FOOTNOTES

PREFACE

This grammar is intended for students who have already received instruction in the rudiments. Still, every such textbook must begin at the beginning. Part One, therefore, which occupies pp. 1–24, gives a succinct treatment of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence and of their substitutes, the Phrase and the Clause, concluding with a Summary of Definitions. Thus it clears the way for what follows, and may be utilized as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory.

Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and Syntax (pp. 25–182). It includes also a chapter on the use of subordinate clauses as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 157–162), as well as a chapter in which such clauses are logically classified in accordance with their particular offices in the expression of thought (pp. 163–182).

Part Three (pp. 183–226) develops the subject of Analysis in its natural order, first explaining how sentences are put together, and then illustrating the process by which they may be resolved into their constituent parts. Modifiers and Complements are classified, and the so-called Independent Elements are discussed. There is added a special chapter on Combinations of Clauses, in which the grammatical and logical relations of coordination and subordination are set forth, and their functions in the effective use of language are considered. This portion of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to students of English composition.

The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjugation, rules for capitals and marks of punctuation, a summary of important rules of syntax, and a brief history of the English language.

The Exercises (pp. 227–290) are collected at the end of the text, so as not to break continuity. References prefixed to each, as well as page-numbers in the Table of Contents, enable the teacher to attach them, at will, to the topics which they concern. The passages for parsing, analysis, etc., have been carefully selected from a wide range of eminent British and American writers. The name of the author is often appended to the quotation, when the passage is particularly noteworthy either for its contents or its form. In most cases, however, this has not been done; but the student may always feel confident that he is occupying himself with specimens of English as actually composed by distinguished authors. The constructive exercises call particular attention to those matters in which error is especially prevalent.

An advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two ways. It should afford the means for continuous and systematic study of the subject or of any part of it; and it should also be useful for reference in connection with the study of composition and of literature. With this latter end in view, many notes and observations have been included, in smaller type, to show the nature and development of the various forms and constructions, and to point out differences between the usage of to-day and that which the student observes in Shakspere and other English classics. The fulness of the index makes it easy to find anything that the volume contains.

In accordance with the desire of many teachers, certain topics of importance have been treated with unusual thoroughness. Among these may be mentioned the uses of shall and will, should and would, the infinitive and the infinitive clause, conditional sentences, indirect discourse, and the combination of clauses in sentences of different kinds.

The authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions and criticism. Particular acknowledgment is due to Mr. Theodore C. Mitchill, of the Jamaica High School, New York, and Mr. C. L. Hooper, of the Chicago Normal School.

INTRODUCTION

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

I. The Nature of Language

Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words.

The English word language comes (through the French langue) from the Latin lingua, the tongue. But the tongue is not the only organ used in speaking. The lips, the teeth, the roof of the mouth, the soft palate (or uvula), the nose, and the vocal chords all help to produce the sounds of which language consists. These various organs make up one delicate and complicated piece of mechanism upon which the breath of the speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other wind instrument.

Spoken language, then, is composed of a great variety of sounds made with the vocal organs. A word may consist of one sound (as Ah! or O or I), but most words consist of two or more different sounds (as go, see, try, finish). Long or short, however, a word is merely a sign made to express thought.

Thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with the head, the hands, etc. Thus, if I grasp a person’s arm and point to a dog, he may understand me to ask, Do you see that dog? And his nod in reply may stand for Yes, I see him. But any dialogue carried on in this way must be both fragmentary and uncertain. To express our thoughts fully, freely, and accurately, we must use words,—that is, signs made with the voice. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with them by custom or tradition, so that their sense is at once understood by all. Their advantage is twofold: they are far more numerous and varied than other signs; and the meanings attached to them are much more definite than those of nods and gestures.

Written words are signs made with the pen to represent and recall to the mind the spoken words (or voice-signs). Written language (that is, composition) must, of necessity, be somewhat fuller than spoken language, as well as more formal and exact. For the reader’s understanding is not assisted by the tones of the voice, the changing expressions of the face, and the lively gestures, which help to make spoken language intelligible.

