Preface

The main purpose of nanotechnology is to improve and develop materials, devices, and systems with fundamentally different properties by exploiting unique properties of molecular and supramolecular systems at the nano level. Nearly all the tools have inspired every field of science and technology, and the ideas of nanotechnology and innovation it brings continues to be made in medical technology, lab-on-a-chip, sensor technology, energy resources, and environmental protection and preservation. The continuous use of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in most of the disciplines is beginning to mature. This current book introduces the reader to the use of nanotechnology to preserve water resources, improve water quality and the social inferences therein that may affect approval or extensive usage.

Nanomaterials are nano-sized structures and have extraordinary physical and chemical properties, such as the unique optical, electrical, thermal, magnetic and adsorption characteristics, etc, due to their ultra-small size. Large specific surface areas of nanomaterials can improve the detection sensitivity and miniaturize the devices. In addition, these nanomaterials of various compositions and morphologies provide powerful tools for improving water quality. Therefore, the nanomaterials-based techniques can play vital roles in many water resources. Moreover, freedom to functionalize the nanomaterials with various chemical groups can also increase their affinity toward target contaminants, which is very much desirable for selective cleaning and detection of target contaminants in urban and industrial waters. In this book, we will summarize recent progresses due to novel nanomaterials for sustainable water resources.

The present book has been divided into four sections. Part 1: Nanotechnology for Natural Resources contains the details of preservation of natural resources especially water and long-term sustainable development. Recently, nanomaterials and polymer nanocomposites are researched as one of the prime materials for sustainable development. This section is an overview of the latest development and potential that nanotechnology has generated for water resources. Part 2: Nano Sensor as Tools for Water Resources has been described where sensors can be deployed as a standalone unit. One of its creators says that the technology may one day be adapted for use in deployable water chemistry labs and could help scientists working in pollution cleanup operations. This section presents nanosensors to detect contaminations in water at concentration levels of significance to human health and regulatory compliance. part 3: Nanoseparation Techniques for Water Resources describes the separation technologies and capabilities including a range of techniques, test environments, and related expertise to separate different waste fractions in a form in which they can be used effectively for other applications or disposed of. The techniques range from membrane technologies electrochemically assisted nutrient recovery to sludge treatment and hydrothermal carbonization. Finally, Part 4: Sustainable Future with Nanotechnology where water has been presented as core sustainable development and is very critical for environment, healthy ecosystems, and for human survival itself. It is vital to reduce the global burden of disease and improving the health, welfare, and productivity of populations. It is central to the production and preservation of a host of benefits and services for people. Water is also at the heart of adaptation to climate change, serving as the crucial link between the climate system, human society, and the environment. Overall, this book provides a summary of the state-of-the-art knowledge to scientists, engineers, and policy maker, about recent developments in nanotechnology and the sustainable water resources arena. Moreover, up-to-date knowledge on the economy, toxicity, and regulation related to nanotechnology have been presented in detail. In the end, the role of nanotechnology for green and sustainable future has also been briefly discussed.

Ajay Kumar Mishra and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain

Editors

October 2017

Part I

NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR NATURAL RESOURCES

Chapter 1

Application of Nanotechnology in Water Treatment, Wastewater Treatment and Other Domains of Environmental Engineering Science –A Broad Scientific Perspective and Critical Review

SukanchanPalit

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Corresponding author: sukanchan68@gmail.com; sukanchan92@gmail.com

Abstract

Industrial wastewater treatment and drinking water treatment are today witnessing immense scientific challenges. Global vision towards environmental protection and ecological biodiversity has urged the scientific domain to move towards newer innovations and technologies. In this chapter, the author focuses on the research pursuit in nanotechnology in environmental engineering, the vast domain of membrane science and the future trends in water and wastewater treatment. The cornerstones of this chapter are the areas of research pursuit in desalination, advanced oxidation processes, and water treatment. Human civilization and human scientific endeavor are today highly challenged as environmental protection ushers in a new era in science and engineering. Membrane science is opening up new windows of innovation. This chapter delineates the vast scientific success, the scientific landscape and the scientific potential behind nanofiltration and application of nanotechnology in industrial pollution control and water treatment.

Keywords: Water, nanotechnology, vision, desalination, membranes

1.1 Introduction

Science and engineering in today’s visionary world are moving at a vast and drastic pace. Ecological imbalance, global climate change and environmental engineering concerns have geared the scientific domain to yearn for newer realms and surpass visionary frontiers. Man’s wide vision, mankind’s definitive prowess and civilization’s progress will lead a long way in the true emancipation of environmental and energy sustainability. Environmental sustainability today stands in the crossroads of drastic challenges and deep introspection. In such a crucial juncture, application of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment is of utmost importance in the future progress of environmental engineering science. This treatise delineates with cogent insight the success of environmental sustainability, the research pursuit of nanotechnology in environmental engineering and the future trends in research areas of water and wastewater treatment. Membrane science and other tertiary treatments such as advanced oxidation processes stands as a major backbone of this scientific research endeavour. The challenge, the vision and the purpose of this treatise widely observes the success of application of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment and also discusses the visionary avenues in the field of nanofiltration and other membrane separation processes. The world of engineering science is moving forward towards a newer visionary eon. The challenge of this treatise discusses certain critical scientific questions in membrane science such as fouling phenomenon and the immense scientific barriers linked with it. The world of environmental engineering science and the wide domain of nanotechnology are passing through a challenging phase. Nanotechnology today is surpassing visionary boundaries. The author skillfully attempts with immense foresight the recent trends and future path of scientific endeavour in the field of water and wastewater treatment specifically the domain of application of nanotechnology. This treatise widely observes the success of application of membrane science in the wide avenues of environmental engineering science. A new chapter in the history of application of membrane science is revealed with every step of human life.

