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    Scientists and Scoundrels
    Scientists and Scoundrels
    Scientists and Scoundrels
    Ebook338 pages2 hours

    Scientists and Scoundrels

    By Robert Silverberg

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    About this ebook

    As if history and nature had not provided wonders enough, through the ages humans themselves have contrived more marvels to deceive one another. Sometimes they have concocted evidence when none was available to prove pet theories; sometimes their intention has been to impress or defraud; sometimes they have acted merely for sport.
    Robert Silverberg tells the stories of a baker's dozen of these scientific hoaxers in a lively, good-humored book that ranges through time and across continents. Here are perpetual-motion machines and space rockets, men on the moon and serpents in the sea. The rogues' gallery is a varied one: Dr. Mesmer, who cast his hypnotic spell on eighteenth-century Paris; Charles Dawson, whose Piltdown Man challenged evolution; Dr. Cook, with his tale of "discovering" the North Pole; and many others.
    These are fascinating stories and more than just entertainment. The author explains the scientific background against which the hoaxes appeared and the detective work that led to their exposure. The schemers teach us to be alert, to challenge the evidence, and to appreciate the healthy skepticism that characterizes the scientific method.
    Fantasy & Science Fiction Grandmaster Robert Silverberg brings the personalities, science, and events of these amazing frauds to vivid and relevant life.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherReAnimus Press
    Release dateJul 21, 2019
    ISBN9780463195673
    Scientists and Scoundrels
    Author

    Robert Silverberg

    Robert Silverberg’s first published story appeared in 1954 when he was a sophomore at Columbia University. Since then, he has won multiple Nebula, Hugo, and Locus awards. He has been nominated for both awards more times than any other writer. In 1999 he was inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame, and in 2004 the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America gave him their Grand Master Award for career achievement. He remains one of the most imaginative and versatile writers in science fiction.

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      Book preview

      Scientists and Scoundrels - Robert Silverberg

      SCIENTISTS AND SCOUNDRELS

      A BOOK OF HOAXES

      by

      ROBERT SILVERBERG

      Produced by ReAnimus Press

      Other books by Robert Silverberg:

      The Gate of Worlds

      Conquerors from the Darkness

      Time of the Great Freeze

      Enter a Soldier. Later: Another

      The Longest Way Home

      The Alien Years

      Tower of Glass

      Hot Sky at Midnight

      The Queen of Springtime

      Shadrach in the Furnace

      The Stochastic Man

      Thorns

      Kingdoms of the Wall

      Challenge for a Throne

      1066

      The Crusades

      The Pueblo Revolt

      The New Atlantis

      The Day the Sun Stood Still

      Triax

      Three for Tomorrow

      Three Trips in Time and Space

      © 2019, 1965 by Robert Silverberg. All rights reserved.

      https://ReAnimus.com/store?author=robertsilverberg

      Smashwords Edition License Notes

      This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each person. If you're reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then please purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.

      ~~~

      Oh, what a tangled web we weave When first we practice to deceive!

      —Walter Scott: Marmion

      ~~~

      Table of Contents

      Introduction

      1: The Lying Stones of Dr. Beringer

      2: The Marvelous Magnetism of Dr. Mesmer

      3: The Men on the Moon

      4: The Sea Serpent of Dr. Koch

      5: John Keely's Perpetual-Motion Machine

      6: The Kensington Stone

      7: Dr. Cook and the North Pole

      8: Paul Schliemann and the Lost Continent of Atlantis

      9: The Etruscan Sculptures

      10: The Case of the Venezuelan Ape-Man

      11: The Kammerer Tragedy

      12: Otto Fischer's Rocket Ride

      13: The Piltdown Puzzle

      A Last Word

      Bibliography

      About the Author

      Introduction

      This is, in a way, a book of science fiction—or, at any rate, a book of fictional science. There are hardly any monsters from outer space in it, and only a single rocket ship. Our heroes and our villains are chiefly men of science, though. Sometimes even very learned men behave in strange and erratic ways, and their odd behavior forms the substance of the present book.

      It is a book of hoaxes. It is a record of human attempts to bamboozle, flimflam, hoodwink, and otherwise deceive. The word hoax is not particularly old, as English words go; its first appearance in the language seems to have occurred only in 1796. Some say that it is derived from an older word, to hocus, which dates from about 1640. A hocuser was one who deceived, juggled, stupefied, conjured. He was thought to use the Latin formula hocus-pocus in his trickery, Latin of course being the language of educated men who might be expected to befuddle ordinary mortals. The chapters to come will reveal the doings of a variety of hocusers and suspected hocusers.

