MODERN PIPEFITTER’S MANUAL

MODERN PIPEFITTERʼS MANUAL

A. L. HOFFMAN

Industrial Press, Inc.

Industrial Press, Inc.

32 Haviland Street, Suite 3

South Norwalk, Connecticut 06854

Phone: 203-956-5593

Toll-Free in USA: 888-528-7852

Email: info@industrialpress.com

Author: Andrea Hoffman

Title: Modern Pipefitter’s Manual

Library of Congress Control Number: 2021944618

© by Industrial Press, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published in 2022.

Printed in the United States of America.

ISBN (print): 978-0-8311-3620-8

ISBN (ePUB):    978-0-8311-9456-7

ISBN (eMOBI):     978-0-8311-9457-4

ISBN (ePDF):    978-0-8311-9455-0

Publisher/Editorial Director: Judy Bass

Copy Editor: Judy Duguid

Compositor: Paradigm Data Services (P) Ltd., Chandigarh

Proofreader: James Madru

Indexer: Claire Splan

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher.

Limits of Liability and Disclaimer of Warranty

The author and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to the documentation contained in this book.

All rights reserved.

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CONTENTS

PREFACE

Chapter 1 PIPE HISTORY

Introduction

Pipe History

Pipe Characteristics

Summing Up

Going Forward

Chapter Review

Chapter 2 PIPING MATERIALS AND THEIR USES

Plastic Pipe

Metal Pipe

Summing Up

Going Forward

Chapter Review

Chapter 3 PIPE FITTINGS AND CONNECTIONS

Joints and Connections

Fittings

Summing Up

Going Forward

Chapter Review

Chapter 4 VALVES

Valves

Summing Up

Going Forward

Chapter Review

Chapter 5 PIPE JOINING AND PIPING SYSTEM SUPPORT

Pipe Joining Methods

Piping System Support: Aboveground and Belowground Considerations

Pipe Material

Summing Up

Chapter Review

Appendix I REFERENCE DATA

RD 1-1: Trigonometric Functions

RD 1-2: Solution of Right-angled Triangles

RD 1-3: Examples of Solution of Right-angled Triangles

RD 1-4: Solving Problems by Trigonometry

RD 2-1: Piping Color Code for Service Application

RD 2-2: Identification of Colors for Typical Materials Transported in Piping Systems

RD 2-3: Abbreviations, Letter Tags, and Label Coloring for Mechanical, Plumbing, and Piping Systems

RD 2-4: Weight (lbs.) of Water per Foot of Pipe or Tube

RD 2-5: Weight (gallons) of Water per Foot of Pipe or Tube

RD 2-6: Chemical Resistance Comparison Chart—Thermoplastics

RD 2-7: Chemical Resistance Comparison Chart—Metals

RD 2-8: Expansion of Pipe per 100 Feet

Appendix II ANSWERS

Answers to Chapter 1 Questions

Answers to Chapter 2 Questions

Answers to Chapter 3 Questions

Answers to Chapter 4 Questions

Answers to Chapter 5 Questions

Appendix III PIPE

Length of Pipe in Bends (Minutes of Arc)

Minimum Bending Radius for Standard Weight Pipe

Standard Threads for Steel Pipe

Circumferences and Areas of Circles

Modulus of Elasticity

Appendix IV WATER

Weight (lbs.) of Water per Foot of Pipe or Tube

Weight (gallons) of Water per Foot of Pipe or Tube

Contents of Cylindrical Tanks in U.S. Gallons

Conversion of Head in Feet of Water to Pounds per Square Inch

Conversion of Pounds per Square Inch to Head in Feet of Water

U.S. Gallons into Cubic Feet

Cubic Feet into U.S. Gallons

Appendix V METAL

Spark Tests for Metals

Gage, Thickness and Weight of Steel Sheets

Weights and Melting Points of Metals

Appendix VI MATH AND CONVERSION FACTORS

Weights and Measures

Conversion Factors

Areas and Volumes

Glossary

Index

PREFACE

The Modern Pipefitter’s Manual contains technical and practical information regarding pipe history, pipe characteristics, materials, fittings, connections, valves, joining and installation methods. It also addresses the laying lengths of piping, valves and connections that are critical when planning piping layout.

This new work benefits from some of the same basic information, charts, and tables found in Industrial Press’s seminal resource, The Pipefitters Handbook, 3e, by Forrest Lindsey, last published in 1967. All these features have been redrawn, cleaned up, updated and modernized, providing valuable insight to all those pipefitters who are designing, in the field, studying for certification exams, and even to pipe professionals in operations.

