycle (or the pulse width) of the rectangular wave is varied to control the dc output voltage. Therefore, these voltage regulators are called PWM dc–dc converters.

Power converters are required to convert one form of electric energy to another. A dc–dc converter is a power supply that converts a dc input voltage into a desired regulated dc output voltage. The dc input may be an unregulated or regulated voltage. Often, the input of a dc–dc converter is a battery or a rectified ac line voltage. A voltage regulator should provide a constant voltage to the load, even if line voltage, load current, and temperature vary. Unlike in linear voltage regulators, the output voltage in PWM dc–dc converters may be either lower or higher than the input voltage and are called either step-down or step-up converters. In a step-down converter, the output voltage is lower than the input voltage. In a step-up converter, the output voltage is higher than the input voltage. Some converters may act as both step-down and step-up converters. The output voltage source may be of the same polarity (noninverting) or opposite polarity (inverting) to that of the polarity of the input voltage. The dc–dc converters may have common negative or common positive input and output terminals. Converters may have a single output or multiple outputs. In addition, there are fixed or adjustable output voltage power supplies. Fixed output voltage supplies (e.g., 1.8 V) are used for power electronic circuits that require a specific supply voltage. Power supplies with adjustable output voltage (e.g., from 0 to 30 V) are convenient for laboratory tests. In some applications, programmable power supplies with digitally selected output voltages are required. Power supplies may be nonisolated or isolated. Transformers can be used to obtain dc isolation between the input and output and between the different outputs. Common requirements of most power supplies are: high efficiency, high power density, high reliability, and low cost.

1.2 Basic Functions of Voltage Regulators

The simplest voltage regulator is a Zener diode regulator, shown in Figure 1.3. It is a shunt regulator. However, the performance of the Zener diode regulator is not satisfactory for most applications. Therefore, negative feedback techniques are usually used in voltage regulators to improve the performance. A block diagram of a voltage regulator with negative feedback is shown in Figure 1.4. It consists of a power stage (a dc–dc converter), a feedback network, a reference voltage Vref, and a control circuit (also called an error amplifier). The feedback network monitors the output voltage and reduces the error signal. The control circuit compares the feedback voltage with the reference voltage, generates an error voltage, amplifies it, and adjusts the transistor base current to keep the output voltage VO constant.

Figure 1.3 Zener diode voltage regulator.

Figure 1.4 Block diagram of a voltage regulator with negative feedback.

The load current IO may vary over a very wide range: IOmin ≤ IO ≤ IOmax. Consequently, the load resistance RL = VO/IO also varies over a wide range: RLmin ≤ RL ≤ RLmax, where RLmin = VO/IOmax and RLmax = VO/IOmin. Most regulated power supplies have a short-circuit or current-overload protection circuit, which limits the output current to a safe level to protect the power supply and/or the load. The input voltage of a voltage regulator is usually unregulated and can vary over a wide range: VImin ≤ VI ≤ VImax. For example, the dc input voltage in telecommunication power supplies is 36 ≤ VI ≤ 72 V with a nominal input voltage VInom = 48 V. The input voltage source may be a battery, a rectified single-phase or three-phase ac line voltage. The output voltage of a battery decreases when the battery is discharged. The peak voltage of a utility line varies as much as 10% or 20%, causing the rectified dc voltage to vary. The operating temperature of semiconductor and passive devices may also change from Tmin to Tmax, affecting the performance of power supplies.

The basic functions of a dc–dc converter are as follows:

to provide conversion of a dc input voltage VI to the desired dc output voltage within a tolerance range, for example, VO = 1.2 V±1%;

to regulate the output voltage VO against variations in the input voltage VI, the load current IO (or the load resistance RL), and the temperature;

to reduce the output ripple voltage below the specified level;

to ensure fast response to rapid changes in the input voltage and load current (or load resistance);

to provide dc isolation;

to provide multiple outputs;

to minimize the electromagnetic interference (EMI) below levels specified by EMI standards.

1.3 Power Relationships in DC–DC Converters

The input current iI of many switching-mode dc–dc converters is pulsating. The dc component of the converter input current is given by

(1.1) numbered Display Equation

Hence, the dc input power of a dc–dc converter is

(1.2)

The ac components of the output voltage and current are assumed to be very small and can be neglected. Therefore, dc output power of a dc–dc converter is

(1.3) numbered Display Equation

and the power loss in the converter is

(1.4) numbered Display Equation

The efficiency of the dc–dc converter is

(1.5) numbered Display Equation

from which

(1.6) numbered Display Equation

The normalized power loss PLS/PO decreases as the converter efficiency increases. For example, for η = 25%, PLS/PO = 300%, but for η = 95%, PLS/PO = 5.26%.