Most words are the signs of definite ideas. Thus, Charles, captain, cat, mouse, bread, stone, cup, ink, call up images or pictures of persons or things; strike, dive, climb, dismount, express particular kinds of action; green, blue, careless, rocky, triangular, muscular, enable us to describe objects with accuracy. Even general terms like goodness, truth, courage, cowardice, generosity, have sufficiently precise meanings, for they name qualities, or traits of character, with which everybody is familiar.

By the use of such words, even when not combined in groups, we can express our thoughts much more satisfactorily than by mere gestures. The utterance of the single word Charles! may signify: Hullo, Charles! are you here? I am surprised to see you. Bread! may suggest to the hearer: Give me bread! I am very hungry. Courage! may be almost equivalent to, Don’t be down-hearted! Your troubles will soon be over.

Language, however, is not confined to the utterance of single words. To express our thoughts we must put words together,—we must combine them into groups; and such groups have settled meanings (just as words have), established (like the meanings of single words) by the customs or habits of the particular language that we are speaking or writing. Further, these groups are not thrown together haphazard. We must construct them in accordance with certain fixed rules. Otherwise we shall fail to express ourselves clearly and acceptably, and we may even succeed in saying the opposite of what we mean.

In constructing these groups (which we call phrases, clauses, and sentences) we have the aid of a large number of short words like and, if, by, to, in, is, was, which are very different from the definite and picturesque words that we have just examined. They do not call up distinct images in the mind, and we should find it hard to define any of them. Yet their importance in the expression of thought is clear; for they serve to join other words together, and to show their relation to each other in those groups which make up connected speech.

Thus, box heavy conveys some meaning; but The box is heavy is a clear and definite statement. The shows that some particular box is meant, and is enables us to make an assertion about it. And, in Charles and John are my brothers, indicates that Charles and John are closely connected in my thought, and that what I say of one applies also to the other. If, in If Charles comes, I shall be glad to see him, connects two statements, and shows that one of them is a mere supposition (for Charles may or may not come).

In grouping words, our language has three different ways of indicating their relations: (1) the forms of the words themselves; (2) their order; (3) the use of little words like and, if, is, etc.

I. Change of form. Words may change their form. Thus the word boy becomes boys when more than one is meant; kill becomes killed when past time is referred to; was becomes were when we are speaking of two or more persons or things; fast becomes faster when a higher degree of speed is indicated. Such change of form is called inflection, and the word is said to be inflected.

Inflection is an important means of showing the relations of words in connected speech. In Henry’s racket weighs fourteen ounces, the form Henry’s shows at once the relation between Henry and the racket,—namely, that Henry owns or possesses it. The word Henry, then, may change its form to Henry’s to indicate ownership or possession.

II. Order of words. In John struck Charles, the way in which the words are arranged shows who it was that struck, and who received the blow. Change the order of words to Charles struck John, and the meaning is reversed. It is, then, the order that shows the relation of John to struck, and of struck to Charles.

III. Use of other words. Compare the two sentences:

The train from Boston has just arrived.

The train for Boston has just arrived.

Here from and for show the relation between the train and Boston. The Boston train might mean either the train from Boston or the train for Boston. By using from or for we make the sense unmistakable.

Two matters, then, are of vital importance in language,—the forms of words, and the relations of words. The science which treats of these two matters is called grammar.

Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning.

The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction.

Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words.

Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words.

Grammar, then, may be said to concern itself with two main subjects,—inflection and syntax.

English belongs to a family of languages—the Indo-European Family1—which is rich in forms of inflection. This richness may be seen in other members of the family,—such as Greek or Latin. The Latin word homo, man, for example, has eight different inflectional forms,—homo, a man; hominis, of a man; homini, to a man, and so on. Thus, in Latin, the grammatical construction of a word is, in general, shown by that particular inflectional ending (or termination) which it has in any particular sentence. In the Anglo-Saxon period,2 English was likewise well furnished with such inflectional endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these, however, had disappeared by Chaucer’s time (1340–1400), and still others have since been lost, so that modern English is one of the least inflected of languages. Such losses are not to be lamented. By due attention to the order of words, and by using of, to, for, from, in, and the like, we can express all the relations denoted by the ancient inflections. The gain in simplicity is enormous.

II. Grammar and Usage

Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of grammar agree, in the main, with the laws of thought. In other words, grammar is usually logical,—that is, its rules accord, in general, with the principles of logic, which is the science of exact reasoning.