Environmental engineering science today stands in the midst of deep introspection and immense crisis. The fate of environment in our human civilization is at an immense distress. March of human civilization today has become retrogressive. Chemical process engineering and environmental engineering are witnessing newer challenges and vast and versatile innovations. Mankind and its scientific research pursuit in the field of water and wastewater treatment need to be re-envisioned with each step of human life. Environmental concerns, the deep challenges of industrial pollution control and widespread ecological imbalance have brought a new revolutionary change in global scientific research pursuit. The author with cogent insight observes and informs to the wider scientific audience the world of challenges in the success of application of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment. The challenge and the vision need to be re-envisaged with each step of human life and each stride of scientific endeavour. Environmental concerns, environmental degradation and the success of environmental sustainability will lead a long way in the true emancipation of science and engineering today.

1.2 The Vision of the Study

The vision behind this well-informed study is wide and versatile. Science and engineering in today’s human civilization and human realm are moving at a drastic pace. Industrial pollution control and environmental degradation are the burning issues facing the scientific domain today [33, 34]. The vision and the challenge need to be readdressed at each step of human scientific research pursuit. Ecological imbalance and success of application of environmental engineering tools will lead a long way in the true emancipation and true realization of environmental sustainability. The vision of this treatise is wide and versatile. The author skillfully delineates the immense success of application of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment and the future realization of environmental sustainability. In this treatise, the author also discusses the application of advanced oxidation processes and other non-traditional techniques of wastewater treatment. This area of scientific pursuit is termed as tertiary treatment of industrial wastewater. The other visionary area of endeavour is novel separation processes especially membrane separation processes. Desalination and water treatment are the vexing and enigmatic areas of scientific research endeavour. The vision and purpose of this study widely revisits the murky depths of membrane science and technology. The main areas of thrust in this study are microfiltration and ultrafiltration, both areunexplored and robust areas of membrane science [33, 34].

Providing clean and affordable water to meet human needs is a formidable challenge of the twenty-first century. Globally, water supply struggles to keep up with the fast growing demand, which is aggravated by immense population growth, global climate change and water quality deterioration. Science of groundwater quality needs re-envisioning. The need for technological innovation to address integrated water quality management cannot be overstated. Globally, a revamping of integrated water quality management system is the need of the hour. This discussion covers candidate nanomaterials, properties and mechanisms that enable the applications, advantages and limitations as compared with existing processes, and difficulties and research needs for commercialization. This vision and the immense scientific candour will lead a long way in the true realization of environmental sustainability [33, 34].

1.3 The Need and the Rationale of the Study

The world of environmental engineering science and chemical process engineering today stands in the midst of deep introspection and unimaginable challenges. Global water shortage and water crisis have plunged human civilization to murky depths. The author pointedly attempts to bring forward to the scientific domain the immense potential of application of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment. The visionary prowess of mankind, man’s immense vision and the progress of science are all the torchbearers towards a greater realization of environmental sustainability. Global water challenges are the backbone of this vast and versatile study. Scientific vision and deep scientific understanding are the pillars of human scientific research pursuit today. The immense need, the rationale and the importance of this study are to discuss the future of global water crisis and its alleviation with the help of novel environmental engineering techniques and novel separation processes. Novel separation processes connote to membrane science. Non-traditional environmental engineering techniques imply the advanced oxidation processes. The author pointedly focuses on these two broad areas of science [33, 34].

Science and technology are moving fast in today’s human civilization. The road to success is arduous and groundbreaking. Global water crisis, grave concerns for environment and the cause for scientific validation will go a long way in the true emancipation of environmental sustainability. The challenge and the vision of science are immense and awesome. Environmental protection has a definite cause and vision today. The rationale of the study unfolds a newer beginning and moves towards the path of a visionary era of science. Engineering is witnessing one paradigmatic shift after another. Global water initiatives are the need of the hour due to growing concerns over provision of pure drinking water. The success of human scientific endeavour should reach all people. Thus, the imminent need of a global water research and development initiative [33, 34].

1.4 The Scope of the Study

The scope of this visionary study is wide and purposeful. Global water crisis and the concerns of environmental sustainability are witnessing drastic challenges. This study envisions the wide applications of membrane science and advanced oxidation processes to the water and wastewater treatment. In today’s world, technological vision is opening up new vistas of scientific research endeavour. The other facet of this study is to open up new avenues of scientific application of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment. The challenge is immense, yet the vision is wide. The author with deep intuition focuses on the application of nanofiltration and other vistas of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment. Science and engineering are moving at a rapid pace in this century. Sustainable development is of immense concern. The cause of energy and environmental sustainability need to be re-addressed and re-envisioned at each step of human scientific endeavour. This treatise opens up new challenges and new directions in the futuristic applications of nanotechnology to tackle global water issues.

1.5 Environmental Sustainability, the Vision to Move Forward and the Immense Challenges

Technological and scientific visions are at their helm in today’s scientific generation. Global concern for climate change, the ecological imbalance and the scientific urge to excel are all the pallbearers towards a greater emancipation of environmental sustainability. Water science and water technology in today’s scientific world are linked by an unsevered umbilical cord. Today’s science is a colossus without a definite will of its own. The challenges of environmental engineering techniques are immense today. Industrial water pollution control stands in the midst of deep introspection today. The vision to move forward is arduous and requires immense scientific understanding and scientific astuteness. Environmental sustainability is the backbone of environmental paradigm today. Scientific vision needs to be immensely re-envisioned with the alleviation of global water shortage and global water crisis.

