Also by Raymond Tallis and published by Agenda

Logos: The Mystery of How We Make Sense of the World

Of Time and Lamentation: Reflections on Transience

copyright © Raymond Tallis 2020

This book is copyright under the Berne Convention.

No reproduction without permission.

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First edition published in 2020 by Agenda Publishing

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Church Going by Philip Larkin from Collected Poems (Faber, 1993).

Copyright © Estate of Philip Larkin. Reprinted by permission of the publisher Faber & Faber Ltd.

Dedicated to Jan Halák, philosopher and friend and to Jerry Playfer, philosopher, physician and friend.

Contents

Acknowledgements

Preface

Part I   Overture

1 Humanism and anti-humanism

Part II   Our Human Being

2 Against naturalism: neither ape nor angel

Addendum Some observations on animal cognition: making it tougher for killjoys

3 I am and it is: persons and organisms

Addendum Ambodiment: the I and the it

4 Human being: in and out of time

5 The elusive, inescapable self

6 The mystery of human agency

7 Humanity against finitude: transhumanist dreams

Part III   Flourishing without God

8 The sky is empty

9 Meaning and purpose

10 Reclaiming ourselves

Epilogue: an inconclusion

Notes

References

Index

Acknowledgements

Seeing Ourselves grew out of a series of seminars delivered in Autumn 2017 in the Department of Philosophy at Charles University Prague. I am grateful to Dr Jakub Jirsa, Head of Department, for responding so positively to what was essentially a self-invitation.

These seminars gave me an opportunity to revisit and to think again – and think harder – about some of my most longstanding preoccupations. More importantly, the series provided a framework in which topics that are often treated separately could be seen in relation to one another. It is one of the ironies of philosophy, which aspires to understanding how things in the broadest possible sense of the term hang together in the broadest possible sense of the term,¹ that it shares the tendency of other academic disciplines to compartmentalization. I am therefore additionally indebted to you, my anticipated reader, for providing the occasion to attempt a synthesis of some of the strands of thought that have preoccupied me over the last half-century.

Chapter 3 on I am and it is: persons and organisms has benefitted greatly from reading Jan Halák’s writings on Maurice Merleau-Ponty and conversations with him. Chapter 7 is deeply indebted to Mark O’Connor’s thought-provoking, and indeed chapter-provoking, To Be a Machine. Some of the material in Chapter 8 was presented at one of Anthony Stadlen’s Inner Circle seminars and in a paper on spiritual irredentism in part published in Theology thanks to Robin Gill. I met Robin through the kind offices of Brian Pearce who has tirelessly promoted dialogue between religious believers and infidels like me, and has both directly and indirectly been a stimulus to the thoughts in the final part of this book.

I am very grateful to Andrew Pinsent for carefully reading the text and making many very useful suggestions, most importantly that I should omit one section that would have alienated many potential readers while doing little to advance the arguments of the book.

It is a special pleasure to acknowledge the fantastic support of Steven Gerrard for over a decade. Without this support, much of my writing would not have seen the light of day.

Raymond Tallis

Preface

While it is not accurate to say that Seeing Ourselves: Reclaiming Humanity from God and Science begins with answers and ends with questions, this would be true to its fundamental intention. My aim is the relatively modest one of clearing away certain misunderstandings about our nature that stop us addressing philosophical questions to which we need answers. While I say relatively modest, this aim may still seem to be wildly ambitious, in view of the domination of the collective conversation by views which I oppose and the numerous platforms they have. The task is analogous to cleaning the Augean stables while the horses are still evacuating their capacious bowels. Be that as it may, the most important question is: What kinds of beings are we?

Full disclosure: I am a secular humanist and a patron of Humanists UK (previously titled the British Humanist Association). It will be evident in what follows that I see this stance as a point of departure rather than of arrival. Humanism, for all its virtues, still lacks a philosophy that can compete in profundity with the religious beliefs it aims to displace.

Paramount among the many drivers to Seeing Ourselves are three beliefs. The first is that the work of humanism does not consist solely of – the admittedly important – tasks of distancing humanity from religious belief, highlighting the damage caused by religious institutions and the prejudices they validate, and challenging the ubiquitous hard power and soft influence they have in public life. Humanism has yet to develop a sufficiently clear idea of the human that the -ism is about. While anthropologists, psychologists, sociologists, historians, and many other thinkers, researchers, and scholars, in the sciences and the humanities, hold up secular mirrors to ourselves, they often fall short of inquiry at the most fundamental level.

Philosophy can – or should – make a decisive contribution to the endeavour to understand what kinds of beings we are, even if (as is too often the case), this takes the form of correcting the errors of other philosophers. It has perhaps contributed less than it should. In part this is down to an entirely honourable commitment to rigour, that has made philosophy often rather technical and encouraged philosophers to approach problems piecemeal. There is also a tendency to engage in a conversation with other philosophers equally inclined to arcane preoccupations. This is unsatisfactory: of all disciplines, philosophy, howsoever sophisticated, should remain in touch with the questions that first motivated its practitioners, questions shared with the most naïve inquirer. The inward gaze of academic philosophy is also rooted in an increasingly prevalent tendency, particularly among metaphysicians, to position their investigations in the shadow of natural science, and to concede much of the definition of human nature to biology, psychology and allied pursuits.

My second belief is central to the argument of this book. It is this: rejecting a supernatural account of humanity does not oblige us to embrace naturalism, as if this were the only alternative. It does not follow from the truth that we are not hand-made by God that we are simply organisms shaped by the forces of evolution; that, since we are not angels, we must be merely gifted chimps.

It might seem surprising that it is so difficult to persuade humans that they amount to more than organisms with a veneer of personhood. It is less surprising given the (often justified) prestige of science as the source of answers to the most general What?, Why? and How? questions. Besides, simple untruths – You are your brain, Darwin has showed that we are just animals – are easier to disseminate than complex truths. Hence the number of publications, and the impressive sales, of books that tell their readers that they are identical with their evolved brains – an idea, although wrong, is all too readily grasped.

