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INTRODUCTION

This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks…

—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, from Evangeline

I know the exact moment my husband, Bob, and I decided to write about the Ocklawaha River. We were casting around for a new book idea after collaborating—me as the writer, Bob as the photographer—on books about education, southern history, ghost lore and true crime. We tried to think about things we knew, things we didn’t know and things we wanted to know. So, it started with an interest in Florida’s maritime heritage—in particular, steamboats. Before the explosion of shopping malls and housing developments, there were no real roads in Florida, just a few Native American trails. Florida is a peninsula, and people get around on the water. Florida’s deepwater ports have always been marketplaces for a global economy. Within its borders, however, a warren of rivers provided access to the interior—hence, the steamboat era. We thought we would write about that.

On one steaming hot summer day in 2016, Bob and I took a trip to the Ocala National Forest to see one of the old steamboat landings, the Davenport. Particular sites in the Ocala National Forest are hard to pinpoint. We drove for over an hour, then a few miles down a dirt road before we turned onto a bumpy, two-rut track that ended on the banks of the lower Ocklawaha River.

At the trailhead, we saw a footpath, which we later found out led to a kiosk full of steamboat memorabilia. I presume people aren’t supposed to live in the Ocala National Forest, but there were two hard-used tents pitched, supplies strewn about and a man fishing down by the river. We spoke to him briefly—and from upwind, because he smelled like a seasoned camper.

A gator comes by every day around eleven o’clock, he said, pointing.

We scrambled down the bluff to get a better look. Sure enough, there was the gator, his hide a rough oval amid the shimmering waters of the river. Around him flowed the Ocklawaha.

For some reason, out of the maze of river networks in central and north Florida—Crystal, Withlacoochee, Indian, Matanzas, Rainbow, Weeki Wachee, Wakulla, Suwanee—the Ocklawaha took our fancy. It was dark and placid, its satiny surface dimpled by the light raindrops that had just begun to fall from the humid sky. Hyacinths floated like small green islands, and the river’s banks were sandy. There was the shriek of red-shouldered hawks and the boisterous oinks of pig frogs. Most intriguing of all were the river’s distinctive and elusive curves. There is nothing forthright about the Ocklawaha. Unlike the cascading mountain creeks to the north, it was quiet except for the distant sound of a motorboat and the burble of a deadhead log lifting and falling in the current. Its waters commence their own unique and twisted path, fading away into the mist like a memory.

Right then and there, without us knowing anything about its rich history, the river cast its spell on us. We were hooked. We wanted to know it, paddle it, motor on it, write about it. We weren’t alone. People had always fished, hunted and explored the secret recesses of the river. Many people grew up canoeing, rafting and kayaking on it. Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings wrote about the river in her famous book Cross Creek. The Ocklawaha holds a place in the Floridian imagination as mystical as the river Styx, forging a boundary between earth and some other world.

PLANNING THE RIVER TRIP

We determined that we couldn’t paddle the entire river, although we later met people who had done it. But the Upper Ocklawaha Basin contains all the waters that feed the Ocklawaha River upstream before the confluence with Silver River. The headwaters of the river are further into Central Florida, in Lake County, at the Harris chain of lakes (Apopka, Griffin, Dora, Eustis and Yale).

The green swamp area, an important headwater south of Apopka, is not easy to access by land, plus, Lake Apopka and Lake Griffin are among Florida’s most polluted lakes. We didn’t want to deal with blockages or traipsing across private poverty. Later, when we met Matt Keene, a documentary filmmaker and master kayaker, he said that the upper Ocklawaha is an enjoyable gentle paddle with a collection of water from some of the oldest sandhills in Florida. Still, we chose our starting point to be at the Silver Springs run, a nine-mile tributary, because although it was by no means entirely safe from algae blooms, it was, at least, consistently pristine.

From our proposed starting point, the river travels along the western and northern boundary of the Ocala National Forest before its union with the St. Johns River and, ultimately, the Atlantic Ocean at the seaport city of Jacksonville. We wanted to begin at the lower Ocklawaha basin, where the striped bass used to come in, and go to Putnam County, where the Ocklawaha empties into the St. Johns.