1.6 Water and Wastewater Treatment – The Scientific Doctrine and Immense Scientific Cognizance

The science of water and wastewater treatment needs to be re-envisioned at each step of scientific endeavour. The scientific doctrine and immense scientific cognizance are paving the path towards a new visionary future. Membrane science and technology is the only answer to the intricate problems of global water crisis and industrial water pollution control. The scientific vision, the scientific fortitude and the scientific astuteness are the pallbearers towards a greater understanding of membrane science. Nanotechnology and its application in water and wastewater treatment are surpassing wide visionary frontiers. The advancement of science and engineering in today’s world is unimaginable. Scientific truth and scientific fortitude need to be re-envisioned and re-addressed at each step of scientific pursuit. This well-informed and well-observed treatise discusses the difficulties and barriers of the applications of nanotechnology in drinking water and industrial wastewater treatment. The challenge of human scientific research pursuit and scientific vision is awesome. In a similar manner, the scientific doctrine and scientific cognizance of nanotechnology and nanofiltration are gaining immense grounds in the wide horizon of chemical process engineering.

1.6.1 Nanotechnology and Drinking Water Treatment

Nanotechnology in today’s scientific world has an unsevered umbilical cord with drinking water treatment. Human civilization and human scientific endeavour are in today’s world moving towards a newer direction. Green chemistry applications, the success of nanotechnology and the visionary world of membrane science will lead a long and positive way in deep emancipation of water science and technology. Provision of clean drinking water stands in the midst of deep crisis. Global water shortage and climate change are the bane of present day human civilization. The author with deep and cogent insight brings to the scientific forefront the intricacies of nanotechnology applications in drinking water treatment. Industrial wastewater treatment is another wide facet of this present scientific endeavour. Technological vision is at its helm at each step of human scientific research pursuit. Drinking water treatment and industrial water pollution control today stand in the midst of deep comprehension and introspection. The challenge of nanotechnology applications in drinking water treatment is veritably widening the scope of science and technology.

1.6.2 Nanotechnology and Industrial Wastewater Treatment

Industrial wastewater treatment is a burning issue in today’s human civilization. The grave concerns of environmental engineering catastrophes have urged human scientific endeavour to gain immense grounds in its path towards vision. The world of scientific research pursuit today is witnessing drastic challenges. The world of technology is slowly moving towards a newer visionary realm. Global water initiatives are the need of the day. The immediate concern, the grave issue of global water crisis and the deep introspection of water science will all lead a long way in the true realization of global environmental sustainability. Industrial wastewater treatment and industrial water pollution control are today in the path of immense comprehension and deep scientific vision. Science of environment today stands in the midst of unsurpassed barriers and immense difficulties. One visionary arena is the technique of nanofiltration. Nanofiltration, ultrafiltration and microfiltration are re-envisioning the whole scientific scenario of membrane science. Human scientific cognizance and immense scientific astuteness are paving the new path of environmental engineering endeavour.

1.7 The Scientific Vision of Membrane Science

Membrane science today is a wide and visionary domain of engineering science. The immense scientific sagacity, the challenge of tomorrow’s scientific pursuit and the wide world of engineering science will lead a long way in the effective realization of membrane separation phenomenon. Separation science of membranes is highly complicated and requires deep comprehension. In this world of unimaginable environmental catastrophes, the challenge of human civilization lies in the application of scientific techniques. The vision, motivation and objectives in the field of membrane science in today’s world are surpassing wide scientific frontiers. Global water issues are challenged today and need to be re-envisioned [33, 34].

1.7.1 Classification of Membrane Separation Processes

Membrane separation processes can be envisioned into effective classifications according to its applications and separation phenomenon. Science and engineering are moving at a rapid pace towards a new visionary realm. The classifications are provided in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Characteristics of membrane processes [1].

1.7.2 A Review of Water Treatment Membrane Technologies

Water treatment membrane technologies are changing the face of scientific research pursuit today. Membranes are favored over many other technologies for water treatment, because, in principle, they require no chemical additives or thermal inputs and they do not require regeneration of spent media. Pressure-driven membrane processes are the most widely used membrane technologies in water treatment applications, although the use of gas separation, pervaporation and electrochemical membrane processes for industrial and environmental separationshas also increased dramatically in the past few decades. The challenge of human civilization in today’s world is daunting as well as visionary. Currently, membrane technology is commercially available for suspended solids, protozoa and bacteria removal (microfiltration, MF); for virus and colloid removal (ultrafiltration, UF); for hardness, heavy metals and dissolved matter removal (nanofiltration, NF); and for desalination, water reuse and ultrapure water production (reverse osmosis, RO) [33, 34].

Over the past decade, nanotechnology has rapidly changed from an academic pursuit to commercial reality. Today’s human civilization is faced with awe inspiring challenges. Membrane technology is facing newer scientific rejuvenation and newer scientific cognizance. The vision and the urge to excel have changed the concept and domain of nano-driven processes. Already nanotechnology concepts have led to new water treatment membranes that exceed the state of the art performance and enable new functionality, such as high permeability, catalytic reactivity and fouling resistance [33, 34].

1.8 Recent Scientific Endeavour in the Field of Membrane Separation Processes

Scientific endeavour in the field of membrane separation processes are wide and far-reaching. Today’s membrane separation processes are linked towards scientific endeavour in alleviation of global water crisis. Scientific research pursuit in today’s world stands in the midst of a critical juncture. Membrane separation processes are in the path of a newer innovation. Groundwater remediation, bioremediation and industrial water pollution control are gaining new grounds in the future path towards environmental sustainability. Development of human mankind and march of human civilization veritably depend on sustainability whether it is environmental or energy. Separation phenomenon is in the heart of chemical process engineering. The vitality and vision of membrane science and environmental engineering need to be re-addressed and re-structured. In our present day human civilization, the challenge and the vision of environmental engineering techniques need to be re-envisioned. Water science and water technology are veritably linked with novel separation processes. Membranes separation processes are the modern day novel separation processes. The author repeatedly stresses on the effectivity and immense potential of novel separation techniques and non-traditional environmental engineering techniques. The academic and scientific rigoursare intense in the field of membrane science [33, 34].