The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority from logic, but from good usage,—that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers. These customs, of course, differ among different nations, and every language has therefore its own stock of peculiar constructions or turns of expression. Such peculiarities are called idioms.

Thus, in English we say, It is I; but in French the idiom is C’est moi, which corresponds to It is me. Many careless speakers of English follow the French idiom in this particular, but their practice has not yet come to be the accepted usage. Hence, though C’est moi is correct in French, we must still regard It is me as ungrammatical in English. It would, however, become correct if it should ever be adopted by the great majority of educated persons.

Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its business is to ascertain and set forth those customs of language which have the sanction of good usage. If good usage changes, the rules of grammar must change. If two forms or constructions are in good use, the grammarian must admit them both. Occasionally, also, there is room for difference of opinion. These facts, however, do not lessen the authority of grammar in the case of any cultivated language. For in such a language usage is so well settled in almost every particular as to enable the grammarian to say positively what is right and what is wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is seldom difficult to determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred by careful writers.

Every language has two standards of usage,—the colloquial and the literary. By colloquial language, we mean the language of conversation; by literary language, that employed in literary composition. Everyday colloquial English admits many words, forms, phrases, and constructions that would be out of place in a dignified essay. On the other hand, it is an error in taste to be always talking like a book. Unpractised speakers and writers should, however, be conservative. They should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or expression that is of doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they are about, can venture to take liberties. It is quite possible to be correct without being stilted or affected.3

Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms, and constructions become obsolete (that is, go out of use) and others take their places. Consequently, one often notes in the older English classics, methods of expression which, though formerly correct, are ungrammatical now. Here a twofold caution is necessary. On the one hand, we must not criticise Shakspere or Chaucer for using the English of his own time; but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our own errors by appealing to ancient usage.

Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible, are: the best of the two (for the better of the two); the most unkindest cut of all; There’s two or three of us (for there are); I have forgot the map (for forgotten); Every one of these letters are in my name (for is); I think it be (for is).

The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and constructions that are no longer used in ordinary prose. These are called archaisms (that is, ancient expressions). Among the commonest archaisms are thou, ye, hath, thinkest, doth. Such forms are also common in prose, in what is known as the solemn style, which is modelled, in great part, on the language of the Bible.4

In general, it should be remembered that the style which one uses should be appropriate,—that is, it should fit the occasion. A short story and a scientific exposition will differ in style; a familiar letter will naturally shun the formalities of business or legal correspondence. Good style is not a necessary result of grammatical correctness, but without such correctness it is, of course, impossible.

SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words.

2. Words are the signs of ideas.

Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs; written words are signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words.

The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in each language.

3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas: as,—Charles, captain, cat, strike, dive, climb, triangular, careless.

Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected speech.

4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups called phrases, clauses, and sentences.

5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction.

The construction of English words is shown in three ways: (1) by their form; (2) by their order; (3) by the use of other words like to, from, is, etc.

6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning: as,—boy, boy’s; man, men; drink, drank.

7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words.

Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words.

8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage,—that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers.

PART ONE THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE

THE SENTENCE

1. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

Fire burns.

Wolves howl.

Rain is falling.

Charles is courageous.

Patient effort removes mountains.

London is the largest city in the world.

A man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly language.

Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought; others are comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed by a full pause.

2. Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,—a subject and a predicate.

The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.

Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is fire and the predicate is burns. In the third, the subject is rain; the predicate, is falling. In the last, the subject is a man who respects himself; the predicate, should never condescend to use slovenly language.

Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of a number of words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate by itself, however extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing (fire) does not express a complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (burns), if we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a predicate are necessary to make a sentence.

3. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.

Dickens wrote David Copperfield.

The army approached the city.

2. An interrogative sentence asks a question.

Who is that officer?

Does Arthur Moore live here?

3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.

Open the window.

Pronounce the vowels more distinctly.

4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.

How calm the sea is!

What a noise the engine makes!

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also exclamatory, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice.

4. In imperative sentences, the subject (thou or you) is almost always omitted, because it is understood by both speaker and hearer without being expressed.

Such omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both speaker and hearer, are said to be understood. Thus, in Open the window, the subject is you (understood). If expressed, the subject would be emphatic: as,—You open the window.

5. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but sometimes the predicate precedes.

Here comes Tom.