The Modern Pipefitter’s Manual is also cutting-edge in that it introduces and incorporates the Pipe Trades Pro calculator and its uses. (The two can be purchased together in combination from Industrial Press.) This powerful, hand-held calculator gives pipe trade professionals fast and accurate solutions that help save them time and reduce material costs every day, with simple calculations for pipe lengths, offsets, weight and volume, flow rates, pressure, area and more. Throughout the book, readers will see the following icon, and can easily follow along on their own Pipe Trades Pro to calculate results.

Packed with all these incredible new features, the Modern Pipefitter’s Manual is a truly unparalleled resource, and a valuable addition to any contractor’s office or jobsite toolbox or student’s list of reference materials for testing and exam purposes.

Good luck with your studies!

Andrea L. Hoffman

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Andrea L. Hoffman has decades of experience working at construction and engineering jobsites, associated office design environments, and providing training and education for a diversity of trades within the industry. She was challenged and inspired when asked to contribute her insight and knowledge to write the Modern Pipefitter’s Manual. This work is a compilation of extensive research and proven information from the Pipefitters Handbook, 3e, by Forrest Lindsey, and Hoffman’s experience and background in engineering design and construction.

Andrea has a bachelor’s degree in civil engineering and a master’s degree in business administration. She holds multiple licenses in the state of Florida including general contractor, underground utility and excavation, and plumbing licenses. She has worked for developers and builders, engineering firms, utility companies and municipalities, and has owned several businesses.

Andrea is dedicated to educating others and helping them to be successful in their chosen professions. She hopes this work becomes an important resource for pipefitters around the world.

| CHAPTER 1 |

PIPE HISTORY

INTRODUCTION

The selection of pipe and piping materials depends on many factors such as the use, the strengths, and the weaknesses of various piping materials and the connection methods that are most viable according to the application of use.

A pipe can be defined as a tube made of metal, plastic, concrete, or fiberglass. Pipes are used to transport liquids, oils, gases, slurries, fine particles, or other fluids. A piping system is generally designed and considered to include the complete interconnection of properly supported pipes and inline components such as pipe fittings, gaskets, bolting, and flanges. Pumps, heat exchangers, valves, tanks, and other mechanical equipment are also considered to be part of the piping system. Piping systems are the arteries and veins of our industrial processes, and the contributions of piping systems aboveground and belowground are essential to an industrialized society.

Pipelines transport water from sources of supply to points of distribution and convey waste from residential and commercial buildings. They carry crude oil from oil wells to tank farms for storage or to refineries for processing. They also carry natural gas from the sources and storage tank farms to points of utilization such as power plants, industrial facilities, and commercial and residential communities.

In chemical plants, paper mills, food processing plants, and other industry facilities, the piping systems carry liquids, chemicals, mixtures, gases, vapors, and solids from one location to another. To provide protection of life and property in residential, commercial, industrial, and other buildings, fire protection piping carries fire suppression fluids such as water, gases, and chemicals. Piping systems in thermal power plants convey high-pressure and high-temperature steam to generate electricity. The other piping systems in the power plants transport high- and low-pressure water, chemicals, low-pressure steam, and condensate. More sophisticated piping systems are designed to process and carry hazardous and toxic substances.

Storm and wastewater piping systems transport large quantities of water away from towns, cities, and industrial and similar establishments. In health facilities, these systems are used to transport gases and fluids for medical purposes. The piping systems in laboratories carry gases, chemicals, vapors, and other fluids critical for conducting research, testing, and development.

The selection of materials for pipes is based on the design of the pipeline, internal and external forces, jointing and laying techniques, durability, impermeability, and the frequency of service and maintenance to be performed. The following pipelines are used to transport various fluids and gases:

• Plastic pipelines. Plastic pipelines are generally used for the transmission of water. They have a great resistance to abrasion and chemical influence and are lightweight and easy to handle. Plastic pipe may be used to convey actively corrosive fluids and is useful for handling corrosive or hazardous gases and dilute mineral acids. A disadvantage is that plastic pipe has low tensile strength and does not perform well during temperature fluctuations.

• Steel pipelines. In addition to being used to transport water, steel pipes have been the main network of gas and oil transmission for the past 50 years. Carrying corrosive materials plus being located in harsh environments has resulted in a higher-than-expected reduction in life expectancy due to internal and external corrosion and erosion. Interior and exterior coatings can mitigate the corrosion and erosion situation but can be sensitive to most soil and water environments and add an additional expense to a project.