1.9 Recent Scientific Pursuit in the Field of Application of Nanotechnology in Water Treatment

Nanotechnology and water and wastewater treatment are the visionary avenues of human science. The challenge, the difficulties and the arduous tasks that lie before the advancement of science needs to be re-envisioned with the passage of history and time. At this crucial juxtaposition of human civilization, environmental science and application of nanotechnology need to be re-emphasized and re-structured. The author with immense scientific understanding and scientific candour brings before the scientific domain the challenges and the success of application of nanotechnology in industrial water pollution control.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report (2005) [2] discussed with deep comprehension emerging technologies for site remediation and wastewater treatment. The authors expressed concern over the serious issues United Statesfacing regarding cleanup of contaminated sites across the country. In the past ten years, emerging technologies such as phytoremediation, bioremediation and permeable reactive barriers have become popular environmental engineering tools. These novel tools have begun to compete with more established technologies such as solidification/stabilization, soil vapor extraction, thermal desorption for soil, and pump and treat systems for groundwater. Nanotechnology, though being a buzzword and a visionary terminology, has gained immense importance in recent years. The report addresses the veritable concerns behind the science of nanotechnology as well as its current and future potentials. The ability of nanotechnology to abate pollution production is just beginning to be explored and potentially can catalyze remarkable and revolutionary changes in this field [33, 34].

Over the years, the field of remediation has grown and evolved, continually developing and adopting newer innovative technologies to improve the remediation processes. The authors discuss in details the most basic form of nano-iron technology in remediation. The challenge of the application of nanotechnology will veritably open up new windows of scientific thoughts and scientific vision in decades to come [33, 34].

Qu et al. (2013) [3] discuss with scholarly the precision applications of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment. The discussion covers candidate nanomaterials, properties and mechanisms that enable the applications, advantages and limitations as compared with the existing processes and research needs for widespread commercialization. The authors discuss in details the sustainable water management and the application of nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology is being used to enhance conventional ceramic and polymeric water treatment membrane materials through various avenues. Among the various technologies, the promising to date are zeolitic and catalytic nanoparticle-coated ceramic membranes, hybrid inorganic–organic nanocomposite membranes and bio-inspired membranes such as hybrid protein–polymer biomimetic membranes, aligned nanotube membranes and isoporous block copolymer membranes.

In the last century, the global population quadrupled, while the world water demand increased seven times. This global water stress will aggravate more as the population and economies of developing countries expand. In the next 40–45 years, the global population is expected to grow nearly 40%, and hence, domestic, agriculture, industry and energy demands on water resources will grow at an alarming rate. In such a crucial juxtaposition, nanotechnology applications will be the primary focus of future research and development initiatives. At the same time, the challenge of human civilization needs to be re-envisioned. Membrane science today is the major support behind the avenues of scientific endeavour in industrial wastewater treatment. This broad area of science and engineering has changed the face of global water challenges and the veritable issues of global water initiatives.

Membranes are favoured over many other technologies for water treatment, because, in principle, they require no chemical additives or thermal inputs and they do not require regeneration of spent media. Pressure-driven membrane processes are the most widely used membrane technologies in water treatment applications; although the use of gas separation, pervaporation and electrochemical membrane processes for industrial and environment separations have also increased drastically in the past few years. The challenge of science is unimaginable, and the scientific vision and deep scientific understanding need to be re-envisioned with each step of scientific endeavour in solving global water issues. The author repeatedly stresses on the use of membranes in drinking water treatment and industrial wastewater treatment. Application of nanofiltration is another facet of this in-depth study in application of nanotechnology.

Bora et al. (2014) [4] reviewed applications of nanotechnology in wastewater treatment. Water on earth is a precious and finite resource, which is endlessly recycled in the water cycle. Various innovative technologies have been adopted by industries across the world to treat wastewater prior to its release to the ecosystem, and several new concepts and technologies are fast replacing conventional techniques. This article reviews the recent advances and application of nanotechnology in global industrial wastewater treatment scenario. Current wastewater treatment scenario involves high capital investment, operation and maintenance cost (O&M), high energy requirements and large plant areas. This crucial situation needs to be re-envisioned. Also developing countries are finding it difficult to afford such expensive technologies. Here comes the imminent need of innovation and immense applicability. Alternate cost-effective wastewater treatment with small area requirements is the other visionary avenue of research in this treatise.

Simate et al. (2011) [5] dealt in a far-reaching review the treatment of brewery wastewater for reuse. The beer brewing process often generates large amount of wastewater effluents and solid wastes that must be disposed off or treated in the least costly and safest way so as to meet the stringent environmental regulations that are set by government entities to protect human life. Key challenges for both brewery wastewater treatment and reuse are delineated in details in this well-researched treatise.

Mueller et al. (2012) [6] discussed in details the balance between nanofiltration and nanostructured membranes and the appropriate definition of nanotechnology. Nanofiltration is frequently associated with nanotechnology – obviously because of its name. However, the term nano in nanofiltration refers – according to the definition of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) – to the size of particles rejected and not to a nanostructure as defined by the International Organization of Standardization (ISO) in the membrane. This review discusses the impacts of the recent attempts to redefine nanomaterials on membrane terminology in the light of risk estimations.

Bottero et al. (2006) [7] stressed in a far-reaching review paper nanotechnologies as tools for sustainability in a new wave of water treatment processes. Nanomaterials are changing the face of human scientific research pursuit. This paper discusses three new kinds of nanotechnology materials that should be developed in the future: membranes, oxidants and adsorbents. The challenge and true vision of nanotechnology are opening new vistas of scientific endeavour in decades to come.

Mousavi et al. (2011) [8] discussed with immense lucidity the application of nanotechnology in agriculture and food production. Nanotechnology has many applications in all stages of production, processing, storage, packaging and transport of agricultural products. Nanotechnology will revolutionize agriculture and food industry by innovative new techniques such as precision farming techniques, enhancing the ability of plants to absorb nutrients, more efficient and targeted use of inputs, disease detection and control of diseases, withstand environmental pressures and efficient storage and packaging techniques.