Which brings me to the third, and perhaps most important, belief. It is rooted in a sense, sometimes overwhelming, of the mystery of ordinary human life. This sense can be liberated only when, first, we set aside the idea that such spiritual attitudes belong to, or are the exclusive preserve of, religion, and secondly, when we reject the naturalism that reduces us to pieces of nature. Part of the process of liberation will include an awareness of the rich cultural heritage we owe to religion. How mighty are the works of Man! is an appropriate response to entering an awe-inspiring cathedral dedicated to a non-existent God.

Much of what follows is structured around the questions that have preoccupied philosophers over the centuries and remain central today – for example, What is personal identity? and Are we truly free?. My approach is essentially descriptive rather than explanatory. I offer thick descriptions (a term associated with the philosopher Gilbert Ryle and, through Clifford Geertz, with anthropology) to expose the inadequacy of reductive accounts of our nature, and clear the way to questions that humanist thought should address. While Wittgenstein’s often cited injunction to philosophers is don’t think, but look!¹ the looking must be guided by thinking as much as the thinking by the looking. There is much that is strange and unexplained, as well as glorious and monstrous, about us. That we cannot deny our selfhood and our agency, and the special mode of our being in time in which they are rooted, does not mean that we can explain them; but, equally, just because we cannot explain them (for example employing modes of explanation that have been developed in natural science) does not mean that they are unreal.

Seeing Ourselves, therefore, is often polemical, being directed against those who would diminish humanity, either through thinking of us in biological terms or simply through taking for granted or overlooking what is extraordinary in our nature. Even so, the book is ultimately a celebration. Behind the philosophical arguments there is a hunger for more wakefulness inspired by a feeling of love and gratitude (admittedly, all too intermittent) for the mystery of the most commonplace manifestations of our humanity. It is an endeavour to turn up the wattage of the light in which we see our everyday world.

Seeing Ourselves brings together the preoccupations of over half a century, addressed in 30 or more published works – mainly philosophy, but also poetry, fiction, and philosophical and non-philosophical essays – and an equal quantity of unpublished material. In many places I will be presenting arguments that have appeared in others of my publications, such as The Explicit Animal: A Defence of Human Consciousness (1990) and Enemies of Hope: A Critique of Anti-Humanism (1997, 1999) and most recently in Aping Mankind: Neuromania, Darwinitis and the Misrepresentation of Humanity (2011, 2016), The Mystery of Human Being: God, Free Will, and the NHS (2016) and Of Time and Lamentation: Reflections on Transience (2017). Rehearsing these ideas here reflects a wish, shared with most authors, to appeal to a wider readership. Beneath the calm prose of the pages that follow there is an exasperation, at times something more heated, that ideas which I believe to be wrong – and I also believe I have shown to be wrong – still dominate the discussion about human nature.

In places I will refer the reader to these other volumes where complex arguments are spelled out in greater detail. I am aware that self-citation can be irritating. It may seem like self-promotion.² Moreover, directing the reader to other publications may seem to relieve the author of backing up assertions and arguments as well as giving him or her more work to do. Although I have drawn on its predecessors, the present book stands on its own merits. Hic Rhodus, hic salta. Seeing Ourselves, therefore, is not merely a Condensed Raymond Tallis, even less an anthology, though the assiduous reader (note the insightful singular) of the works of RT will observe places where ideas, phrases, sentences, even occasionally paragraphs, and of course arguments, are repeated. This is not because they could not be improved upon but because this author could not improve on them.

The great American philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine (with whom I disagree extensively in the pages that follow) once warned "the more omnivorous of my readers (dear souls) that they are apt to experience a certain indefinable sense of deja lu"³ on reading one of his papers. The omnivores in my own case are few and far between and they will discover that my thinking has not, however, ceased to evolve and re-expressing the thoughts expressed in previous books has prompted me to modify them. I have been surprised at the extent to which this has happened. As Lord Acton said, we should learn as much from writing books as from reading them. Each completed volume becomes another point of departure. Attempting this synthesis of my most longstanding thoughts scattered over many books has been no exception. They have been transformed by being brought together. I have been forced to think harder, to attempt to express things more clearly, and differently, to make new connections, and to see the limitations of earlier positions, not least to understand that they are part of a whole that I had not seen, and additionally to engage with more recent work in philosophy. The work of synthesis has brought to the centre of the cognitive field insights that have hovered tantalisingly on its edge, although that edge is just as alive with a sense of yet to be articulated possibilities.

What is missing, in a book that emphasizes our fundamental difference from all other creatures, as the foundation of thinking about ourselves in a new way, is a detailed account of how we got to be so different. It is not that I think such an account is not possible, though it is necessarily complex. It occupies most of a three-volume trilogy I published in the early noughties, whose arguments are not replicated in full here as the present volume is already large enough. In The Hand: A Philosophical Inquiry into Human Being and its two successors I offer a just-so story that gives a biological account of how we came to be so different from all other beasts, even our nearest primate kin.⁴ Like them, we are born inter faeces et urinam nascimur but, unlike them, we humans comment wryly on this – and in Latin.

While humanism is an ethical and political stance, my focus is overwhelmingly on philosophical issues – mainly because (in common with many who write about the topic) I have little of interest to say about ethics or politics. What little I have to contribute will be confined to Part III when I examine the question of whether or how humans can flourish without belief in God; whether they will be able to live with each other better, or worse, without a transcendental warrant for good behaviour and the threat of the judgement of an omniscient God to inhibit would-be malefactors.