Like the St. Johns River, the Ocklawaha River is one of the few continental major rivers to flow northward. The river itself is mostly contained within Marion County, while its drainage basin strays into Alachua, Putnam and Orange Counties. A sector of cypress swamp spreads from the water’s edge to about fifteen feet above the water level. Then, there is a zone of hardwood hammock—mostly live oak, sabal palm and palmetto. Higher in elevation is the forest—mostly sand, pine and scrub oak.

Cypress knees.

In river miles, the distance from Silver Springs to the St. Johns River is approximately fifty-eight miles. It was an ambitious project for two amateurs with full-time jobs. Bob and I are not waterway or camping experts. We have spent the majority of our adult lives in North American suburbs. Suburbs are places where there may be an occasional foray into non-landscaped terrain, particularly after a hurricane, but in no way does this qualify as roughing it. However, we were motivated, around this time, by our adult children, who decided to move in with us. It seemed opportune to indulge in the vital domestic concept of space, especially as our interest in the Ocklawaha River required us to spend a lot of time exploring it.

HISTORY OF THE SEMINOLES ON THE OCKLAWAHA RIVER

We resolved to take our time and travel small segments of the serpentine watercourse with the name that translates to crooked [or muddy, great or dark] waters—a title given by the Native Americans who used the shady creek for transportation. At normal water level, particularly back then, the river would have been relatively clear, but deep shade was provided by the dense growth of canopied trees that leaned over the creek before it was timbered.

Its surrounding history entails—as most American history does—European men and their descendants appropriating the ancient hunting grounds of Native Americans going back to Da Gama and the Timucuans. Matters had not improved by the time a fateful meeting between Osceola, the Seminole chiefs and federal government agents occurred at Payne’s Landing on the Ocklawaha in 1832. The government issued an ultimatum to the Indians, although they framed it as a treaty. The treaty said the Seminoles had three years to move to Oklahoma, west of the Mississippi River.

Anyone familiar with the Trail of Tears knows it was common in those days for the federal government to forcefully relocate Native Americans multiple times as property was developed by white settlers across the United States. The Seminole tribe objected to being moved away from land and waters they had inhabited from time immemorial. They viewed the use of the river as a source of their spiritual power. Osceola put a knife through the government treaty, and the second Seminole Indian War began in earnest. It lasted for years, with a devastating outcome for Native Americans, many of whom were imprisoned in the Castillo De San Marcos in St. Augustine, including Osceola (who later died of malaria while in captivity in the South Carolina prison at Fort Moultrie).

According to ghost tours in St. Augustine, Osceola’s suffering visage is still visible on the exterior face of the southern side of the fortress wall. Tourists can see a more substantial likeness of Chief Osceola ripping through the white man’s treaty in a statue that presides over a cove at Silver Springs State Park.

STEAMBOATS ON THE OCKLAWAHA

There were scores of steamboats on the St. Johns and the Ocklawaha Rivers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Along the riverbanks are the remnants of many stops from the old steamboat line, which are now mostly boat launches.

Ocklawaha on the Ocklawaha River.Florida Memories.

Hubbard Hart, a white-mustachioed Yankee from Vermont who blockaded for the Confederacy in a steam-driven paddleboat, the Silver Spring, also cleared the Ocklawaha River for the Union after the Civil War. A commissioned officer in the service of supply, moving cannons and military equipment, Hart called himself Colonel and lied to the government in a multipage letter, To his Excellency Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, brazenly writing, I have never been actively engaged in the Confederate service.

As a practical man (and one not overly concerned with scruples), some historians say Hart would have been another Henry Flagler if he’d had the financial backing. Hart started out buying a stagecoach line in Savannah, Georgia, in the 1850s. He bid on mail contracts in northeast Florida and maintained a stage line between Tampa and Palatka. He often stopped at Silver Springs to water his horses. (He was one of many who came up with the idea of a rowboat with a glass bottom.) From stagecoaches, he expanded to steamboats, and by 1883, Hart’s jungle tours, four-day roundtrip expeditions by steamboat from Palatka to Silver Springs, were advertised in Harper’s Magazine.

Colonel Hubbard Hart.Museum of Florida History.

Published articles in a national magazine brought more tourists. In those days, social media consisted of letters, and the people who toured the Ocklawaha River and Silver Springs wrote to their friends and family about the experience: the whirlpools, the abrupt turns, occasional forays against the trunks of trees. There were the sounds of animals and reptiles. It was the real Florida experience, the theme park for the nineteenth century, and it was delightfully warm in the winter. The word spread.