Bhattacharya et al. (2013) [9] discussed in details the role of nanotechnology in water treatment and purification. The authors stress on potential applications and implications. Science of nanotechnology is witnessing one paradigmatic shift over another. Nanomaterials have gained attention in water pollution mitigation researches since last decade. On a mass basis, they have much larger surface areas when compared with macro-particles. During the last decade, titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles have emerged as prominent photocatalysts for water purification. The authors discuss in details this facet of scientific research endeavour. The environmental fate and toxicity of a material are critical issues in materials selection and design for water purification. The importance of scientific understanding in the application of nanotechnology will lead a long and visionary way in the true realization of global environmental sustainability today.

1.10 Scientific Motivation and Objectives in Application of Nanotechnology in Wastewater Treatment

The world of environmental engineering science is witnessing paradigmatic shift. Wastewater treatment and drinking water treatment need to be emboldened and envisioned at each step of endeavour by civil society. Future of global water initiatives are at unmitigated peril and crisis. The challenge of providing clean drinking water lies at the hands of environmental engineers and to chemical process engineering as a whole. The scientific motivation in today’s world is immense in wastewater treatment yet needs rebuilding. Wastewater treatment and drinking water treatment are witnessing a new beginning in scientific and academic rigour. Science, vision of technology and the progress of engineering are the forerunners towards a newer visionary era of industrial pollution control. Groundwater remediation science is challenged with each step of scientific research pursuit.

Nanotechnology and membrane science are the revolutionary domains of science and engineering today. Industrial wastewater treatment is a vexing issue in the wide scientific horizon. The global water crisis and global water research and development initiatives need to be readdressed with the step of human life. In today’s scientific world, the scientific challenges are befitting to the progress of human civilization. Vision of science and technology, the wide scientific rigour and the futuristic vision of industrial wastewater treatment will go a long way in the true realization of environmental sustainability.

Sustainability issues need to be at the helm of scientific agenda at each step of academic rigour. Membrane technology offered as an alternative non-conventional wastewater treatment due to a holistic and dynamic development of secondary and advanced wastewater treatment process. Reclamation of wastewater is an extremely relevant issue in today’s scientific scenario. Membrane technology helps decrease diverging water from sensitive eco-systems, which depend holistically on the flow to improve the quality of water. Advances in membrane technology for wastewater reclamation contributed to its increasing recognition as a reliable and viable technology for cost-effective production of high-quality effluents.

1.11 Desalination and the Future of Human Society

In today’s scientific horizon, desalination and global water issues are connected by an unsevered umbilical cord. Future of human society is at a deep peril. Desalination is a viable solution to the global water crisis. Membrane science in today’s scientific scenario is the only visionary answer to the world of challenges in desalination. The author deeply focuses on the principles and doctrines of desalination in particular and the recent scientific endeavour behind it. Science and engineering are moving towards a newer realm and witnessing paradigmatic shift with the passage of one decade over another. Water crisis and desalination science are invariably linked by an unsevered umbilical cord. In many countries in Middle East and South Asia, desalination plants are the only hope and vision towards the future of global water paradigm. Desalination procedures are revolutionizing the scientific scenario and the scientific vision. The future of human society is at a great distress. Global water initiatives should have a newer visionary beginning [33, 34].

1.11.1 Recent Scientific Endeavour in the Field of Desalination Procedure

McCutcheon et al. (2005) [10] deeply delves into the world of forward osmosis desalination process. The author of this well-informed treatise deals with a novel ammonia-carbon dioxide forward (direct) osmosis desalination process. The process uses an ammonium carbonate draw solution to extract water from a saline feed water across a semi-permeable polymeric membrane. The science of forward osmosis is not new yet immature. Scientific vision, scientific forbearance and deep scientific understanding will go a long way in effective application of forward osmosis process. Very large osmotic pressures generated by the highly soluble ammonium bicarbonate draw solution yield high water fluxes and can result in very high feed water recoveries. Reverse osmosis (RO), a commonly used desalination technology, is significantly more expensive than the standard treatment of freshwater for potable use. To reduce the cost of existing desalination technologies, it is extremely prudent to focus on the issues as to why these technologies are expensive. Forward (or direct) osmosis (FO) is a groundbreaking procedure that may be able to desalinate water resources at a notably reasonable cost.

Fritzmann et al. (2007) [11] delineated in a deeply researched review the state of the art reverse osmosis desalination. The most commonly used desalination technologies are reverse osmosis (RO) and thermal processes such as multi-stage flash (MSF) and multi-effect distillation (MED). In Europe, reverse osmosis, due to its lower energy consumption, has gained much importance and has a versatile future. This well-informed review focuses on the current state of the art of the reverse osmosis desalination, dealing not only on reverse osmosis stage, but the entire process from raw water intake to post-treatment of product water.

Lattemann et al. (2008) [12] in a phenomenal paper discussed the environmental impact and impact assessment of seawater desalination. There are pros and cons of seawater desalination. There are substantial concerns over potential negative impacts on environment. Key issues are the concentrate and chemical discharges to the marine environment, emission of air pollutants and the energy demands of the process. Scientific vision and scientific adjudication are at its helm at every stride of this deep endeavour.

McGinnis et al. (2007) [13] dealt deeply on energy requirements of ammonia–carbon dioxide forward osmosis desalination. Chemical process modeling software (HYSYS) is used to predict forward osmosis desalination. The FO process is modeled using single or multiple desalination columns to separate draw solution solutes from the product water for solute recycling within the FO system.

Khawaji et al. (2008) [14] delved into the wide world of advances in seawater desalination technologies. Due to the constraints of high desalination costs, many countries are unable to built this desalination plants. This paper instinctively reviews the current status, practices and advances that have been made in seawater desalination technologies. Technology in today’s world is moving extremely fast towards a newer realm and a visionary realm. Seawater desalination technologies are the immediate needs of the hour for the progress of human civilization.