Religion addresses hungers that are shared by believers and infidels alike. These hungers demand satisfaction. In the final chapter, I examine what I have called spiritual irredentism – reclaiming the human transcendence which we have projected into or donated to imaginary deities. While this may or may not be the most significant part of the book, it is certainly the most ambitious, and is perhaps the least successful. At any rate, it aims only to help start a conversation that might result in a humanism suitable for our still young twenty-first century.

Understanding, or at least seeing, our own nature is a worthwhile, if incompletable, goal. The struggle to do so is not a task we can individually outsource to others deemed to be experts. The issues covered in this book have generated hundreds, perhaps thousands, of academic papers, and many philosophers will have spent a productive life focused on just one of them. I am anxious above all that what I have to say should speak to anyone who aches for a better understanding, or at least a clearer view, of the world, notwithstanding the entirely justified suspicion that this is a task without a clear end or a definite direction and that even small gains may be taken back as we relapse into the preoccupations of daily life. The vast majority of such people are, like me, not professional philosophers. There will be places where the arguments are difficult for readers who have read little philosophy. Chapter 3 – on being an embodied subject – and Chapter 4 – on our mode of being in time – may require more work for those unfamiliar with the territory. The more difficult arguments are, however, necessary if we are to approach our human nature at the right depth. I would like to think that the non-philosophical reader will sense that the technical arguments represent a serious endeavour to see ourselves in a different light.

I have as far as possible avoided jargon and terms created to dazzle and convey the impression of quasi-scientific depth rather than to illuminate. I have not, however, been able entirely to do without technical terms, as they may capture aspects of things that do not usually concern us in daily life. Philosophizing is often, as the French philosopher Gilles Deleuze characterized it, concept creation⁵ as a consequence of, or as a means to, putting pressure on our everyday intuitions. I have employed only two neologisms: thatter and the thatosphere. They are not very beautiful (the second term is an ugly macaronic) but I hope I shall be forgiven inventing them, as they do a lot of work. At any rate, I have found them useful to highlight something unique and central to human life and to characterize the fabric of the human world.

A commitment to rigour and to engaging with the thoughts of some of the sharpest minds in contemporary philosophy – if only to dissent from them – has meant that Seeing Ourselves is longer than I had hoped and many readers would want. But I could not send it out in the world as a succession of inadequately supported assertions. In a couple of places, I have assigned some of the more technical or detailed arguments to appendices, an intermediate zone between the main text and footnotes. By this means, I would hope to reach out beyond that rare species the General Reader to the General Person.

I remain conscious of the presumption in taking up so much of the reader’s time: the opportunity cost, in a life of finite duration, is an opportunity lost to read other books or to do other things. The reader in a hurry – who wants to read and run – might therefore appreciate a hint as to the central thought in this book before taking the plunge.

Human beings are like nothing else in the universe and what is exceptional about our nature has an ontological depth, best captured in the contrast between is of nature and am of human nature. This multi-faceted mystery is most intimately present in the contrast between the I am of the person and the it is of the human organism. That we are able to engage with this mystery is itself a second-order mystery. In trying to see humanity and our place in the universe we are rather like soluble fish endeavouring to become oceanographers. We are generated by the ocean, our lives are lived and made possible by the ocean, and yet we have some inkling of ourselves as other than the medium in which we live.

I hope this whets your appetite. Much of this book, like most of its predecessors, has been written in pubs and cafés where I am surrounded by people, beyond the horizon of the computer screen, who do not share my preoccupations. Little, if anything, of what I or anyone else have to say on them will matter to them much, if at all. The marginalization of philosophical thought in everyday life may be a consequence of secularization, even though religious thought is often reduced to verbal reflexes, to the commonplaces of common prayer recited rather than imagined or even understood. It is disheartening to think how so much careful argument conducted by some of the most scrupulous thinkers of the present day goes unheard and contributes little to the conversation we have about ourselves. Gregory of Nyssa, one of the Fathers of the Church, once complained that it was impossible to go for a haircut without someone wanting to engage him in a discussion about some finer point of doctrine. Those were the days! And just how distant they are, may be measured by the loud sound of barrel-scraping emitted by academic philosophers obliged by the government research assessment exercise (now called the Research Excellence Framework) to earn the marks set aside for public impact of their work.

There is the dream, more common than many philosophers would admit to, that philosophy might be influential upstream of the collective conversation which seems to be largely ignorant of their cognitive labours. It is captured beautifully in John Stuart Mill’s essay on Bentham:

But they [Bentham and Coleridge] were destined to renew a lesson given to mankind by every age, and always disregarded – to show that speculative philosophy, which to the superficial appears a thing so remote from the business of life and the outward interests of men, is in reality the thing on earth which most influences them, and in the long run overbears every other influence save those which it must itself obey.⁶

Philosophy seems to have been displaced far from the centre of the conversation we have with ourselves, appearing at times to be amateur and armchair, and at other times forbiddingly technical, losing its soul down the echoing corridors of academe, where footfalls are footnotes. Its very scrupulousness demands a patience that is hard to come by. In an age dominated by social media and in which the leader of what is called The Free World is a destructive, lying toddler elevated to office by reality television, the idea of the philosopher as a Shelleyan unacknowledged legislator of the world seems to take wishful thinking to new heights. But if we give up on the most serious, and sustained, attempts to see ourselves aright, then we truly are lost. There may be more direct ways of contributing to the well-being of our fellows than writing philosophy but the latter has a place not only in the Kingdom of Means but also in the Kingdom of Ends: like being in love or wakefulness, it is also an end in itself.

Perhaps the least visible aspect of Seeing Ourselves is that, notwithstanding the polemics, it is a work of gratitude for the mysterious gift – a term that remains legitimate even in the absence of any belief in a Divine Giver – of life and of the world in which its author has passed his days. It is a thank you, as I enter old age, to all those – known and unknown to me – who made my life possible, safe, largely healthy and, by historical standards, long; to the choir invisible (to use George Eliot’s lovely phrase) of the dead, not to speak of the visible choir of the living who have mobilized their humanity to make life better for their fellows. I would like that gratitude, and the sense of wonder that may accompany it, to be shared.

