Conclusions

Introduction

It should not be surprising that Marx remains as inexhaustible as capital itself, and that with every adaptation or mutation of the latter his texts and his thought resonate in new ways and with fresh accents—inédits, as the French say—rich with new meanings. In particular the mutation of a capitalism of imperialism and the monopoly stage into the latest globalized moment and structure might have been expected to turn our attention to unremarked features of his laborious explorations; and if not that newly expanded system itself, then certainly its crises and the catastrophes appropriate to this present of time, which like those of the past are both the same as what preceded them, but also different and historically unique.

These shifts were to be sure marked by a readjustment of Marx’s works themselves: first, in the originality of its modernist moment, a new kind of fascination with the alienations theorized by the then recently discovered manuscripts of 1844; then, as the sixties began to develop their own consequences, a mesmerization by those 1857 notebooks called the Grundrisse, whose very open-endedness seemed to promise relief from the cut-and-dried schematization of dialectical materialism and its various handbooks.¹

But it is not clear that those handbooks imply any comparable ossification in Capital, Volume One itself, the only published work whose architectonic Marx himself lovingly projected and brought to completion, and for which the Grundrisse were preparatory notes. Against Althusser, I will claim that the theory of alienation is still very much an active, form-building impulse; while I will also argue, this time with him, that it has in Capital been transmuted into a wholly different non- or post-philosophical dimension. Yet is not this Volume One itself incomplete in a different way than the notes and speculations of the earlier, more truly unpublished texts? I will argue here that it is not, and that the layering of the posthumous volumes (falling rate of profit, ground rent, the multiple temporalities) are already laid in place here in as satisfactory a form as we are likely to need.² But I will also claim that any number of features of Marxism are absent from this more purely economic volume, and that future Marxisms can only be more effective politically by recognizing those omissions.

For as I will show, Capital—and from now on I omit the Volume One—is not a book about politics, and not even a book about labor: it is a book about unemployment, a scandalous assertion I mean to justify by way of close attention to its argument and the latter’s stages and point-by-point development. This can be imagined as a series of interlinked problems or paradoxes, which, ostensibly solved, give rise to new and unexpected ones, of greater scope.

The process must then be imagined as a specific proto-narrative form, in which the transformation or recoding of a conceptual dilemma in a new and potentially more manageable way also results in the expansion of the object of study itself: the successive resolutions of the linked riddles or dilemmas lay in place the architecture of a whole construct or system, which is that of capital as such. It is this unique constructional process, quite unlike that of most philosophical texts and of most rhetorical arguments as well, that Marx calls the Darstellung of the material; I will not become involved in the debate about science (Wissenschaft), except to remind us of Althusser’s definition of the latter as a discourse without a subject (that is to say, without doxa or opinions).³

Truth being what you agree to conclude with, as Wittgenstein puts it, the exposition of the structure and dynamics of capitalism will be complete when all those interlinked problems have been laid to rest. Topics which do not find their place in this series are generally taken to be arguments against Marx or against his conception of capitalism, although (when not pseudoproblems) they may simply be problems of a different kind, relating to quite different issues. Bourgeois economists are generally concerned to offer practical solutions to crises within the system, within the market (problems raised by inflation or stagflation, of growth or slowdowns); they wish to correct the system in one way or another, but not to theorize it as a totality, which is Marx’s ambition (and that of most Marxian economists who followed him).

Such a theorization is not a philosophical project, nor does it aim to formulate this or that conception of capital; nor is Marx’s argument a philosophical one, setting this or that idea of truth in play. But it may certainly be observed that the objections to Marxism are philosophical, for they replay the empiricist objections to the deployment of frameworks like that of totality or system, which are for them imaginary entities. (And it is also true that the replies to these arguments seem to take a philosophical form in their turn, a form generally identified as dialectical.) But I claim here that Capital is neither a philosophical work in that sense, nor is it an economic one, in the specialized meaning projected by most academic economics departments.