The author of this treatise deeply delves into the unknown depths of novel separation processes such as membrane science, desalination and advanced oxidation processes. The challenge, the vision and the scientific urge to excel is opening up new vistas of scientific fortitude in decades to come.

Einav et al. (2002) [15] discussed the footprint of the desalination processes on environment. Water desalination processes offer various environmental benefits (related to sanitation, water softening and quality of sewage effluents), but the process is also accompanied by adverse environmental issues. Global water issues are vexing and plundering the scientific vision of today. Desalination may have an impact on five domains: the use of the land, the groundwater, the marine environment, noise pollution and finally the intensified use of energy. Science of desalination is witnessing the scientific test of its time. A concerted effort and an imminent scientific urge are necessary in order to alleviate worldwide water crisis. The authors pointedly focus on the deleterious and adverse effects of desalination procedure. Environmental awareness, an united scientific effort and conscientious planning can minimize the adverse effects of the desalination process on the environment and human society.

Mathioulakis et al. (2007) [16] reviewed desalination by using alternate energy. Energy is a critical parameter for economic development and is of vital importance in social and industrial development as also quality water. Science of water quality is of vital importance in the avenues of human development and societal transformation. This paper reviews and highlights the scientific achievements in the field of desalination by renewable energies with deep emphasis on solar energy applications. The challenge of civilization is retrogressive today due to the environmental crisis and global water challenges. The authors deeply ponder on the success of alternate energy in the future scientific endeavour.

Qiblawey et al. (2008) [17] comprehends solar thermal desalination technologies. The use of solar energy in thermal desalination processes is one of the prominent technologies towards scientific vision and deep scientific introspection. The authors discusses in details multistage flash desalination (MSF), vapor compression (VC), reverse osmosis (RO), membrane distillation (MD) and electrodialysis with solar collectors for heat generation. Science of renewable energy is entering a new phase of deep scientific comprehension and innovation of our times.

1.11.2 Scientific Motivation and Objectives in Desalination Science

The science of desalination is an extreme need of the hour in today’s progress of human civilization. Scientific motivation and objectives need to be re-envisioned and revitalized in such a grave situation of global water crisis. Groundwater contamination is the crisis of the hour. Global water issues are witnessing newer and innovative challenges today. Desalination of sea water is a definitive technology in many developed and developing economies. The challenge of science and engineering of desalination is undergoing one paradigmatic shift over another. Futuristic vision of water technology and desalination needs to be re-addressed and re-adjudicated at each step of scientific rigour.

1.12 NanofiltrationTechnologies, the Future of Reverse Osmosis and the Scientific Vision of Global Water Issues

Nanotechnology is the backbone of science and engineering in today’s scientific world. Scientific vision, scientific introspection and deep scientific understanding are the torchbearers towards a greater emancipation of application of nanotechnology in industrial wastewater treatment. The challenge and true vision of nanotechnology and its contribution to human society are immensely inspiring. Human scientific vision and scientific endeavour in the field of nanotechnology are surpassing visionary boundaries. The future of reverse osmosis is opening up new chapters in the field of application of membrane science in tackling global water issues. Global water shortage and the impending human crisis are changing the face of scientific endeavour today. Heavy metal groundwater contamination is another vexing issue facing human scientific advancement today. The challenge of human civilization is awe-inspiring and deeply introspective. Nanofiltration technologies and membrane science strides are scaling newer and visionary heights. Global water issues are retrogressive to the progress of human civilization, yet the vision of application of science is vast and versatile. The author repeatedly points out the dangers of global water crisis and its effect on human society and the progress of human civilization. Nanofiltration technologies and the application of nanotechnology in industrial wastewater treatment are the major vexing issues facing global science and engineering today. The challenge is immense, yet the vision is groundbreaking. Nanotechnology is surpassing viable frontiers of science. Technology-driven human society is witnessing far-reaching changes. Water issues, groundwater crisis and the strides of technology and science will all lead a long way in the true realization of environmental sustainable development.

1.13 Recent Advances in Membrane Science and Technology in Seawater Desalination

Seawater desalination in today’s scientific world is linked by an unsevered umbilical cord with membrane science and technology. Technological and scientific validations are the needs of the hour in this wide world of desalination and the concept of provision of clean and pure drinking water. Seawater desalination stands in the midst of deep scientific insight and the world of scientific introspection. Desalination is a process that removes minerals from saline water. More generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance, as in soil desalination, which is an issue for agriculture. The top 10 global challenges for the new millennium are energy, water, food, environment, poverty, terrorism and war, disease, education, democracy and population. Human mankind needs to be re-envisioned and re-enshrined with regard to these burning issues. The challenge and rigour of human civilization need to be rebuilt with respect to these 10 millennium goals.

Khawaji et al. (2008) [14] deeply elucidate on the advancements in seawater desalination. A number of seawater desalination technologies have been developed during the last several decades to enhance the supply of water in arid regions of the world. Due to the constraints of high desalination costs, many countries are unable to afford these technologies as a fresh water resource. Human civilization is at a state of deep and unmitigated crisis with the passage of human history and time. Two of the most commercially relevant technologies are based on multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation and reverse osmosis (RO) processes. Khawaji et al. (2008) [14] review the current status, practices, advances, R&D activities and future prospects of the state of the art seawater desalination technologies.

Desalination’s attractions are that it can create a new source of freshwater from otherwise unusable waters and that this source may be more dependable and drought-proof than fresh water sources. The challenge and vision of science of desalination are slowly unfolding in this decade. Seawater desalination is gaining high grounds in the midst of shortcomings and weaknesses of the science of membranes [33, 34].