By 1885, Hart had added twelve boats to his fleet. To accommodate his burgeoning business, Hart devised a custom shallow draft paddleboat with the recessed wheel in the stern. It was low and long with a narrow-beamed hull that could navigate through the sometimes clogged and always winding river. One of his boats even introduced an inclined engine with compact, space-saving features. These boats were short, only between sixty and ninety feet in length. They never would have survived in the ocean, and they were much smaller than those that plied most North American rivers, even the St. Johns. The famous novelist Harriet Beecher Stowe refused to board one, saying it looked like a gigantic coffin.

Steamboat enthusiasts did not share her views. Hart’s unique rivercraft was featured at the 1892 Chicago World’s Fair. A year or two later, a writer of the Florida Annual stated: Leaving Florida without seeing the Ocklawaha is like leaving Rome without seeing the pope. In the closing decades of the nineteenth century, Hart’s steamboats carried passengers and freight up and down the river to the area of the headwater lakes in north central Florida. It was a post office and a packet line that transported everything from oranges to silk hats; it was an excursion line for hunters who shot at game on the banks of the river by day.

Long before the Endangered Species Act, the Hart line provided the guns, and passengers blasted anything that moved—tropical birds, deer, gators. Porters went out in little boats to collect the game and gave it to the tourists to take home. By the 1880s, tropical birds were rare. Clifton Johnson, author of Highways and Byways of Florida, wrote in 1918: One annoyance to sensitive persons on the old-time passenger boats was the constant firing of sportsmen’s guns. These guns were in the hands of men who seemed to think that the chief end of man is to shoot something.…Several shooting accidents to passengers, one of which resulted fatally, at last compelled a reform of the abuse.

Tourist route of the Hart Line steamboats. Florida Memories.

The Hart line switched to wooden guns for the tourists who posed for pictures on the dock with giant stuffed gators. There was no shortage of passengers. Hundreds of tourists boarded steamboat excursions only to discover they were crammed into tight berthing quarters. Porters of small stature set up folding tables in the passageways so passengers could have a place to sit and eat. The fee for the trip was five dollars, which included a room and meals that usually featured wild turkey, venison, quail, chicken or farm-fresh eggs.

At night, passengers extolled the exotic experience as the wood-fueled vessels roiled along the dark waters lit only with pine-pitch torches. Bowmen with long poles would push back toward the middle of the river when the steamboat ran too close to the trees. Big metal cauldrons on top of the boat burned fat and wood day and night in an open fire, providing light. A passenger writing about it to a friend said in a letter:

The flickering yellow light gave an eerie appearance to the river and to the black swampy jungle; an eeriness enhanced by the mournful cries of hoot owls and the screams of bobcats. The light drew inquisitive wild creatures to the water’s edge, and their eyes glowed in the darkness like red hot coals.

Sidney Lanier, a poet, concurred with Stowe about the strange shape of the steamboat, calling it a Pensacola gopher with a preposterously exaggerated back, and gave us a glimpse of what the Ocklawaha River was like 152 years ago, when he wrote about his trip on the Marion:

Presently we rounded the raft, abandoned the broad and garish highway of the St. Johns, and turned off to the right into the narrow lane of the Ocklawaha, the sweetest water-lane in the world, a lane which runs…betwixt hedgerows of oaks and cypress and palms and bays and magnolias and mosses and manifold vine growths, a lane clean to travel along for there is never a speck of dust in it save the blue and gold dust which the wind blows out of the flags and lilies, a lane which is as if a typical woods-stroll had taken shape and as if God had turned into water and trees the recollection of some meditative ramble through the lonely seclusions of His own soul.

The Marion, where Lanier famously transcribed his poetic reflections, was originally owned by Captain Henry Gray. Hart dominated the Ocklawaha River with his popular excursions, but he was not free from competition. Gray, a former Confederate officer, sold the Marion to Hart in 1880 and worked for him as a pilot for over a decade.

Another competitor, Ed Lucas of Palatka, operated several vessels, providing Hart with some of his stiffest competition. After one of Lucas’s boats sank, he suffered financial losses and flirted with bankruptcy, and in the end, he briefly merged his line with Hart’s.

Another notable