      The word may be fairly young, but hoaxing itself is an ancient art. The Bible provides us with several classic hoaxes, such as the one carried out by Jacob on his father Isaac. Isaac, growing old and blind, wished to bless his sons Esau and Jacob. Esau, as the first-born son, was entitled to the larger portion of his father’s property. And, as Jacob observed, Behold, Esau my brother is a hairy man, and I am a smooth man. Jacob donned the skins of goats, woolly side outward, and went before Isaac for the blessing. The old man put his hands on Jacob and felt the rough skin of the goats, and thought that he was blessing Esau, and so the wily Jacob stole his brother’s blessing. Such was hoaxing in Biblical times.

      Another foxy character of ancient days, Odysseus, was also fond of hoaxing. In the Odyssey we read how Odysseus and his men became prisoners in the cave of the one-eyed giant Polyphemus. The captives managed to blind the monster, but he guarded the mouth of the cave and they could not escape. Polyphemus did send his sheep and goats out of the cave to pasture, and ran his hands over the backs of the animals to see that no Greeks were riding out on them. But the Greeks had fastened themselves underneath the biggest animals, and slipped safely out under the giant’s groping hands.

      Odysseus had performed another act of flummery on the hapless Polyphemus. When he first arrived in the cave, Odysseus told the giant that his name was No Man. Then, after the Greeks had blinded Polyphemus, the wounded giant roared in pain, and his friends called out, Who has injured you?

      No Man has injured me, Polyphemus answered—and so the neighboring giants did not come to his aid.

      Hoaxes are entertaining things, at least for outsiders, though their victims rarely find them amusing. But why write a book about them? Is it useful or instructive in any way to read about frauds of science, to spend time learning of ersatz discoveries and mythical inventions?

      I think it is. The study of hoaxes is not only a pleasant pastime, but a valuable form of education. As Little Buttercup sings in H.M.S. Pinafore, Things are seldom what they seem. The task of science is to distinguish between the real and unreal, between fact and fantasy. The hoaxers, through their mischief, have done what they could to blur these distinctions. But the very fact that men do enjoy creating hoaxes teaches us all to be on our guard. We cannot accept statements at face value. We must check, and test, and examine, for things are seldom what they seem. Does a newspaper story say there are men on the moon? Yes, but is it so? Are there vast sea serpents? Perhaps, but let’s look closely at the evidence. Was there a lost continent of Atlantis? Can a perpetual-motion machine be built? Perhaps. Perhaps. But first we must check.

      The hoaxers teach us to check. They make us unsure of what we think we see—and that is useful. We have to challenge the evidence. If the tools of science are not good enough for telling fact from fantasy, we must develop new tools.

      Here is a baker’s dozen of hoaxes. If, reading about such characters as Mesmer and Koch and Keely, you feel a trifle uneasy about some of the things you see in the daily paper, so be it. Take a closer look at the latest wonders.

      Things are seldom what they seem.

      1: The Lying Stones of Dr. Beringer

      In the year 1710, some workmen digging near the city of Würzburg in southwestern Germany discovered what appeared to be an enormous bone, hard as rock and terribly heavy. There were those who said it must be the bone of a giant who had been drowned in Noah’s Deluge—for, according to the Bible, there were giants in those days.

      Huffing and puffing, the workmen brought their find to the University of Würzburg, a venerable institution founded in 1403. The object was duly examined, and, since it seemed to be a bone indeed, it was turned over to the faculty member who would know most about such things.

      He was Dr. Johann Bartholomew Adam Beringer, Senior Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Doctor of Philosophy and Medicine, and Chief Physician to the Prince-Bishop of Würzburg. Dr. Beringer, in short, was a very important man. He examined the bone with care. Before long, he pronounced his verdict.

      It was not, he said, the bone of any giant man who had lived before the Deluge. (He was quite right: it was, as a matter of fact, the fossilized bone of a kind of elephant that had inhabited Germany some fifteen million years ago.) Dr. Beringer went on to add that it was not a bone at all, however much it might look like one. It was, he declared, pure stone—a lusus naturae, or prank of nature.

      Dr. Beringer was thereby stating one of the best-known theories of his day. For several centuries workmen had been digging up what seemed to be the relics of ancient animals and men. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, many large buildings were constructed in Europe, requiring deep foundations, and the workers were finding curious things in the earth. Moreover, men were beginning to regard the world about them with great curiosity. They were stopping to examine things, instead of accepting everything in blind faith.