I am of course also concerned that the following pages not be construed as a literary reading of the book. Nowhere has the Marxian doctrine of base and superstructure been more damaging than in Marxism itself, where the specialists of the base—the commentators on capitalism, the strategists of revolution—are encouraged to feel little more than contempt for the culture workers of the superstructures, unless the latter offer legal and juridical analyses or happen to produce this or that politically relevant Ideologiekritik. The literary approaches to Capital, such as they are, will have been intent on characterizing the form of the work (is it for example comic or tragic?), or on reading it as a narrative of some kind, with the various forces (capital, labor, the state) sorted out into a cast of characters or image patterns.⁴ But this is perhaps to misunderstand the direction literary theory has taken in recent years, as it has moved to confront a dilemma not unrelated to the one that has tended to discredit traditional philosophy—namely the dilemma of representation as such. It is now around the question of representation that contemporary interrogations of truth must turn, as well as those concerning totality or the Real. The problem of representation today eats away at all the established disciplines like a virus, particularly destabilizing the dimension of language, reference and expression (which used to be the domain of literary study), as well as that of thought (which used to be that of philosophy). Nor is economics exempt, which posits invisible entities like finance capital on the one hand, and points to untheorizable singularities like derivatives on the other. And as for political theory, the traditional question—what is the state?—has mutated into something unanswerable with its postcontemporary version, where is the state?—while the former thing called power, as solid and tangible, seemingly, as a gold coin, or at least as a dollar bill, has become the airy plaything of mystics and physiologists alike. It is the problem of representation which has wrought all this destabilized confusion, and it can be said to be history itself which has deregulated it, so that if the dilemmas of representation are postmodern and historical, it can also be said that history as such has become a problem of representation.

Maybe theology could have done a better job with capitalism, consisting as it is of a free play of categories in the void and an exercize of figuration without a referent: an interplay of the dialectics of the One and the Many, of subject and object, of the circumference whose center is everywhere and the ens causa sui. But even theology of the Spinozan variety (notoriously atemporal) would find difficulty accommodating a totality so peculiar as capitalism, in which spatial anomalies are so paradoxically interactive with temporal ones.

As for the question of representation, I understand it in relationship to conceptualization as well as to ideology (and as a corollary of the relationship of thinking or ideology with narrative). Marx’s frequent (and frequently referenced) use of the term Darstellung needs to be understood in this way, and not merely in a rhetorical or linguistic/literary sense. The issue of representation was returned to the philosophical agenda in modern times by Heidegger,⁵ while its political function has been widely challenged today in the crisis of parliamentary democracy (see for example Deleuze, Foucault, Gayatri Spivak). Heidegger understands representation more narrowly as a historical symptom of modernity and a consequence of the latter’s subject/object split. The Marxist tradition—its critique of epistemology and the contemplative, its denunciation of one-dimensionality and of reification more generally—would enrich this analysis with an identification of modernity and capitalism. I myself would prefer to grasp representation as an essential operation in cognitive mapping and in ideological construction (understood here in a positive sense).

I would therefore also wish to stress the relationship between representation and representability as we find it in Freud,⁶ where the unconscious construction of the dream scans the signifier for usable elements and building blocks, for the presentation/representation of desire and the drive. Freud’s work thus presupposes two features: first, that any full or satisfactory representation of the drive is impossible (in that sense every form of desire is already a representation). And second, that we must always pay close attention in this process to representability, something which has to do on the one hand with the possibility in the drive of some minimal expression, even if as a mere symptom; and on the other with the material available for that expression (in Freud’s case, the language and images of everyday life). Here history intervenes, for what may serve as a satisfactory vehicle for expression of some feature of desire at one moment in history may not be available at another.

But this will be more comprehensible when we shift from the arcana of the psyche and its drives to the question of capitalism as a totality. No one had ever seen that totality, nor is capitalism ever visible as such, but only in its symptoms. This means that every attempt to construct a model of capitalism—for this is now what representation means in this context—will be a mixture of success and failure: some features will be foregrounded, others neglected or even misrepresented. Every representation is partial, and I would also stress the fact that every possible representation is a combination of diverse and heterogeneous modes of construction or expression, wholly different types of articulation that cannot but, incommensurable with each other, remain a mixture of approaches that signals the multiple perspectives from which one must approach such a totality and none of which exhaust it. This very incommensurability is the reason for being of the dialectic itself, which exists to coordinate incompatible modes of thought without reducing them to what Marcuse so memorably called one-dimensionality. Thus, for example, social class is at one and the same time a sociological idea, a political concept, a historical conjuncture, an activist slogan, yet a definition in terms of any one of these perspectives alone is bound to be unsatisfactory.⁷ We may go so far as to claim, indeed, that this is why the very form of the definition as such is unacceptable. Social class cannot be defined, it can only be provisionally approached in a kind of parallax, which locates it in the absent center of a multiple set of incompatible approaches. How much the more so will this be when it is a question of capitalism itself as the totality of which social class is now a function?