This is not to promote the naïve Panglossian view that we are the best of all species in the best of all possible worlds. Hamlet’s cry – What a piece of work is man! is uttered in the full knowledge that we are not infrequently a very nasty piece of work. Even so, I confess to the hope that, if we see ourselves, and extraordinary achievements, more clearly, we might be more inclined to make things better. At the very least, commemorating our common difference from the rest of nature is to profess a universalism that should encourage solidarity.

I would like you to enjoy this book and to share in the intellectual, even spiritual, joy I have had in writing it and experience the wonder, and thinking the thoughts, that prompted it. Writers solicit from unknown strangers what Simone Weil called the purest of all gifts – attention. It should be earned by expressing a purified attention to the world. Perhaps as a result of reading Seeing Ourselves you will see the back of your hand, or the act of saying see you next week, or of taking a train to another town, in an entirely different, brighter light.

PART I

Overture

CHAPTER 1

Humanism and anti-humanism

WHAT IS HUMANISM?

The reader will reasonably expect a definition of the -ism in question so we shall know what is being talked about. And I will offer one presently. But I am conscious that to start with a definition – while in accordance with tradition – may not be entirely appropriate. I say this because a key task of this book will be to characterize the object, or rather the subject, of humanism – our human being. I shall be working towards, rather than jumping off from, a (relatively) sharp-edged idea of human being. Given, also, that humanism, like humanity, is a work in progress, definitions run the risk of premature foreclosure.

Nevertheless, we must begin somewhere. Here is an attempt, by British philosopher and humanist Stephen Law in his excellent introduction to humanism¹, to characterize an outlook whose boundaries, he concedes, are very elastic. Humanism, he says:

• Embraces agnosticism or atheism;

• Advocates the application of science and reason more generally to all areas of life;

• Assumes that this life is the only life we have;

• Argues that we should embrace an ethics informed by study of what human beings are actually like and what will help them flourish in this world;

• Asserts that we have individual moral autonomy: we should make our own judgements rather than handing over responsibility to an external authority;

• Affirms that life can have meaning without being bestowed from above by God;

• Argues that we should favour an open, democratic society in which the state takes a neutral position with respect to religion.

That is quite a headful – encompassing metaphysical, epistemological, cultural, ethical, and political positions – so let us simplify things by quoting a standard definition. Where better to look than the website of Humanists UK? There we learn that humanism is: A non-religious ethical life-stance the essential elements of which are a commitment to human well-being and a reliance on reason, experience, and a naturalistic view of the world.²

This may seem straightforward, yet it invites critical examination. Those who are not humanists will resent the suggestion that the commitment to human well-being and a reliance on reason is a distinguishing mark of humanists. Others will point out that reason always operates within a framework of assumptions that have not themselves been reasoned into place and, indeed, may be unconscious or irrational. But it is the opening and closing phrases that warrant our most careful attention: a non-religious ethical life-stance and a naturalistic view of the world.

For many humanists, non-religious implies anti-religious and that rejecting religion – and its privileged place in public life – is the central intellectual business of humanism. This means opposing, or even attacking, the conviction that, as the philosopher A. C. Grayling put it: "there is a powerful supernatural agency or agencies active in or upon the universe, with … responsibility for its existence, an interest in human beings and their behaviour, a set of desires respecting this latter ….³ And the connected belief in an all-powerful, all-wise, all-knowing, all-good Creator who intervenes in human affairs, to whom we owe worship in gratitude for the gift of life and his mercy towards us.⁴ It is this which humanism opposes as part of a larger project of rejecting the appeal to agents – sprites, nature spirits, and other objects of superstition – deemed to be primitive.⁵

According to this view, it is only after we have disinfected our world picture of supernatural agencies that we are free to acknowledge that we are individually and collectively responsible for our individual and collective lives, though we must still recognize the extent to which personal freedom is constrained or enabled by historical, social, more broadly cultural, and natural circumstances. We are then liberated to embrace Enlightenment in the Kantian sense⁶: emancipation from a self-imposed minority or immaturity, which is due not to lack of understanding, but lack of courage to use one’s reason, intellect and wisdom without the guidance of another. We would, to employ Kant’s aphoristic summary of the spirit of the Enlightenment, Sapere aude – Dare to be wise.

SOME THOUGHTS ON RELIGION

Humanism would be an impoverished outlook if it were defined only in terms of what it is against. Charles Taylor has pointed out in his monumental A Secular Age⁷ that secularism is not merely what is left over when religion has been pushed to the margins – the so-called subtractionist view. It has itself been actively constructed; an alternative worldview with its own set of beliefs rather than merely an absence of belief.

For this reason, I will not fill too many pages adding to the long list of assaults on religion (sometimes entertaining but sometimes imbued by a smug superiority and a stubborn literal-mindedness) by scorched earth New Atheists, headed in the English language by Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, Christopher Hitchens and Daniel Dennett – the Four Horsemen of the Non-Apocalypse. Some readers will be tired of what they would see as rather too well-worn paths of adversarial atheism – a journey through history and the Holy Books, crying Gotcha at every bout of spilled blood and every bloodthirsty sentiment. Rather, I will focus, in the chapters to come, on those larger truths about humanity that might form the basis of a positive secular worldview, rooted in an acknowledgement of the transcendence inherent in the human world. In the final chapters, I will advocate a spiritual irredentism that reclaims for humanity the transcendence we have donated to non-existent gods.

Nevertheless, the moral case against organized religion cannot be ignored. We need to be aware of the dangers that attend the passage from individual understanding to a collective form of behaviour, from vision to institution, that accompany any endeavour to transform our most profound existential hungers into something that has a prominent place in the way we live together and govern ourselves. There are perils attending the attempt to achieve what Hans Kung characterized as "a particular social realisation of a relationship to an absolute ground of meaning".⁸ I shall therefore confine myself to a few observations on that issue.