      What were these strange relics? They were given the name fossils, from the Latin word fossilis, meaning dug up. They seemed to be the bones of fish, or of giants, or of reptiles. There were even the fossil imprints of fragile plants and insects on rock. Some people—Leonardo da Vinci was one—said that these were, quite simply, the bones of dead creatures, buried in ancient floods and turned to stone over the ages. But that obvious explanation was too simple for many of the learned men. They had more elegant theories.

      Some said that the fossils were not relics at all, but merely stones of unusual shape. Why, then, did they seem to look like bones or plants? Simply by the whim of God, the savants answered. The fossils were lusi naturae, pranks or sports of nature. What mere mortal could question the designs of God? If He chose to fashion stones so that they looked like the skeletons of fish, He must have had some far-reaching reason for doing so, and it was not ours to wonder why.

      As for the actual means by which the fossils were formed, there were many suggestions. Some simply said that God had created them when He brought living plants and animals into being. Others suggested that under certain circumstances the seeds of plants or the eggs of fish might slip into cracks in the earth and hatch in the darkness to create fossil forms. Others talked of a life-giving mist from the sea, or of fatty matter set into fermentation by heat, or of a tumultuous movement of terrestrial exhalations, or of a lapidific juice that hardened to take the shape of fossils.

      Dr. Beringer was of the school of thinking that felt that fossils were simply stones of a peculiar sort, hidden by the Author of Nature for His own pleasure. Since he held an important position at an important university, his views were widely quoted and accepted. Year after year, Beringer lectured his students on the nature of fossils. The good doctor, who was born in 1667, was himself the son of a famous professor, and his own reputation for scholarship and industriousness was of the highest.

      But there were those who disagreed with Beringer’s ideas. What’s more, they disliked him personally. They thought he was arrogant in his learning, too intolerant of other beliefs. They set out to have some fun with Beringer. They gave him a very unpleasant surprise—and made his name immortal.

      Beringer, good scholar that he was, had an abiding interest in collecting and studying fossils. He hired young men to dig in the hills near Würzburg and search for the miraculous stones of a peculiar sort that he found so interesting.

      The early results were poor. Beringer’s district, the duchy of Franconia, was a lovely place, with a placid river winding through level fields ringed by handsome mountains. The land was ideal for vineyards and farms, but did not seem to produce fossils. The disappointed Beringer had to fill his shelves with specimens sent him by friends in other lands.

      Then, in the spring of 1725, Beringer’s workmen began to dig on the slopes of one mountain that had been examined before, without success—and they struck scientific treasure, in Beringer’s words one bountiful horn of plenty.

      There were three workmen: Christian Zanger, who was seventeen, and two brothers, Niklaus and Valentin Hehn, who were eighteen and fourteen, respectively. Beginning on May 31, 1725, they made a series of remarkable finds.

      They found stones bearing pictures in raised relief. First came a stone showing the sun and its rays; then came two depicting worms. And then the deluge. The three workmen brought stone after stone to the delighted Beringer, until he had several hundred of them. Beringer later described the range of objects depicted on the stones in these glowing terms:

      Here, representing all the kingdoms of Nature, but especially those of animals and plants, are small birds with wings either spread or folded, butterflies, pearls and small coins, beetles in flight and at rest, bees and wasps (some clinging to flowers, others in their nests), hornets, flies, tortoises from sea and stream, fishes of all sorts, worms, snakes, leeches from the sea and swamp, lice, oysters, marine crabs, frogs, toads, lizards, canker-worms, scorpions, spiders, crickets, ants, locusts, snails, shell-bearing fishes, and countless rare and exotic figures of insects obviously from other regions. Here are nautili, ammonites, starfish of very different and delightful species, shells, spiral snails, winding shells, scallops, and other heretofore unknown species. Here were leaves, flowers, plants, and whole herbs, some with and some without roots and flowers. Here were clear depictions of the sun and the moon, of stars, and of comets with their fiery tails.

      Most remarkable—the supreme prodigy commanding the reverent admiration of myself and my fellow examiners—Beringer beheld certain tablets inscribed in Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew characters. Some of the stones bore single letters, others whole words. Some letters were shaped well, others crudely. Occasionally an image of a scallop or a snail would bear lettering on its back. Beringer consulted linguists and rabbis, and all gave him the same opinion: that the words formed the name of God, Jehovah. It was as though the Creator had chosen to take credit for the miraculous stones of Würzburg by signing His name to His handiwork.

