Copyright © 2010, 2014 by Sangeeta Bhalla.

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CONTENTS

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Chapter 1

Introduction:

Importance of Culture in Health

Individualism versus Collectivism

First generation South Asians

Second generation South Asians

South Asian culture within the Western nation

Defining Stress

•   Biological Model

•   Psychological Model

•   Social Model

Cultural Impact of Stress

•   Stress Sources Differ Across Culture

Stress Can Lead to Illness

Cultural Migration—an Under-researched Area

•   My Critical Reflection

Chapter 2   Research Study: The Perceptions of Stress amongst

First and Second Generation South Asians in the UK

Aims of the Research

Rationale for the Chosen Population Asian Population

•   South Asian Population

•   First and Second Generations

Research Objective

Method

•   Participants

•   Material

•   Ethical Issues

•   Procedure

•   Rationale for Chosen Methodology

Analysis and Discussion

Themes from the First Generation

•   Changes Encountered during Migration

•   First and Second Generations’ Sources of Stress

•   Culture Clash

•   Family Dynamics

•   Psychological Well-being

•   Coping Method

Themes from the Second Generation

•   First and Second Generations’ Sources of Stress

•   Culture Clash

•   Generation Gap

•   Psychological Well-being

•   Coping Method

Summary

Limitations of the Present Study and

Strategies/Suggestions for the Future Research

Recommendations

Chapter 3   Appendix

•   Selection Process

•   Online Survey

•   First Generation

•   Second Generation

•   Consent Form for Research Participations

•   Debriefing

•   Phases of Thematic Analysis

•   Reflection of My Experience When Carrying Out Thematic Analysis

•   Effect on the Reader

Chapter 4   South Asians Today

•   British Asian Women and Alcohol

•   Premarital Sex and British Asian Women

•   Loss of Traditions or Making the Best of Both Worlds?

•   ‘Living in’ a Growing Indian Trend

•   Marriage—Arranged, Love, or Out of Convenience?

•   Interracial Relationships:

•   Divorce Rise amongst South Asian Families

•   From Duty to Divorce

•   Keeping the Status Intact

•   Summary

References

Bibliography

Appendix I

Appendix II

Appendix III

Appendix IV

Appendix V

Appendix VI

DEDICATION

Dedicating a book of thoughts to my father and my best friend Rajesh, who has always been there for me since I was a child where I first held his finger to take my first step, up until now where I have matured into an independent women. I love you Dad and Mum.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe my loving thanks to my family and friends. There endless words of encouragement and enthusiasm made it possible for me to complete this book. I am thankful to the members of the South Asian society and those individuals on Facebook for participating in my research study. Finally I would like to thank the following people for their contribution: Deepak Badlani, Omar Ishaq, Danny Clarke, Sonia and Gaurav Patel, Rhiann pryor, Marie Terrase Png, Anita and Hiten Rajguru, Uhuru Robinson, Sonya and Sandeep Varaich. And most importantly god for giving me a good head on my shoulders.

CHAPTER 1

Introduction:

South Asians undergo additional sources of stress due to migration and ‘culture clash’ (clash in values, beliefs, and traditions between the Asian and Western cultures). Some fail to get the appropriate help as their cultural background is not understood, while others find it hard keeping a balance between the Western and Eastern values. This book outlines a research study exploring the perceptions of stress re: family and lifestyle amongst South Asian parents living in England (first generation) and their children (second generation) who are either born or brought up in England. My aims to capture South Asians’ insight on the notions of stress in the context of cultural migration and family dynamics.

Importance of Culture in Health

Culture can be defined as a learnt set of shared perceptions about individual’s beliefs, values, and norms. Each culture has its own principles that can generate one’s self-concept (how to act in relation to others/environment). Such principles within different cultures will have different effects on the individual’s health behaviour e.g. impact on physical, psychological, and social health. Understanding culture is important in understanding individuals. Culture determines how we define, think about, and understand health (Lustig & Koester, 1996). Thus the need to consider the role of culture in health promotion is essential.

Individualism versus Collectivism

Cultural differences in self-concepts have given rise to terms such as individualism and collectivism (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Most Western nations operate within individualistic cultures whereas Eastern nations have a more collectivist orientation (Trafmow, Triandis and Gotto, 1991). In an individualistic culture, children from a young age are brought up with values of having independent thinking and being successful for themselves. Their main goal in life is to become self-reliant, achieve self-knowledge, and realise one’s capability (Schoeneman, 1997).