How beliefs in the Almighty and their interpretation of His wishes have played into individual and human collective behaviour is a separate question from that of whether the universe (including ourselves) has been created by a Divine Agent, is driven by a Divine Will, and regulated by a Divine Intelligence. And even if worshipping God (or rival gods) has made humans behave more nastily to each other, this may say something about the nature of our belief, but nothing about whether the object of such beliefs exists.

Or does it? Daniel Kodaj⁹ has argued that we cannot so clearly separate the cosmological and behavioural aspects of religious belief as follows:

1.Belief in God causes evil;

2.If God exists, then God wants us to believe in God;

3.If God exists, then God does not want us to do anything that causes evil;

4.Therefore – by (1) and (3) – if God exists, God does not want us to believe in God;

5.Therefore – by (2) and (4) – God does not exist.

On this basis, belief in God is normatively self-refuting. Rationalist theists should therefore give up their faith. In short, the religiously inspired persecution, intolerance, brutal suppression of actual or suspected dissent, the subservience of women, and Holy wars, that have characterized religion throughout the ages add up to a case not only against the institution of religion but against the very existence of God.

If this argument is to prevail, then it must be belief in God per se, rather than religious doctrines and sacred texts, religious teachers, and religious institutions, that is a primary, and independent, cause of our behaving badly to each other. It does make a kind of sense. Gods are necessarily jealous because their rivals must be non-existent or flawed versions of themselves and the devout must be militantly jealous on their behalf. The notion of the sacred interacts with that of the blood sacrifice – of oneself and others. However, many deeply religious people – Christians, Jews, Muslims, and so on – do not feel the slightest desire to kill their fellow men – or not at least directly. There are other forces – historical, social, political – behind religious conflict. It is arguable that in the case of the Thirty Years’ War, the most catastrophic of the European confessional wars, that brought more death and destruction than the Black Death, it was dynastic ambitions and territorial disputes that drove much of the conflict. (And the very fact that we speak of confessional wars, is an indirect reminder that most wars are non-confessional.) There is extensive historical scholarship that identifies religious evil – whether in the modern or pre-modern world – as the result of complex political, economic, social, ethnic, nationalist as well as specifically religious factors.¹⁰ It might also be argued that religious believers behaved no worse than was dictated by the mores of the time when the religions were established or in the ascendant. While Pope Urban II launched the first Crusade in the belief that God wanted the Holy Land to be rid of Muslims, Pope John Paul II in 2000 declared the crusade to be a betrayal of the gospel and condemned it.¹¹

Even religious terrorism may be regarded as a form of political terrorism, as is evident when it is perpetrated in pursuit of the long-term goal of establishing a caliphate. Robert Pape has argued that: The data show that there is little connection between suicidal terrorism and Islamic fundamentalism, or any of the world’s religions. [W]hat nearly all suicide terror attacks have in common is a specific secular and strategic goal: to compel modern democracies to withdraw military forces from territory that the terrorists consider to be their homeland.¹² In short, religion is more likely to be a pretext than a primary motivation, sacralising what is in fact a profane cause such as a sense of marginalization, alienation and social frustration.

We may grant this without in any way diminishing the role religion has played in magnifying and protracting conflict in virtue of being a marker of identity, fostering the collectivization and hence amplification of hatred, hostility and aggression. The Troubles in Northern Ireland, the slaughter in Bosnia, and the endless conflict between Israel and Palestine, have been at least in part fuelled by the fact that it is always easier to hate, harm, or even kill someone who is harming God or one’s version of it. It is this that seems to make violence intrinsic to religion.

What is beyond dispute is that widespread religious belief is compatible with very high levels of nastiness. It is important to remember this when (as we shall discuss in Chapter 8), we are presented with the claim Dostoyevsky puts into the mouth of Ivan Karamazov that if God does not exist everything is permitted¹³ and the suggestion that the rise of secular humanism would quickly lead to the establishment of Hell on earth. The unspeakable evil humans have done to each other with the tacit consent or active encouragement of believers and God’s representatives on earth suggests that Karamazov’s everything is already permitted in a world in which the existence of God is widely accepted. The default assumption that religious belief has been a constraint on bad behaviour, a brake on evil, would not cut much ice with those on the receiving end of Crusader violence, Sunnis being blown apart by Shias, or Rohingya Muslim victims of the genocidal intentions of an explicitly Buddhist nation.

In the end it should be admitted that we do not have the data to enable us to run the history of the world twice, with and then without religion, and to know whether religion has been overall an independent force for good or evil. After all, humans do not need a transcendental pretext, even less an established church, to treat each other abominably. For some commentators, the arguments for religion promoting beneficence and making people behave better are at least as strong as those for religion fomenting, justifying, and organizing conflict and cruelty and making people behave collectively and individually worse to each other.

The difficulty of judging the overall impact of at least one religion – Christianity – is captured in this passage from the British Humanist Association pamphlet The Case for Secularism:

Christianity has been the dominant culture, so it is unsurprising that it has provided the vocabulary of both sides in most significant moral and social divisions. Those who argued for the abolition of the slave trade argued their case in terms of Christian values and so did the slave-traders. Many of those who sought to improve the atrocious working conditions in factories and mines invoked Christian values – and so did the factory owners and mine owners [who opposed reforms].¹⁴

And the historian J. C. D. Clark (from whom we shall hear more) has argued that Egalitarianism was a religious principle for many centuries before it became a secular one: the idea that ‘all men are created equal’ has real leverage only when the emphasis is placed on the word ‘created’ and that term is construed literally.¹⁵ It is possible, as Michael McGhee has put it, "to define out the bad, so that genuine religion can only be good".¹⁶ Or, conversely, to define religion by its malign effects.