• Cast iron/ductile iron pipelines. Cast iron usually refers to gray iron, ductile iron, and malleable iron and has an iron casting with a carbon content higher than 2%. Ductile iron usually refers to normal carbon steel and alloy steel and has a steel casting with a carbon content lower than 2%. Ductile iron pipelines are considered to be superior to cast iron pipelines, so they are primarily used today to transport water, gas, and sewage. They have a life expectancy of more than 100 years and are environmentally preferable due to their iron and steel recycled content, energy savings when in service, durability, and recyclability. In medium- and low-pressure pipe assemblies, ductile iron has the advantages of safe and reliable operation, low damage rate, convenient and fast construction and maintenance, and good anticorrosion performance. It is generally not used in high-pressure pipelines because it has low pressure resistance. Disadvantages include high production costs and since ductile iron is also relatively heavy, machinery must be used for installation.

• PE/HDPE pipelines. PE/HDPE pipelines are flexible and ductile and have an outstanding resistance to fatigue. They are used to transport fluids and gas and are often chosen to replace existing concrete and steel pipelines. Disadvantages of PE/HDPE pipelines include high thermal expansion properties and poor weathering resistance, and they may be subject to stress cracking.

• Concrete pipelines. Concrete pipelines are made from concrete and welded sheet steel with jointing surfaces. Concrete pipes are the choice for transmission of water and are suited to large-diameter pipelines that extend over great distances. They have a high resistance to damage, abrasion, and corrosion. They offer numerous advantages such as speed of installation, inherent strength, and durability. Disadvantages include that their tensile strength is relatively low, they are less ductile than other piping materials, and their weight is high compared with their strength.

Pipe that transports water has to be able to support the water pressure, withstand thrust, and resist the inward pressure caused by ground forces and vacuums that result from high demand or sudden changes in water pressure.

Even though it has taken thousands of years to innovate and attempt to perfect the plumbing that we have today, improvements are still being made.

PIPE HISTORY

The following timeline identifies some of the highlights of piping and system developments:

Copper—2500 BC The Egyptians developed early piping systems and used copper tools and pipes for irrigation systems to control water from the Nile River.

Drainage and sewage systems—1700 to 1500 BC The steep grade of the land on the Greek island of Crete was used to create a sewage disposal and drainage system. This system included sloping and tapered terra-cotta pipes that prevented sediment from building up in the pipeline.

Roman plumbing systems—500 BC to AD 476 The Romans built aqueducts to transport water from the countryside into Rome. The water was collected in tanks and distributed through tunnels of pipes to baths, fountains, and toilets.

Around 200 BC Lead piping was used to replace the Roman system that was already in place. Even though this piping improved the transportation of water, the lead piping contained toxins that seeped into the water, leading to numerous lead poisoning deaths.

Mid-1600s The first water system in the American colonies was built in Boston in 1652. This water system was used for fighting fires and for domestic purposes, and most of the vent piping was built from hollowed-out tree logs.

PIPE CHARACTERISTICS

In this section, we focus on design considerations for pipe loads, pipe stresses, pipe testing, pipe bending, and pipe systems.

Pipe Loads

The loads on a piping system are classified as dynamic loads and static loads.

Dynamic Loads

Dynamic loads are applied quickly through the piping system so that the system may not have time to internally distribute the loads. The forces and moments are not resolved, which means that the sum of the forces and moments is not necessarily equal to zero. This may result in unbalanced loads and pipe movement. These internally induced loads will be different and either higher or lower than the applied loads. These dynamic loads are listed below and shown in Figure 1-1.

• Seismic. Seismic loading is caused by earthquake-generated agitation to a structure. It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground or with adjacent structures or with gravity waves from a tsunami. It is also considered to be in direct proportion to the weight of pipe segments. Seismic loads should be considered to be acting along the horizontal axes but not acting simultaneously.

• Wind. Wind load is an occasional load caused by the impact of wind on the pipe, and the magnitude of the wind load is modeled as a uniform force in the direction of wind along the pipe.

• PSV or pressure safety valves. These are a type of valve used to protect the equipment and systems from overpressure. If the pressure of any equipment becomes higher than the preset pressure, the installed PSVs pop up and reduce the system pressure. These stresses must be considered because the popping-up activity exerts a huge reaction force over the system.

