Introduction

Like the evolution GMP, there is history and evolution of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) also. Singer and Upton¹ in the book, Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing have given an account of GLP when it was first published in Federal Register of USA. Comments received, their analysis and the Commissioner, US FDA’s decisions have also been mentioned in the book. Prior to publication of GLP, what had happened? It was found by the FDA that some studies submitted in support of the safety of regulated products had not been conducted in accordance with acceptable practice. Data from studies could not be considered of a quality and integrity to assure quality and integrity to ensure product safety under the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and other applicable laws. In view of this, FDA prepared GLP as Part 3e in Title 21 of the Central Federal Regulations (CFR). Later on, this section was changed to Section 58. Currently it is CFR 21 Part 58.

These regulations were the first of a series of regulations concerning investigational requirements which were developed as a result of the FDA Bioresearch Monitoring Program. The proposed regulations were published in the Federal Register of November 19, 1976 (41FR 51206). A period of 120 days was given to interested persons to submit comments. In addition to this, public hearings were held on February 15 & 16, 1977 for the presentation of oral testimony on the proposal. Twenty two oral presentations were given and 174 written comments were received. All these were considered and some amendments were made based on the representations & comments. The final rule incorporated them into a new Part 58 (21 CFR 58).

Different products regulated by the agency for which safety data may be required cover a wide range. Examples include:

–implantable medical devices;

–indirect food additives which may occur in food in very small quantities;

–direct food additives which may be consumed daily in larger quantities;

–human drugs intended for prescription or over the counter use;

–animal drugs intended for use in pets and other animals of social importance;

–drugs used in food producing animals,

–radiation products used in the diagnosis and/or treatment of a disease or condition;

–radiation products (microwave ovens and television sets) widely used by public;

–vaccines;

–blood products.

Now a days, in India, there are companies which have multi-site operations including USA. Also readers may be interested to go through the text of US FDA GLP. Therefore, the text of US FDA GLP is being reproduced as Appendix I of this book.

Based on US FDA GLP, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) also developed GLP. OECD is an intergovernmental organization of 29 industrialized countries in North America, Europe and the Pacific. The Singer & Upton² in the book mentioned above also describe the development of the OECD GLP. Chemical control laws were passed in many member countries. The laws required testing and assessing of chemicals to determine their potential hazards. The underlying principle of these legislations was that assessment of hazards associated with chemicals should be based on data of assured quality. Good laboratory practice is intended to promote the quality and validity of data. GLP has been defined as the quality system concerned with organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, archived and reported under the OECD series on principles of Good Laboratory Practice & Compliance Monitoring, Number 1³.

Application of GLP is of importance to national authorities which have been entrusted with responsibility of assessing test data and evaluating chemical hazards. If the countries can rely on the test data developed in other countries, duplication of studies can be avoided and this would result in cost saving both to the industry and government. Secondly, common principles and procedures of GLP facilitate exchange of information.

The OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice were developed by an expert committee on GLP established in 1978 under the special program on the control of chemicals. US FDA GLP developed by then made the basis for the work by the committee. The committee was headed by Dr. Carl Morris of US Environmental Protection Agency. The OECD Principles of GLP were first published in 1982 as Good Laboratory Practice in Testing of Chemicals. This publication also contained guidance provided in the final report of the Expert Group. Since then OECD has been continuously refining this guidance. The results of this effort were published in the OECD Series on Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring beginning in 1991. The current version, OECD Series on Principles & Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring, Number 1 (OECD Principles on Good Laboratory Practice was revised in 1997). In this series, several guides have been published. These are given in Appendix II.

A number of countries for import of several items like industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, veterinary drugs, pesticides cosmetics, food products, feed additives require the manufacturers of above mentioned items to establish through data that use of these products do not pose hazards to human beings and the environment. Nonhazardous nature is required to be established through studies. The data generated during these studies is examined by the regulatory authorities of the importing countries.

India, at present, enjoys the status of provisional member of the OECD for GLP. Head, National GLP Program has been nominated by the Dept. of Science & Technology, as an observer to the OEDC’s Working Group on GLP. He is also National Coordinator for OECD’s Test Guidelines Program. India is making efforts to get status of full membership.

In pursuance of this, a National GLP Compliance Monitoring Authority has been established by the Department of Science & Technology (DST), Government of India⁴.

The National GLP Program functions through an Apex Body with Secretary, DST as its Chairman and Secretaries of concerned Ministries/Department, Director General, CSIR and Drugs Controller General (India) as its members. The Apex Body is responsible for ensuring functioning of National GLP program according to the OECD principles. The Apex Body is supported by Technical Committee on GLP, National Coordination Committee for OECD Test Guidelines Programme and Legislation Committee to enact a National Legislation on GLP. National GLP Compliance Monitoring Authority has published following documents.