The same difficulties are encountered when we judge non-religiously in­spired violence. When the horrors of the secular totalitarian states of the twentieth century are highlighted, secularists often argue that communism and fascism are religions only lightly disguised: creeds that permit no heresy; the worship of a God-like, infallible leader; unquestioning obedience enforced by apparatchiks spying on the inner and outer lives of the flock; and the promise of a future paradise, promulgated despite the present reality of earthly Hell. The millenarian dreams of communism, so the argument goes, have inherited the promises of religion. Even Hitler claimed to be inspired by the example of Jesus Christ Who, he claimed, led the fight against the Jews. This passage in Mein Kampf is noteworthy: "Hence … I believe I am acting in accordance with the will of the Almighty Creator: by defending myself against the Jew, I am fighting for the work of the lord" (italics in original).¹⁷

The historical record – and any resolution of the question of whether the contribution of religion has been net positive or net negative – cannot guide us as to whether revival of religious belief would be desirable. Even if, to take an example, the Christian doctrine that values individuals equally, because they are equal in the sight of God, has had a role in the emergence of democracies based on a universal franchise, it would not follow from this that returning established religion to a central place in society would be supportive of the democracies we now have or would, on the contrary, have regressive consequences. The past role of religion – for good or ill – gives us unreliable pointers to its future influence in a different kind of society. The return to religion may be associated with undesirable changes. The argument remains unresolved – and unresolvable – and for this reason alone is ultimately unrewarding.

Dismissing religion simply as a collective act of self-harm that humanity must get beyond also fails to acknowledge the extent to which even secular societies are still in thrall to certain of its assumptions. We can point to a vast, rich cultural legacy owing to, or inspired by, religious belief, that we cannot forget without losing something irreplaceably precious in ourselves. The legacy is not simply out there in the public realm, a collective heritage of art, literature, architecture, and music. It is in the very fibre of our individual and social being.

The atheist, existentialist, Marxist, Maoist, Jean-Paul Sartre highlighted this:

[W]e are all Christians, even today; the most radical disbelief is still Christian atheism. In other words, it retains, in spite of its destructive power, schemata which are controlling – very slightly for our thinking, more for our imagination, above all for our sensibility. And the origins of these schemata are to be sought in centuries of Christianity of which we are the heirs whether we like it or not.¹⁸

One lesson is that we must judge humanism’s commitment to human well-being entirely on its fruits. Religious persecution, after all, was often justified by the beneficent intention to save the souls of the persecuted from eternal damnation. And, as we know from bitter experience, something that starts out as a mission to improve human well-being can, when married to untrammelled power, result in collective catastrophe. That great humanist Albert Camus reminded us in L’homme Revolté, with reference to the Gulag, of slave camps [being established] under the flag of freedom, massacres justified by philanthropy¹⁹; "[A]s soon as a man … takes refuge in a doctrine, as soon as he makes his crime reasonable, it multiplies like Reason herself and assumes all the figures of a syllogism. It was unique like a cry; now it is universal like science. Yesterday, it was put on trial; today it is the law."²⁰

It is salutary to recall that, for speaking these truths, and for threatening the morale of the French working class by exposing the truth about the Gulags, Camus was excommunicated from the circle of the last century’s most famous and influential existential humanist and his one-time friend, Jean-Paul Sartre. It is a reminder that not all persecution is by religious believers, murdering others in the name of a God of Love, or Justice, or Peace, for the mortal sin of mis-worship.

Secular persecution is not an inevitable consequence of humanist ideals, only a reminder that we should evaluate them, as we evaluate religions, not by how good they sound but by how well they are applied. The path from the humanism of the early Marx to the horrors of the totalitarian states created in his name are no more inevitable than that which connects the Christian doctrine of love and peace with pogroms, murderous Crusades, the Albigensian genocide, the Thirty Years’ War and the sponsorship of antisemitism that led to the Holocaust. That path has also been taken by the secular successors of the theocratic leaders – by Stalin, Mao, and Pol Pot and their followers – as hundreds of millions have learnt to their cost. It is a bitter irony that, under aggressively atheist tyranny, covert religious observance became an expression of a lost freedom.

Humanists therefore have a duty to remember that religion does not have a monopoly of organized, and institutionally justified violence. Yes, as Alister and Joanna McGrath point out,

[religion] possesses a capacity to transcendentalize normal human conflicts and disagreements, transforming them into cosmic battles of good and evil in which the authority and will of a transcendent reality is implicated. Divine warfare is terrestrialized, its mandate transferred to affairs on earth. When this situation arises, the normal constraints and compromises that allow humans to solve potentially explosive problems are trumped.²¹

However: [W]hen a society rejects the idea of God, it tends to transcendentalize alternatives – such as the ideals of liberty or equality. These now become quasi-divine authorities, which none are permitted to challenge.²²

One current example will have to stand for many. At present, China’s most sweeping internment programme since Mao has imprisoned a million or more Uighur Muslims for transformation through education. The goal is to rid them of devotion to Islam.²³

Lucretius’ famous aphorism "Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum – to such heights of evil has religion been able to drive men – may make the idea of an omnipotent, beneficent God, difficult to uphold. A more powerful argument for atheism, however – and one that I would like to think was decisive in my own case – is that any God that can be distilled from the 200 or so religions on offer seems to be a mass of contradictions. A deity who is self-caused, or who is both infinite and yet distinct from His creation, or who is eternal and unchanging and without location in space and time but nevertheless intervenes for good or ill in human affairs, or who is omnipotent and good and yet allows evil to thrive and suffering to continue unchecked, seems as attractive logically as a square circle. And while it is true that (notwithstanding the claims of certain physicists) we have no explanation of why there is a) something rather than nothing, b) there is life as well as dead matter, c) there is conscious life as well as life, and d) there are forms of conscious life that make at least partial sense of the world, these gaps in our understanding cannot be filled by means of a word – God – laden with historical baggage, used as a threat, a promise, or a curse. Whatever God may have or have not achieved God" – or any meaning attached to Him – cannot emancipate the various modes of existence from their contingency²⁴ and stand for the possibility of explanation of the unexplained. Adding God to the ontological menagerie does not reduce the inexplicability of the universe; rather it redirects it upwards.