Yet the conclusion to draw here is not that, since it is unrepresentable, capitalism is ineffable and a kind of mystery beyond language or thought; but rather that one must redouble one’s efforts to express the inexpressible in this respect. Marx’s book gives us the supreme example of a dialectical effort to do so, and this is why the way in which he finally did represent it is so significant and urgent for us today.

Of capitalist space we can posit a Spinozan pantheism, in which the informing power is everywhere and nowhere all at once, and yet at the same time in relentless expansion, by way of appropriation and subsumption alike. Of the temporality of the matter it is enough to observe that the machine is constantly breaking down, repairing itself not by solving its local problems but by mutation onto larger and larger scales, its past always punctually forgotten, its nested futures irrelevant up to the point of the quantum leap (so that structuralism’s notion of the synchronic sometimes strikes one as a conceptual ideology expressly invented to deal with this peculiar new reality).

Two specifically dialectical problems would seem to dog any description of this complex reality as it wraps itself in a time and space it has itself projected. The first is that of technology as such, which is to say of reification: is it cause or effect, the creature of human agency or the latter’s master, an extension of collective power or the latter’s appropriation? We are here conceptually paralyzed by technology’s nature as an object which has been produced and which survives its production in inert material form; and that paralysis finds outlet either in technological determinism or in a kind of humanist allegory. Neither outcome is conceptually or ideologically satisfying, both are recurring and plausible interpretations of Marx, and each seems incompatible with the other. Perhaps the union of opposites offers a more productive view of what in Marx is staged as an alternation: a phenomenon like capitalism is good and bad all at once and simultaneously—the most productive as well as the most destructive force we have so far encountered in human history, as the Manifesto puts it. We have to remind ourselves of Marx’s personal delight in new technologies and inventions, in new scientific discoveries,⁸ in order to evaluate the terrible role they play in Capital and also to evade the ever-present temptation of nostalgia for a simpler past and for a retreat into more human pre-capitalist modes of production.

The second dilemma is that of mediation as such (and technology might have served as an illustration of that one too). Here money is the most useful exhibit, for this worthless object stands at a watershed between production and consumption, exchange value and use value, solving none of the conceptual aporie generated by the interference between these two poles and yet making it possible to forget them altogether in the heat of a practical and temporal act. And here too reification is part of the mix; but not in the same way as with the institutional objects of technology, the things into which stored labor has been transformed. As a thing, money seems closer to some exotic social contract: as a relationship, it is an equation each of whose sides or terms will fatally mislead us into mistaking it for a thing, and taking it as a basis for politics, as in Thomas More’s abolition of it in Utopia. In thought, mediation is nothing but a word subject to all the most damaging anti-dialectical objections; in reality it is a mystery that blocks thinking altogether. We must handle it with the greatest caution and virtuosity.

And now finally, History, and the identity of Identity and Difference (or was it the non-identity of those things?). Only this particular union of opposites will be capable of yielding a satisfactory answer to a question most often posed today, namely why return to Marx, and above all why return to this particular nineteenth-century text called Capital? If Marx’s thoughts are still valid, then we would need no newer reading of the famous, now respectably classic book. If they are not, then why not invent new ones and consign all the familiar slogans of Volume One to that archival cemetery to which are consigned all sciences that once were true and are now merely obsolete?

The reason lies in the identity and difference between the stages of capitalism, each one remaining true to the latter’s essence and structure (the profit motive, accumulation, expansion, exploitation of wage labor) at the same time that it marks a mutation in culture and everyday life, in social institutions and human relationships. Any creative reading of Capital today is a translation process, whereby a language and a conceptuality invented for the first