The National GLP Compliance Monitoring Authority issues GLP Compliance Certificate. GLP Compliance Certification is voluntary in nature. The testing laboratories have to apply in prescribed application form. Following the application, inspection of testing laboratories is carried out by the GLP inspectors. The first inspection is pre-inspection of the laboratory. It is followed by final or second inspection. The report of the GLP inspectors is put up to the Technical Committee for recommendation to the Chairman, National GLP Compliance Monitoring Authority. GLP Compliance Certificate once issued is valid for three years with annual surveillance and a reassessment during the third year. For more information, readers may refer to the website: http:// www.indianglp.gov.in and Chapter 10 of this book. Considering the importance of the OECD GLP in Indian context as many bulk drugs are being exported to including OECD countries, the elements of OECD GLP have been reproduced in Appendix III. Full text of OECD GLP is available on the website of the National GLP Compliance Monitoring Authority and also on the website of the OECD.

Earlier there were no GLP guidelines under the Drugs & Cosmetics Rules. However, there were certain provisions under the rules which were in line with GLP requirements. Subsequently, the Central Drugs Standards Control Organization (CDSCO), under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India prepared Good Laboratory Practice Guidelines for Drug Testing Laboratories in India. These guidelines were prepared by a sub-committee constituted in the 32nd Meeting of the Drugs Consultative Committee (DCC). After a couple of years, Dr. Mashelkar Committee made recommendations to include GLP under the rules. The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India notified draft GLP Guidelines as Schedule L-I of the Drugs & Cosmetics Rules in October 2006⁵. After a gap of two years final amendment was made under the Drugs & Cosmetics Rules, 1945 and the amendment was notified vide G.S.R.780(E) dated 10th November, 2008 with the stipulation that these rules would come into force from 1st November, 2010. As such, GLP prescribed under Schedule L-I are a part of the rules now. The notification has been reproduced as Appendix IV in this book.

When the author wrote the first edition of this book, no national GLP Guidelines were available. At that time even National GLP Compliance Monitoring Authority was also not established. As such, the discussion for practice of GLP was mainly based on US FDA GLP and the provisions of the Drugs & Cosmetics Rules. Since now the GLP Guidelines have been notified and have become a part of the Drugs & Cosmetics Rules, the Schedule L-I has been made the basis of discussion in Chapter 8. References of equivalent or similar provisions under OECD GLP and US FDA GLP have been made.

The scope of three GLPs i.e. Indian GLP, OECD GLP and US FDA GLP is different. While the Indian GLP are required to be complied with by the testing laboratories attached to the drug manufacturing units and the approved testing laboratories under Part XV (A) of the Drugs & Cosmetics Rules, the scope of OECD GLP is to generate data to demonstrate that the items falling under the scope of these GLP are not hazardous to human beings or to the environment. Such data is requirement in OECD countries and therefore will be relevant to the exporters in India who want to export the items within the scope of the GLP to the OECD countries.

The scope of the US FDA GLP is conducting studies (non-clinical) to support or intended to support applications for research or marketing permits for products regulated by the Food & Drug Administration including food and colour additives, human and animal drugs, medical devices for human use, biological products and electronic products. Some manufacturers of bulk drugs are now exporting their products to US and therefore, US FDA GLP will be relevant to such manufacturers.

References

Singer, D.C., Upton, R.P. Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing, Marcel Dekker Inc. New York (1993), Appendix E.

Singer, D.C., Upton, R.P. Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing, Marcel Dekker Inc. New York (1993), Appendix C.

OECD Series on Principles of Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring, Number 1, Environment Directorate, OECD, Paris, 1998.

Website: http://www.indiaglp.gov.in/aboutus:htm

GSR 634 (E) dated 13.10.2006, Gazette of India.

Chapter 1

Quality and Related Terms – Basic Concepts

1. QUALITY

The term "quality" is used by people in day to day life frequently but most of the people, most of the time while using term, quality might have in mind one or the other property of a product or service. For example, some body buys a pen and when he uses it, he finds, it does not have uniform flow of ink. At that moment, when he says the quality of this pen is not good, he has in mind flow of ink. But in totality, he will like many more features (properties) in a pen e.g. it should be smooth in writing, it should not write too thick or too thin, it should be elegant in look, it should be so priced as is within his reach etc.

Now let us consider an example of a tablet for pain. The first and foremost property, a tablet for pain should have is to alleviate pain. Besides this, it should be elegant in appearance, good in taste and/or flavour, nicely packed, economically priced.

Thus it can be said that quality is customer’s determination and not a producer’s determination. It is based on the customer’s experience with the product or service measured against his requirements. These requirements may be stated or unstated, conscious or merely sensed, technically operational or entirely subjective. From this, it can be stated that quality is not static in nature. Since it is related with the aspirations of user, quality is dynamic in nature and the aspirations of user prompt producer of goods to improve quality.

If a product or service responds to the overall requirements (needs) of consumers, a product or service is said to possess marketability or saleability. Among these overall needs, how best the product serves the purpose of the user, during its usage, is called its fitness for use. The other terms which have been used for this concept include, fitness for purpose, customer satisfaction, conformance to requirements. The concept of fitness for use is universal and has been popularly called by the name of quality.

Before discussion on quality proceeds further, there are three terms which should be understood clearly. These are given below:

Customers, consumers & users: There are three different terms:

(i) customers

(ii) consumers and

(iii) users.