      Beringer was overjoyed. From June to November, his workmen delved into the mountain, until, when winter forced a halt, there were two thousand figured stones in all. Beringer spent the winter months writing a book about the great discovery. He intended to tell the world that his theories of fossils had been triumphantly vindicated. Nobody could say that these stones were the bones of dead beasts drowned in the Deluge. No, they were works of art, the products of God, Beringer insisted. Nor was this man a fool; bear in mind that he was one of the preeminent scholars of his day.

      While Beringer was at work on his book, certain disturbing events occurred. Two of his colleagues at the university attacked the stones as frauds, and called Beringer an ignoramus. The stones, they said, had been recently sculpted by hand, made to look as though at different periods they had been resurrected from a very old burial, and sold to Beringer as to one indifferent to fraud and caught up in the blind greed of curiosity. They went on to say that Beringer himself knew he had been fooled, and now was deluding the world, and trying to sell new hoaxes as genuine antiques, to the silent laughter of prudent souls.

      The names of these two attackers were J. Ignatz Roderick and Georg von Eckhart. Roderick was Professor of Geography, Algebra, and Analysis at the University of Würzburg; Eckhart, an older man, was the university’s librarian, as well as Librarian to the Prince-Bishop of Würzburg.

      They were not content simply to denounce Beringer. They manufactured a few figured stones themselves, and offered to sell them to him. Zanger, one of Beringer’s diggers, brought him a few stones showing such things as a winged dragon, a mouse, and a lion. Beringer accepted them as genuine and paid Zanger for them. Then Roderick and Eckhart openly declared that they had carved those stones. They did not come right out and say they were responsible for the two thousand stones found earlier—but they left no doubt that those earlier finds were highly suspicious.

      Another man might have hesitated and pondered a bit. Not the dogmatic Dr. Beringer. He brushed aside the charges of Roderick and Eckhart as malicious gossip, and went on writing his book.

      It was published in 1726 under the title, Lithographiae Wirceburgensis. Like most scholarly books of its day, it was in Latin. It bore elaborate dedications to Christopher Franz, Bishop of Würzburg and Duke of Franconia. A series of finely engraved plates showed the famous stones.

      Beringer’s book, which has recently been translated into English, makes lively and entertaining reading. His style was flowery and ornate, but he wrote clearly and vigorously. The extent of his learning is evident on every page. He had read nearly every word published on the subject of fossils, and was able to reply to the differing schools of thought with skill and power.

      The stones, he made it clear at the outset, were not forgeries. Many erudite scholars and illustrious men of letters, he said, could not refrain from suspecting that some imposture lay hidden beneath these extraordinary mysteries—that the stones were fictitious and were fabricated in secret for purposes of fraudulent avarice. But this simply was not so, he said. The stones had been honestly found, hidden in the earth, treasures buried for centuries since God had shaped them.

      He did admit that when one looked at the stones one would swear that they are the work of a very meticulous sculptor. Many of them were soft, carved from some chalky material, with neatly outlined figures. The tiny animals and insects displayed splendid grace and elegance.

      Beringer spoke of the lusus naturae theory. There were, he said, stones which imitate the forms of other bodies, and which were the result of Nature playing artistically. Many of the relics that men called the remains of ancient creatures actually were of this sort.

      He was careful, though, to distinguish between his stones and fossils. Some fossils, Beringer conceded, really were animal remains. They had been left behind after some flood, perhaps, and had gradually turned to stone. But these, when broken open, displayed the internal structure of shell or bone. On the contrary, the stones he had found had no joints or chambers inside, being an unformed stony mass. There was no possibility that the figures on his stones were the petrified remains of once-living creatures, he said. After all, many of the stones showed the complete bodies, not merely the bones, of such creatures as toads and frogs. Bees and wasps, crickets and beetles, all were represented down to the finest detail. These could be no petrified remains, for the fragile remains would long ago have decayed or been crushed. And what of the plants, flowers, and herbs, by nature extremely frail, which under heavy rain or frost, droop to the ground, drop their leaves, and die? Could these have withstood the Deluge?

      The stones bearing the name of God certainly were not fossils of anything. No, Beringer said, these were all the works of the Deity, in an artistic mood.

      He rejected the idea that his stones were pagan idols, buried in the mountain by the Germans a thousand years

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