On the other hand, rational arguments against the existence of God may prompt the response from believers that experiencing God’s presence is not the same as arriving at the conclusion of an argument; rather His reality is embraced through a leap of faith or felt as a fire in the head (as Nijinsky said in his Diary)²⁵ or in the heart.

At any rate, I remain agnostic about my own reasons for being a secular humanist and I will focus in what follows on the other, to me more interesting, aspect of humanism – which is to seek a positive vision, even an affirmation, of what humanity is. I will for this reason – and a disinclination to preach to the converted or the unconvertible – spend no more time on the arguments for (and against) the existence of God.

HUMANISM AND HISTORY: AN EXCULPATORY NOTE

The present aeon, since 600 BC, stands in the sign of personal salvation. Only since this time has there been a notion of humanity because there is only one single category of personality and this is humanity.

Béla Hamvas²⁶

You may feel that the definition of humanism I have offered so far is a hopelessly inadequate starting place for engaging with a cluster of ideas, an aspiration, even a battle cry, that has had a complex history going back several millennia, albeit most of it before it was named. Let me develop it a little.

The modern term humanist was established in German educational theory and intellectual history in the early part of the nineteenth century.²⁷ It has then been applied, often retrospectively, to aspects of Enlightenment, Renaissance, and even Presocratic thought. The names with which it could be plausibly associated in western thought range from Xenophanes and Protagoras, to Epicurus and Seneca, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Montaigne, the eighteenth-century Philosophes, David Hume, Kant, Goethe, Auguste Comte, Miguel Unamuno, and Bertrand Russell. For some, humanism is a catch-all term for the best that has been thought and said in the great conversation that humanity – at least in its western manifestation – has had with itself.

Secular thought is not unique to the western tradition. As Amartya Sen has pointed out: Indian traditions are often taken to be intimately associated with religion … and yet Sanskrit and Pali have larger literatures on systematic atheism and agnosticism than perhaps in any other classical language.²⁸ It has been present most enduringly in China among the followers of Confucius.

Surely there is more to be said. A concept, a conception, a world picture, an ethos, a mode of collective self-awareness and self-assertion, an aspiration for humanity, that has such a long, if largely avant la lettre history, you might think, deserves more than a few paragraphs. This especially since humanism is a term steeped in politics and not all of it reducible to headline anti-clericalism, to the power play between Church and State, and modes of insurgency against secular hierarchies and priestly despotism, and those authorities that do not seem to exhibit a commitment to human well-being and a reliance on reason. Humanism is a socio-political movement, a cry of freedom, a call to arms, a psychological and ethical stance, a defence of the right to think for one’s self and to assert, as Giovanni Pico della Mirandola did, the dignity of man, who had been created neither celestial nor earthly … thy own free moulder and overcomer … You alone have the power to develop and to grow according to free will.²⁹

All this may be granted but, I am relieved to say, it is not relevant to the central purpose of this book. Seeing Ourselves will be a philosophical rather than an historical, political, or cultural inquiry into humanism. This is decreed in part by my own limited knowledge of the history of ideas, and absence of qualifications to say anything original about that history. The territory and its associated bibliography are huge: no life of finite duration could engage with the relevant literature and no book of finite duration could do it justice. Whether an ahistorical approach to humanism is serious flawed will be something you may judge when you have reached the end of the final chapter. Philosophy typically examines ideas with a minimal chaperoning by their history, only the slightest reference to the context in which they first arose, judging them on what seem to be their merits, on what they have to say to us now. If I narrow the scope of my inquiry it is for the sake of deepening it and connecting it with distinctively philosophical questions that are currently the subject of some of the most interesting and fruitful arguments in this discipline.

While I am in the business of managing your expectations, I ought to add that I will have nothing original and even less of interest to say about the politics of humanism or even the project of developing a distinctive humanist ethics. What little I have to say on the latter will be postponed until the final chapter when I touch on the question of whether, in the absence of divine commandments and the threat of what might result if one disobeys them, it is likely that people would behave well towards their fellows; whether, as is taught by many religions, the only path to goodness is through submission to the will of God.

SECULARISM IN RETREAT?

Secularism is far from achieving the global dominance anticipated by ill-informed infidels like me a few decades ago: it is not a done deal. It is easy, for someone coming from a relatively godless nation like the UK, to imagine that Homo religiosus is being consigned to history and to extrapolate from the emptiness of Anglican pews to worldwide secularization. The annual British Social Attitudes Survey showed a steady rise in the proportion of people declaring they have no religion, from 30 per cent in 1983 to 52 per cent in 2018.³⁰ According to a YouGov poll in 2013, 51 per cent of respondents would not describe [themselves] as having values that are religious or spiritual.³¹ Similar patterns are seen in other European countries.

These secularizing trends are not replicated throughout the globe. We do not need to look to theocratic states to see religion as not merely flourishing but resurgent. In communist China, for example, where Christianity is hardly the prescribed faith of the state, church membership is rising at an accelerating rate.³² And according to a recent survey, the number of Christians in Africa has increased from 9 million in 1900 to an estimated 380 million in 2000.³³ Harriet Sherwood reminds us that 84 per cent of the world’s population identifies with a religious group.³⁴ What is more, members of religious groups are generally younger and produce more children than those who have no religious affiliation. As a consequence, between 2015 and 2060, while the world’s inhabitants are expected to increase by 32 per cent, the Muslim population is expected to rise by 70 per cent and Christians by 34 per cent. Meanwhile, the religiously unaffiliated will increase by 3 per cent. By contrast, in Europe, Christian deaths between 2010 and 2015 outnumbered births by nearly 6 million.