1.14 Recent Scientific Endeavour in the Field of Nanofiltration, Reverse Osmosis, Forward Osmosis and Other Branches of Membrane Science

Technology is moving at a rapid pace in today’s environmental engineering genre. Scientific endeavour and scientific introspection need re-envisioning at each step of new innovation and new visionary today. Forward osmosis is the new generation membrane science technology. The author, with deep comprehension, points out the veritable importance of forward osmosis as a viable membrane technology.

Forward osmosis (FO) is an osmotic process that, like reverse osmosis, uses a semi-permeable membrane to effect separation of water from dissolved solutes. The driving force for this separation is an osmotic pressure gradient, such that a draw solution of high concentration (relative to that of feed solution) is used to induce a net flow of water through the membrane into the draw solution, thus effectively separating the feed water from its solutes. It is worth reminding ourselves just what forward osmosis does. The salient features are the following [33, 34]:

It can dilute a solution of higher osmotic pressure with a solution of lower osmotic pressure.

It can concentrate a solution of lower osmotic pressure with a solution of higher osmotic pressure [33, 34].

Miller et al. (2006) [18] deeply comprehended on the subject of forward osmosis and its new approach to water purification and desalination. Fresh water is an essential need and thus looming water shortages threaten the world’s peace and prosperity. Forward (or direct) osmosis is a widely emerging process for dewatering aqueous streams that might one day help in solving global water crisis. The challenge and vision of membrane science need to be re-addressed as human mankind steps to a visionary of science. In FO, water from one solution selectively passes through a membrane to a second solution based solely on the difference in the chemical potential (concentration) of the two solutions.

Nanofiltration, reverse osmosis and other membrane separation processes are the other facets of cogent scientific endeavour today. What distinguishes the more common pressure-driven membrane processes – microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis – is the application of hydraulic pressure to speed up the transport processes. Nanofiltration is a relatively new process that uses charged membranes with pores that are larger than RO membranes but too small to allow permeation of many organic compounds such as sugar.

1.14.1 Scientific Motivation and Technological Objectives in the Field of Nanofiltration, Reverse Osmosis and the Innovative World of Forward Osmosis

Scientific and technological objectives in the field of membrane science are surpassing wide and versatile visionary frontiers. Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis are witnessing immense scientific challenges. Provision of clean drinking water stands as a major concern and a research imperative to the furtherance of human society. Forward osmosis stands as an innovative procedure in the wide scientific horizon of membrane science and water pollution control. Human scientific challenges is befitting to the immense scientific progress and deep scientific rigour.

1.15 Current and Potential Applications for Water and Wastewater Treatment

Water and wastewater treatment are in the path of scientific glory and immense scientific astuteness today. Today’s science and engineering have a definite vision of their own. The challenge of application of nanotechnology is widening at every step of human life and every stride of human scientific research pursuit. The main vision of this treatise is to bring to the scientific forefront the challenge and the futuristic trends in the application of nanotechnology to environmental engineering science.

1.15.1 Vision of Adsorption Techniques

Adsorption plays a major role in the success of separation phenomenon. Chemical process engineering is veritably opening up a new eon in the field of adsorption of untreated substances in industrial wastewater and in the field of drinking water treatment. Scientific understanding and deep scientific vision are the torchbearers towards a greater understanding of adsorption phenomenon.

Adsorption is commonly employed as a polishing step to remove organic and inorganic contaminants in water and wastewater treatment. Efficiency of conventional adsorbents is usually limited by the surface area or active sites, the lack of selectivity and the adsorption kinetics. Nano-absorbents offer significant improvement with their extremely high specific surface area and associated sorption sites, short intraparticle diffusion distance, and tunable pore size and surface chemistry.

1.15.2 Potential Application in Water Treatment

Nano-adsorbents can be readily integrated into existing treatment processes in slurry reactors or adsorbers. Applied in the powder form, nanoadsorbents in slurry reactors can be highly efficient since all surfaces of the adsorbents are utilized and the mixing greatly facilitates the mass transfer. The vision and the challenge of nano-science are veritably far-reaching. However, an additional separation unit is required to recover the nanoparticles. Nano-adsorbents can also be used in fixed or fluidized adsorbers in the form of pellets/beads or porous granules loaded with nano-adsorbents.

1.15.3 The Avenues of Membranes and Membrane Processes

Membranes and membrane processes are changing the face of chemical process engineering and the wide world of environmental engineering science. Scientific research endeavourand scientific sagacity are in the path of newer regeneration in the field of environmental engineering science and in the state of global water issues. Membranes and membrane processes are the domains of science that are immensely challenged. Global water initiatives need to be re-envisioned with the growing concern for global climate change and global environmental sustainability. Sustainable development needs to be re-assessed at each step of global concern for environment. Mankind’s prowess and civilisation’s immense challenges will lead a long way in the true realization of environmental sustainability and the true success of application of environmental engineering techniques.

The basic goal of water treatment is to remove undesired constituents from water. Membranes provide a physical barrier for such constituents based on their size, allowing the use of unconventional water sources. As the key component of water treatment, they provide high level of automation, require less land and chemical use, and the modular configuration allows flexible design. A major challenge of the membrane technology is the inherent trade-off between membrane selectivity and permeability. The challenge of science and engineering are awe-inspiring and groundbreaking. In case of membranes, the high energy consumption is an important barrier to the wide application of pressure-driven membrane processes. Membrane fouling is another wide facet of novel separation phenomenon. It adds to the immense energy consumption and the complexity of the process design and operation. The performance of separation depends on the membrane material. Induction of functional nanomaterials into membranes offers a great opportunity to improve membrane permeability, fouling resistance, mechanical and thermal stability.

1.15.4 The Science of Disinfection and Microbial Control

The unending dilemma between effective disinfection and formation of toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs) poses an immense challenge for the water industry. This challenge and scientific barrier are unimaginable. It is now well recognized that conventional disinfectants, such as chlorine disinfectants and ozone can form toxic DBPs (e.g., halogenated disinfection byproducts, carcinogenic nitrosamines, bromate, etc.). UV disinfection emerged as an alternative for oxidative disinfection as it produces minimal DBPs, while it requires high dosage for certain viruses [33, 34].