Next came Edward.

Over went the carriage.

A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the inverted order. This order is especially common in interrogative sentences.

Where is your boat?

When was your last birthday?

Whither wander you?—Shakspere.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

6. If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought.

Savage beasts roamed through the forest.

In this sentence, beasts and forest are the names of objects; roamed asserts action, telling us what the beasts did; savage describes the beasts; through shows the relation in thought between forest and roamed; the limits the meaning of forest, showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words has its special office (or function) in the sentence.

7. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

I. NOUNS

8. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.

Examples: Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, engineer, Chicago, island, shelf, star, window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage, loss, song.

II. PRONOUNS

9. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.

In I am ready, the pronoun I is a convenient substitute for the speaker’s name. In You have forgotten your umbrella, the pronouns you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking.

Other pronouns are: he, his, him; she, hers, her; it, its; this, that; who, whose, whom, which; myself, yourself, himself, themselves.

Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the name.

10. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.

Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference between them is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by naming it, and that the pronoun designates, but does not name. Hence it is convenient to have a general term (substantive) to include both these parts of speech.

11. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

Frank introduced the boys to his father. [Frank is the antecedent of the pronoun his.]

Eleanor is visiting her aunt.

The book has lost its cover.

The trappers sat round their camp fire.

Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways. [Their has two antecedents, connected by and.]

III. ADJECTIVES

12. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.5

This it usually does by indicating some quality.

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

13. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning.

The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say wooden box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (small) and a third (square), we limit the size and the shape of the box.

Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives.

We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are called definitive adjectives.6

IV. VERBS

14. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.7

The wind blows.

The horses ran.

The fire blazed.

Her jewels sparkled.

Tom climbed a tree.

The dynamite exploded.

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.

The treaty still exists.

The book lies on the table.

Near the church stood an elm.

My aunt suffers much from headache.

15. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion.

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

You will see.

The tree has fallen.

We might have invited her.

Our driver has been discharged.

16. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, aiding) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.

Thus, in You will see, the auxiliary verb will helps see to express future action; in We might have invited her, the auxiliaries might and have help invited to express action that was possible in past time.

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.

The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words.

Where was Washington born?

The boat was slowly but steadily approaching.

17. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject.

1. Gold is a metal.

2. Charles is my friend’s name.

3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant.

4. Iron becomes red in the fire.

5. Our condition seemed desperate.

6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency.

7. My soul grows sad with troubles.—Shakspere.

In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, but it also connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the subject (gold) in such a way that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold.

In sentences 4–7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are similarly used.

In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, joining) verbs.

Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the joiner or link.

The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the commonest are: am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be.8

V. ADVERBS

18. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus in The river fell rapidly, the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fell by showing how the falling took place. In I am never late, This is absolutely true, That is too bad, the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in He came very often, He spoke almost hopefully, The river fell too rapidly, they are adverbs modifying other adverbs.

Most adverbs answer the question How? When? Where? or To what degree or extent?

19. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns.

Adjectives

Adverbs

A bright fire burned.

The fire burned brightly.

A fierce wind blew.

The wind blew fiercely.

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.

Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives modify substantives; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

VI. PREPOSITIONS

20. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.

A preposition is said to govern its object.

In The surface of the water glistened, of makes it clear that surface belongs with water. In Philip is on the river, on shows Philip’s position with respect to the river. In, or near, or beyond would have indicated a different relation. Water is the object of the preposition of, and river is the object of the preposition on.

21. A preposition often has more than one object.

Over hill and dale he ran.

He was filled with shame and despair.

VII. CONJUNCTIONS

22. A conjunction connects words or groups of words.

A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects.

In Time and tide wait for no man, The parcel was small but heavy, He wore a kind of doublet or jacket, the conjunctions and, but, or, connect single words,—time with tide, small with heavy, doublet with jacket. In Do not go if you are afraid, I came because you sent for me, Take my key, but do not lose it, Sweep the floor and dust the furniture, each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it.

VIII. INTERJECTIONS

23. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.

Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand; hence their name, which means thrown in.

Examples: Oh! I forgot. Ah, how I miss you! Bravo! Alas!

THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH

24. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.

The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.

Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in The minstrel sang a plaintive lay, and He lay on the ground. But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the meaning which we give to a word in the