It has been suggested that secularization is going into reverse, not only for demographic reasons.³⁵ This passage from Peter Berger, one of the leading sociologists of religion over the last 50 years, is striking: "[A] whole body of literature by historians and social scientists loosely labelled ‘secularization theory’ is essentially mistaken … The world today is massively religious, is anything but the secularized world that had been predicted (whether joyfully or despondently) by so many analysts of modernity".³⁶

For this reason alone, a triumphalist reading of humanity’s spiritual history is not justified. We may even be in a post-secularist age. As John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge have pointed out, God is Back.³⁷ The forms of worship are often evangelical, with a literal interpretation of the sacred texts, and religious beliefs are increasingly visible and influential in public life. One interpretation is that this is a triumph not so much of religion as of competing wares in a spiritual marketplace. God, texts, rituals, and memberships are products that are to be sold.

There are, at any rate, no grounds for an intellectual and cultural history that, to quote Jonathan Rée’s ironical characterization of the secularization thesis, "draws an a priori straight line from a primitive ‘natural’ state and leading up to the ultimate summit of civilization, a cognitive advance from natural idiocy to rational efficiency and ultimately to a grown-up, disenchanted notion of humanity as no more than an accidental efflorescence on the surface of a cooling planet, awaiting cosmic death and signifying nothing".³⁸ Equally unwarranted are versions of secularism’s history, whereby human nature steadily casts off its shackles of ignorance and superstition, finally emerging from a Bastille of the mind into the bright morning of truth.³⁹ This would anyway be open to question even if the expected secularization of increasingly rationalistic, contractual, bureaucratic, globalized societies had occurred as rapidly as once anticipated. After all, as Peter Harrison has argued, there is a case for seeing secularisation as a natural outgrowth of this-worldly Protestantism and even for the origins of unbelief in the modern West lying in conceptions of moral responsibility and freedom generated from within Christianity itself.⁴⁰

For these reasons if no other, humanism needs to look critically at some of its basic sociological and cultural assumptions. Its bill of fare may not be found sufficiently spiritually nourishing to a humanity assumed to be enlightened. While the reliance on reason flagged up in the Humanists UK mission statement quoted earlier is hardly contentious in societies in which science is the dominant cultural fact and public policy aspires to be evidence-based, or to appear so, the commitment to opposing unreason, evidence-free claims, and irrational hierarchies, must always be checked case-by-case. The findings are not always encouraging to the rational mind. One could be forgiven for sometimes suspecting that superstition – like ideology, or prejudice – is usually something to which others rather than ourselves are prone. What counts as evidence depends on how our inquiries are framed; and we are less likely to notice those injustices in the social order from which we ourselves, or those with whom we identify, benefit. The wearyingly familiar cry check your privileges! – in other words, be aware of the assumptions, the interests, the unexamined historical and cultural truths that shape your thought – does, after all, carry some weight. And the history of humanity furnishes us with countless instances where the application of reason in the absence of reasonableness, without an empathetic understanding of the situation to which it is applied, may be irrational. The disastrous dreams of quasi-scientific approaches to social organization in for example the Soviet Union and Maoist China – not to speak of the fantasies of the transhumanists that we shall discuss in the penultimate chapter – are salutary reminders of where unchecked reason may take us. As G. K. Chesterton pointed out, a madman is not someone who has lost his reason but has lost everything but his reason.⁴¹

I will return to some of these questions in the final chapter. For the present, I will advance no further into what is an impenetrable thicket of tangled questions about the relationship between human history and the ideas its actors have about human nature.

CONTROVERSY AROUND THE VERY IDEA OF A DISTINCT HUMAN NATURE

Seeing Ourselves aims to look upstream of the kinds of claims that appear in the mission statements of humanist organizations, at least in part by attempting to delineate the nature of humanity more clearly, to highlight the essential and universal and distinctive features of humankind. I am inclined to characterize what I shall offer in the chapters to come as notes towards a definition of our species being – fully aware that the phrase raises much suspicion.

Granted, there are grounds for such suspicion. The notion of our species being is particularly associated with Marx and his quarrel with his older contemporary, the secular humanist Ludwig Feuerbach.⁴² In the sixth of his theses on Feuerbach, written in 1845, Marx criticized Feuerbach’s famous claim that the essence of religion reflected the essence of man. Against this, Marx argued, that man had no permanent and universal essence but was an ensemble of social relations that altered throughout history.

Marx’s later views were more complex and allowed for a human nature in general which was modified in each historical epoch. Even so, the notion of a universal human nature, of an enduring human essence, is still treated with suspicion because it is seen as a key to concealing the accidents of history that shape what we are, thereby justifying as natural the often-oppressive situations in which many human beings live out wretched lives. In short, so the argument goes, the idea of an enduring human essence can be invoked to defend a status quo which, if it were seen clearly, would be seen to be indefensible.

Essentialist definitions of humankind can also, it is argued, lead to essentialist definitions of womankind and of anyone else that those who are doing the defining wish to freeze out from their own position of personal, political and monetary power and existential authority. They are implicated in the way European colonizers judged indigenous peoples as failing to meet the criteria for fully formed human beings, and as being closer to nature, and therefore appropriate for exploitation as beasts of burden. This was a concern that had a major influence on many thinkers, particularly certain Parisians prominent in the latter half of the twentieth century.⁴³

It might further be argued that to aspire to characterize a human essence as something universal and stable is to go against one of the fundamental beliefs of humanism: that humans have a unique capacity to re-define, transform, and exceed themselves. It was Blaise Pascal, scarcely a humanist, who asserted that "L’homme passe infiniment l’homme"⁴⁴ – although history has taught us not to be too starry-eyed about the extent to which this is possible, or the direction