1.15.5 Potential Applications in Water Treatment

Antimicrobial nanomaterials are envisaged to find their applications in three critical challenges in water/wastewater systems: disinfection, membrane biofouling control and biofilm control on other relevant surfaces. The motivation and objective of water treatment needs to be re-envisioned at each step of human scientific endeavour [33, 34].

Nano-Ag has good potential for application in water treatment. It can improve water quality for high-end use or provide another barrier against waterborne pathogens for vulnerable population. Commercial devices utilizing nano-Ag are already available, for example, MARATHON and Aquapure systems. Nano-Ag has also been incorporated into ceramic microfilters as a barrier for pathogens, which can be employed in remote areas in developing countries [33, 34].

The anti-microbial properties, fibrous shape and high conductivity of CNTs enable novel CNT filters for both bacteria and virus removal. The application of nanomaterials in membrane biofouling control is immense and groundbreaking. They can also be used in other water treatment related surfaces such as storage tanks and distribution pipes to control pathogen contamination, biofilm formation and microbial influenced corrosion [33, 34].

1.16 Water Treatment Membrane Technologies

Water treatment membrane technologies are witnessing drastic challenges in today’s world of scientific research pursuit. Human scientific endeavour is passing through a difficult global crisis. Water treatment membrane technologies and other novel separation processes are revolutionizing the scientific forefront. Global water challenges have urged scientific domain to yearn for newer innovations. Water treatment membrane technologies are moving towards a visionary scientific horizon. The academic and scientific rigoursare immense and justified as environmental sustainability needs re-envisioning. Human society stands in the midst of deep introspection as mankind moves towards a greater scientific urge to excel [27–29].

1.17 Non-Traditional Advanced Oxidation Techniques and its Wide Vision

Non-traditional advanced oxidation technologies are veritably gaining grounds in the scientific landscape. The wide and true vision of novel separation processes is immense and changing the wide world of membrane science and engineering. Global water issues and global water challenges need to be re-built and re-envisioned at each step of scientific rigour and wide scientific forays. Today, the wide vision of non-traditional advanced oxidation techniques is challenged and needs wide emancipation and vast unfolding. Traditional environmental engineering techniques are slowly being replaced by comprehensive and holistic non-traditional environmental engineering techniques such as Advanced Oxidation Processes. Ozonation or ozone-oxidation are the other facets of degradation of recalcitrant chemical compounds [33, 34].

Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) in a wider sense are a set of chemical treatment procedures designed to remove organic (sometimes inorganic) materials in water and wastewater by oxidation through reaction with hydroxyl radicals (OH’). In real-world applications of wastewater treatment, however, this term usually refers more specifically to a subset of such chemical processes that employ O3 (ozone), H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), and/or UV light. One such procedure is the in-situ chemical oxidation. AOPs rely on in-situ production of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals [33, 34].

1.17.1 Ozonation Technique and its Broad Application in Environmental Engineering Science

Ozonation technique and other advanced oxidation techniques in today’s human civilization have an umbilical cord with the wide world of environmental engineering science. Scientific vision, scientific forbearance and deep scientific comprehension all will lead a long and visionary way in the true realization of environmental sustainability. Sustainable development, whether it is energy or environmental, is the forerunner of a holistic economic growth of a nation. The author repeatedly points out the intricacies of various advanced oxidation techniques such as ozonation in its true realization of environmental engineering applications. Vision of science and technology is awe-inspiring in today’s scientific world. The efficiency and the effectivity of ozone-oxidation are changing the environmental engineering paradigm today. The wide vision of science, the immense scientific rigourand the vast and versatile scientific candour will surely and veritably open new chapters in avenues towards scientific progress.

1.17.2 Scientific Motivation and Objectives in Ozonation Technique

Scientific and technological motivation, research and development initiatives are in the forefront of advanced oxidation processes paradigm. The cogent focus on ozonation should be towards degradation of recalcitrant chemical compounds. In today’s scientific scenario, motivation, objectives and scientific validation are of utmost importance. Ozonation is a water treatment process that destroys bacteria and other microorganisms through an infusion of ozone, a gas produced by subjecting oxygen molecules to high electrical voltages. Environmental biodiversity loss, grave concerns for industrial pollution and the world of scientific vision are urging environmental scientists and engineers to gear forward towards newer innovation technologies.

1.18 Scientific Cognizance, Scientific Vision and the Future Avenues of Nanotechnology

Scientific vision and scientific understanding are witnessing a new regeneration at this decade of the present century. Scientific endeavour is at its veritable helm in the appropriate application of nanotechnology. Future of application of nanotechnology in environmental engineering science is extremely wide and bright. Nanofiltration is another area of scientific research pursuit that needs immense importance. In today’s world, cogent insight and deep comprehension are extremely necessary in effective and viable scientific endeavour. Science and engineering applications are also linked to validation of science. The challenge and vision of nanoscience and nanotechnology lie in the success of environmental sustainability and the effective realization of scientific validation.

1.18.1 The True Challenge and Vision of Industrial Wastewater Treatment

The true and effective vision of industrial wastewater treatment lies in the effective application of environmental engineering techniques. Today, novel separation processes are changing the face of chemical process engineering and environmental engineering science. Science and technology in today’s technological horizon are surpassing wide and visionary frontiers. The arduous challenges and the inimitable path towards realization of environmental sustainability need to be re-envisioned and re-addressed. Industrial wastewater treatment and drinking water treatment are the two wide avenues of scientific applications. The vision of separation phenomenon is vast and versatile. The author pointedly focuses on the inimitable barriers of novel separation processes and its veritable success.

1.19 Advanced Oxidation Processes, Non-Traditional Environmental Engineering Techniques and its Vision for the Future

Advanced