1.4 DC Transfer Functions of DC–DC Converters

The dc voltage transfer function (also called the dc voltage conversion ratio or the dc voltage gain) of a dc–dc converter is

(1.7) numbered Display Equation

and the dc current transfer function of a dc–dc converter is

(1.8) numbered Display Equation

Hence, the efficiency of a dc–dc converter is

(1.9) numbered Display Equation

From (1.7), (1.8), and (1.9),

(1.10) numbered Display Equation

and

(1.11) numbered Display Equation

These equations can be represented by the dc circuit model of a dc–dc converter shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 A dc model of a dc–dc converter.

1.5 Static Characteristics of DC Voltage Regulators

The quality of a power supply can be described by three parameters: line regulation, load regulation, and thermal regulation. The output voltage VO of most voltage regulators increases as the input voltage VI increases, as shown in Figure 1.6. Therefore, one figure-of-merit of voltage regulators for steady-state operation is line regulation, which is a measure of the regulator’s ability to maintain the predescribed nominal output voltage VOnom under slowly varying input voltage conditions.

Figure 1.6 Output voltage Vo versus input voltage VI for voltage regulators illustrating line regulation.

The line regulation is the ratio of the output voltage change ΔVO to a corresponding change in the input voltage

(1.12)

where TA is the ambient temperature. For example, for a linear voltage regulator LM140, ΔVO = 10 mV at IO = 0.5 A, TA = 25°C, and 7.5 V≤ VI ≤ 20 V. Hence, LNR = 10/(20 − 7.5) = 0.8 mV/V.

The percentage line regulation (PLNR) is defined as the ratio of the percentage change in the output voltage to a corresponding change in the input voltage

(1.13)

where TA is the ambient temperature. Ideally, the line regulation should be zero, in which case the output voltage is independent of the input voltage. In practice, the line regulation (LNR) should be less than 0.1%. For example, for a linear voltage regulator LM317, the typical value of the line regulation is PLNR = 0.01%/V at IO = 20 mA, TA = 25°C, and 3 V ≤ (VI − VO) ≤ 40 V.

The output voltage VO of voltage regulators decreases as the load current IO increases due to a varying load resistance, as shown in Figure 1.7. Hence, the second figure-of-merit of voltage regulators for steady-state operation is load regulation, which is a measure of the regulator’s ability to maintain a constant output voltage VOnom under slowly varying load conditions over a certain range of load current, usually from zero load current to a maximum load current IOmax.

Figure 1.7 Output voltage VO versus output current IO for voltage regulators illustrating load regulation.

The load regulation is given by

(1.14) numbered Display Equation

The load regulation LOR should be less than 1%.

The percentage load regulation for voltage regulators that have no minimum load requirement is defined as

(1.15)

where VO(NL) is the no-load (open-circuit) output voltage and VO(FL) is the full-load output voltage, which corresponds to a maximum load current IOmax. In some voltage regulators, such as PWM converters operated in the continuous conduction mode, the minimum load current IOmin is not zero. The output voltage at the minimum load current is VO(minL). In this case, the load regulation is defined as

(1.16)

For an ideal voltage regulator, the load regulation is zero. For example, for a linear voltage regulator LM117, PLOR2 = 0.3% for 5 mA≤ IO ≤ 100 mA and TA = 25°C.

The line regulation and the load regulation can be combined into a line/load regulation

(1.17)

Sometimes power supply manufacturers specify the equivalent dc output resistance Ro. A dc model of a real voltage source consists of an ideal voltage source V and an output resistance Ro, as shown in Figure 1.8. The output voltage is given by

(1.18) numbered Display Equation

from which

(1.19) numbered Display Equation

Hence, the incremental or dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of change in the output voltage to the corresponding change in the load current

(1.20)

When IOmin = 0, the dc output resistance is given by

(1.21) numbered Display Equation

The output resistance of a voltage regulator should be as low as possible so that a change in the output current ΔIO will result only in a small change in the output voltage ΔVO = −RoΔIO. Ideally, Ro should be zero, resulting in the output voltage that is independent of the load current. At high frequencies (or for fast changes in the load current), the output resistance has a complex output impedance. From Figure 1.8, the output voltage at the full load resistance RFL = RLmin is

(1.22) numbered Display Equation

Hence, the percentage load regulation when the voltage regulator operates from full load to no-load can be expressed as

(1.23)

Figure 1.8 DC model of voltage source with an output resistance.

A very low output resistance can be obtained by using negative feedback with shunt connection of the power stage and the feedback network at the output. The relationship between the open-loop output resistance Ro and the closed-loop output resistance Rof is

(1.24) numbered Display Equation

where A is the dc (or low-frequency) voltage gain of the forward path and β is the transfer function of the feedback network.

A third figure-of-merit of voltage regulators is the thermal regulation defined