The collectivist culture on the other hand prompts an individual’s behaviour and the way they think towards their family as well as their extended family. Success in their life is seen as ‘Bringing honour and glory to the family’ (Ghuman, 1999). They are brought up to make personal sacrifices in order to support their immediate and extended families (Shaw, 1988).

The upbringing in collectivist cultures is for them to be respectful and obedient towards their elders and be interdependent. They refer to themselves as a community because their identity is made up from others. The perception of others within the community is highly regarded. Collectivists do not discriminate between personal and public roles, as they let go of their personal goals for the benefit of the group. There is a lot of emphasis put on the concern and need for others (Schoeneman, 1997).

Individuals do not have control over a situation due to social and environmental factors. However, culture is another factor that reduces the level of control an individual has. In individualistic societies, the individual is more likely to have control as they are given the independence of influencing or changing existing situations. Whereas collectivists lack independent control, as it belongs to the social or the personal system to which they belong to.

By contrast, individualistic cultures are based on emotionally detached relationships and are concerned with equal benefits (Schoeneman, 1997). From an individualist’s perspective, society is a large network consisting of people. Those people who accept social organisation have limited control thus limited freedom (Schoeneman, 1997).

The differences in perception between individualistic and collectivistic cultures also affect the way in which individuals perceive intimacy and love. Within the individualistic culture, it is natural for individuals to meet, fall in love, live together, and then get married. However, within the Asian culture, marriage is based on the decisions made by family members; hence arranged marriages are not seen as unusual. Marriages within the Asian culture are dependent on factors such as occupation and social status rather than love and intimacy in comparison with the Western culture (Dion and Dion, 1993). Furthermore, subject matters such as premarital sex (Delphy and Lenord, 1992), divorce (Anwar, 1998), and dating (Ghuman, 1991) are taboo within the Asian culture but accepted within the Western culture.

First generation South Asians

First generation South Asians in India, Pakistan or Bangladesh were bought up on the collectivist values of interdependence, male dominance over female and personal sacrifice for their families. Their choices regarding education and marriage were dictated by their elders including immediate, extended family and their community. During this period love marriages were rare, children lived with their parents and women when married (same religion and caste) lived with their in laws. TV programmes and movies portrayed the reserved culture which was a characteristic feature of the South Asian culture. Movies showed subtle intimacy scenes where birds flying or two flowers touching would symbolise sexual characteristics/intimacy and love. Subject matters within the media such as divorce and premarital sex were seen as taboo. Fashion embraced the South Asian reserved culture with Indian Sari’s and Indian suits with little flesh showing.

Migrating to England, first generation South Asians wanted to uphold their beliefs and values and pass them down to their children. However migrating to a country which differed in lifestyle, values and beliefs was not easy for them. Research indicates that 89% South Asian women who were immigrants committed suicide. One may assume that this may be because of the several issues that individuals undergo when migrating, such as a sense of loss and isolation especially when the person has difficulty with the English language, which could be a precursor of stress.

Another possibility is because of the conflict between the expectations of family and community, hence Asian individuals find it difficult in keeping a balance between the Asian and Western cultures. Further support is provided by a large number of Asian women finding it difficult to balance the role of the family as well as a successful career (Burningham, 2001).

Furthermore, a study conducted in Birmingham looked at the suicidal cases of individuals admitted in a hospital following attempted suicide over a two-year period. Findings conclude that South Asian females were twice more likely to be admitted in hospital due to the attempts of suicide than their Caucasian counterparts. A reason for such behaviour was because of the marital problems that these women experienced. The cause of the marital problems was because of the arranged marriages leading to clash in views. When interviewed about their cultural identity and life events, some of the South Asian women who had attempted suicide showed that ‘culture clash’ was the main problem. This shows us that in addition to the Asian youth, some older Asian females also experience the stress that arises due to the ‘culture clash’ (Assisi, n.d.).

Overall mental distress amongst Asian women has been a cause of concern. Suicide rates amongst Asian women between the ages fifteen and thirty-five living in Britain were twice the national average for all young women of that age. The reason for such striking statistics has come down to Asian women failing to get the appropriate help, as there is a lack of understanding of the Asian women’s background and their individual needs (Burningham, 2001).