• Slug flow. It is always preferable to design to overcome the slug flow force effect because it is one of the major causes of operating plant/process vibrations. Slug flow generates dynamic fluid forces. It is a typical two-phase flow where a wave is picked up periodically by the rapidly moving gas to form a frothy slug, which passes along the pipe at a greater velocity than the average liquid velocity. This slug can cause severe and dangerous vibrations because of the impact it may have on fittings. This force leads to component failure of the piping system due to fatigue or resonance. Other impacts of slug flow are damage to the facilities, high backpressure, and increased corrosion of the piping system. Slug flow will not and does not occur in a gravity flow line.

• Water hammer. Water hammer in piping systems results in unbalanced forces, produced particularly by elbows that change the direction of flow and valves and reducers and other inline components that change the area of flow. It is not uncommon for these forces to cause damage when the system is not properly designed to accommodate them. This will result in failed restraints, overloaded equipment, large displacements, and overstressing or even failure of pipe and fittings.

Events that may cause water hammer include

– Valve closure or opening

– Pump speed change

– Relief valve cracking open

– Rapid tank pressurization

– Periodic pressure conditions

– Periodic flow conditions

• Vibration. Piping vibration can be defined as a continuous to-andfro motion from a static position. This vibration can cause serious integrity risks to operating pipelines.

Some vibration sources are

– Turbulence-induced vibration (up to around 100 Hz). This is mostly experienced at major flow discontinuities in the system.

– Mechanical excitation. This is the dynamic load of the pipework connected to the machine.

– Fluid pulsation. The acoustic natural frequencies can amplify low levels of pressure pulsation in the system.

– Vortex shedding. The flow over a body causes vortices to be shed at specific frequencies.

– High-frequency acoustic. This is generated from pressurereducing devices and the short time to failure due to highfrequency response.

– Surge/momentum from valve operation. High transient forces can be generated by the rapid change in fluid momentum caused by the sudden opening or closing of a valve.

– Cavitation. Cavitation is the formation of small vapor-filled cavities where there is a localized pressure drop within the process fluid. When subject to higher pressure, these cavities or bubbles collapse and can generate shock waves that could potentially damage the valves and other piping components.

– Flashing. Flashing is when the pressure in the pipe becomes less than the vapor pressure of the fluid. Flashing can cause damage in valves mostly in the form of erosion of the valve plug.

Problems associated with pipe vibration and associated fatigue failures may include:

• Safety issues—hazardous and flammable

• Downtime and corrective expenses

• Environmental impact

FIGURE 1-1 Dynamic loads

Static Loads

Static loads are applied slowly through the piping system so that the system has time to react and internally distribute the loads. The system remains in equilibrium. In equilibrium, all the forces and moments are resolved or the sum of them is equal to zero, and the pipe does not move. Static loads are listed below and shown in Figure 1-2.

• Weight. The weight of the pipe and the system’s other components such as flanges, fittings, valves, etc. that are mounted on the piping system are also known as the pipe’s dead weight. Fluid will have a greater impact as the pipe size becomes larger. Water weight will be more than the pipe weight for a 12-inch nominal pipe size (NPS) of standard wall thickness or greater.

Most piping systems convey substances that are at higher temperatures than that of the surrounding air. In order to reduce the amount of heat lost, the piping is covered with insulation. The insulation not only retains the heat in the hot lines but also prevents injury to personnel who may come into contact with the pipe. In the case where the piping carries substances at lower temperatures than that of the surrounding air, the insulation will prevent sweating of the pipe and possible dripping and corrosion.

The material to be used for insulation will have the following characteristics:

– High insulating value

– Long life expectancy

– Vermin/insect-proof

– Non-corrosive

– Ability to retain its shape and insulating value when wet

– Ease of application and installation

• Pressure. The pipeline must be able to contain the product, and the walls need to be strong enough to withstand the force pushing against them and keep the product flowing through the line.

• Hydro test. After the pipeline is constructed, it will be hydro tested for weak points before it can be put into service. Pressurized water is put into the pipeline and held at a pressure much higher than the pipeline will encounter under normal operating conditions. Per ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), piping and tubing system hydro test pressure is often 1.25 times the piping design pressure. The pipeline is subject to this load to evaluate its integrity and check for leaks and/or possible weak points in the piping system.

• Thermal expansion. Pipelines will encounter changes in temperature that will cause them to expand or contract. The expansion only causes stress if the material is fixed at both ends. There is less of a problem if the pipeline is buried because the changes in temperature become smaller each day and are not impacted seasonally.

The real change in temperature and material stress will occur as soon as hot product flows