Second generation South Asians

During the period when the first generation South Asians had their children, the western influences such as changes in lifestyle had an impact on the traditional ways of life in South Asian nations. This was and still is emphasised by the media e.g. TV programmes, films, magazines as well as the environment in which South Asians live in (multi-ethnic society within the western culture). For example TV programmes now show teenagers dating, kissing scenes, or adults (over 24 years old) living independently and not with their families. According to the second generation South Asians these seem to be the norms as they know no different. However this was not the case for first generation South Asian when they viewed their Asian programmes.

Due to these changes, many second generation South Asians want to have fewer restrictions, adapt to the independent culture and want to have the freedom of making their own choices within their life rather than being told that is what they have to or will do. Some feel that they want to be trusted more; they want their lifestyle but not a bad name to shame their parents. Many do not agree with certain family morals as they may be stressful due to what they perceive around them in the Western nation. These include not dating before marriage; interracial relationships, everything done should be obeyed by immediate and extended family, being interdependent, parental pressure on education, and differences in socialisation/lifestyle. Thus this led to the South Asian family structure taking most of the strain. Second generation South Asians feel that they trying to find a balance between the two differing principle systems is stressful and one cannot be his/her own self (Ghuman, 1991).

Furthermore, it is not surprising that South Asian individuals want to adapt to some of the individualistic entities, specifically young adults, as they are exposed to the westernisation and urbanisation. One can also presume that being educated in the Western culture can also play a vital role, leading young South Asians to shift their self-concepts from collectivism to individualism (Schoeneman, 1994).

There have been several challenges that ethnic minority parents face when bringing up their children in the Western nation in the twenty-first century. Living between two different cultures which is the British way of life and one’s collectivist culture proposed by one’s family can be a very rich and a demanding experience. There are a lot of conflicts and challenges that arise through this, which are due to religion, beliefs, values, and traditions that can influence family dynamics (Ghuman, 1999).

Within the western nation individuals in their youth learn to pull away from their parents to achieve independence in order to search for their self-identity, experiment with their sexuality, and open up to personal relationships. They also make vital choices concerning their subjects to study and pursuing their professional occupation. South Asians share some of these concerns within their youth. Nevertheless, growing up in a fast-changing Western society and being bounded with collectivist values from their parents, they undergo additional problems. It is important to understand that their socialisation is different in comparison to their parents, as they are trying to understand and deal with the demands and expectations from individualistic and collectivist cultures (Ghuman, 1991).

At adolescence, individuals ask several questions such as ‘Who am I?’ to explore their self-identity, but those young adults from immigrant families ask to which community they belong to, trying to find their place within the Western society as new members. Back home these children are often referred to as ‘British born confused Desi’.

This is because when going to their back home countries, many south Asians refer to them as ‘gore’ (Caucasians) as they are living in England, but back in England they are referred to as Indian or Pakistani’s. Thus many South Asians seek for belongingness.

Asian immigrants’ shame-based culture may be one of the reasons why Asian parents may be putting strict expectations and restrictions on their children, as they are concerned about the perceptions of others within the community ‘what will people say back home or within the community’ (Anwar, 1998). For example a family would only approve of their significant others adapting to some of the elements of the western lifestyle, if it has been allowed or followed by their extended family. This allows for the blame to be passed onto others if ever questioned. Due to strict expectations that they place on their children, Asian children feel that their ambitions are not theirs but their parents.

This is further supported by Radhakrishna and Chan (1997), who carried out an experiment in which respondents were given ten objectives that were put forward by their parents as well as the objectives they set themselves. They were then asked to rank the objectives in order of importance. Indians ranked their parents and their aspirations paying the same importance. However, the Americans saw their objectives more important than their parents.

Furthermore, health and social workers say rates of depression are high amongst Asian youths, and in some cases, this results in suicide. Health professionals need to be aware of the influence of the intense academic pressure and strict parenting on Asian youth. This is because these factors tend to contribute to high rates of depression amongst young Asians. Recent cases of suicidal attempts amongst the young Asians have been attributed to the conflict between family and community clash of ideas. This is because the Asian youth find it difficult to keep a balance between the collectivist and individualistic cultures (Assisi, n.d.).

South Asian culture within the Western nation

Once in London there were no South Asians or black individuals patrolling the street, no ethnic minority were MP’s, South Asian or black individual rarely appeared in Movies or TV programmes and within schools there were 50 Caucasians in relation to one South Asian. Many South Asians also faced a lot of bullying and Racism as they were viewed as different; the way they dressed, spoke and looked. In London there was a sense of conformity where everyone spoke and dressed the same way. In 1976 Gurdip Singh Chaggar aged 18 was stabbed by a gang of Caucasian