These are used, many a time, in confusing manner substituting one for the other. Therefore, it will be useful to understand them. A customer is one who buys or procures product from another. The purchase may be for the purpose of resale. In such a case, customer is commonly a type of merchant. The other type of purchase may be for use. In such a case, the customer is also an user. If it is a purchase of service, the purchaser is often termed client.

An user is one who receives the intended benefits of the product. The user may consume the product, for instance fuel for burning or he may further process it to make a different product for sale, for example, a drug manufacturer purchases bulk paracetamol and converts it into paracetamol tablets for sale. Individuals and families who consume products for personal purpose are commonly called consumers e.g. food, drugs, cosmetics.

To an economist, there are two different things: (i) product, for example, drugs, foods, automobiles and (ii) service, for instance, power supply, hair cutting; but the user is interested only in services even though he may seem buying products. When he buys drugs, he wants cure of ailment. When he buys milk, he wants nourishment. When he buys automobile, he wants transportation. The service industry, usually, sells service directly to consumers without intervention of merchants. On the contrary, manufacturing companies, those in particular, who make consumer products sell through an intermediate chain of merchants. Thus the service industry gets direct feed back from consumers and becomes sensitized to the concept of fitness for use. Product industry lacks in direct feed back, as such, it tends to emphasize conformance to the product specifications rather than fitness for use. Although fitness for use is judged by the user but it is specified by well known parameters. These parameters are quality characteristics.

1.1 Quality Characteristics

Any feature of the products, materials or processes that is needed for achieving fitness for use is a quality characteristic. The feature may be property, attribute etc. These characteristics may be of different kinds:

■Technological e.g. acidity, alkalinity, pharmacological activity;

■Psychological e.g. beauty, taste, smell

■Time oriented e.g. reliability, maintainability

■Contractual e.g. guarantee provisions

■Ethical e.g. courtesy of sales personnel

Though the concept of quality characteristics is as old as human beings themselves. However, it may not have been quantified in early age but were judged by experience. Technological characteristics were quantified even centuries ago with the advent of instruments. Now, with the development of science & technology, these are extensively quantified. Service industry quality characteristics also include the above mentioned quality characteristics, but are dominated by the psychological & ethical. In addition to the above, service industry regards promptness of services as quality characteristic. Manufacturing companies regard promptness as different parameter than quality. The distinction, sometimes, is so sharp that there is separate organization to set standards for delivery schedules – production control.

Quality characteristics can be classified into several categories or parameters of fitness for use. The classification helps to define more precisely the needs of the user and also helps in understanding of the major economic forces involved. The major parameters are:

–quality of design;

–quality of conformance;

–the abilities;

–field service.

1.1.1 Quality of Design

All human beings have certain basic needs e.g. food, cloth, shelter. With growing industrialization, basic needs of society have also grown e.g. transportation, communication, besides these, human beings have powerful urge for control over forces of nature, for security, for comfort, for artistic achievements or for excellence in the field. While their wishes are endless, but purchasing power of human individuals or their organizations are variable. This variable level of purchasing power has led to creation or recognition of different levels of excellence of products and services. For example, transportation can be achieved through train, bus, private car or airplane. Each of these levels can be called grade. A difference in grade is a difference in quality of design. Grade is a non-technical term and is used widely. By the term, it is understood in public that it relates to a level of fitness for use and level of purchasing power. Quality of design is a technical term & it may be regarded as composite of three different steps in a common progression of activities:

■Identification of what constitutes fitness for use. There is no widely accepted term to describe this activity. Since identification of fitness for use is the result of market research, the effectiveness of this activity might be termed as quality of market research. For example, a company carries out market research and finds out that there is a large market for anti-infectives.

■Selection of a concept of product or service to be responsive to the identified needs of the user. Different professionals in the field of quality have used different terms to designate the extent to which the intended features of the product respond to the actual market needs. Some of them are, quality of concept, quality of project, quality of design. For example, the company found out potential market for anti-infectives. Now in the second step the dosage form is to be selected whether it should be marketed as a tablet or capsule or injection.

■Translation of selected concepts into a detailed set of specifications. When it will be executed, it will meet the needs of the user. The term, quality of specifications has been used to describe the extent to which the actual design specifications conform to the needs for fitness for use for the grade. For example, specifications for selected dosage form. In case of drugs, help may be taken from pharmacopoeias which prescribe specifications for different dosage forms.

The total progression of these activities is usually called the quality of design. Other terms which have been used in literature and may be seen as synonymous with quality of design include degree of excellence, design adequacy, design capability etc.

1.1.2 Quality of Conformance

The design of the product should reflect the needs of fitness for use and the product should also conform to the design. In the example chosen for illustration the anti-infective should have strong anti-infective activity so that patient is cured of infection. Besides this, it should meet the specifications for the chosen dosage form. Then extent to which the product conforms to the design is called the quality of conformance. This term is widely used & accepted. Alternate terms which have been used in the literature are quality of manufacture, quality of production, quality of product. Quality of conformance is dependent on numerous variables like machines, tools, supervision and workmanship.

1.1.3 The Abilities

For products which are consumed promptly after purchasing e.g. foods, medicines, fuels, two parameters, namely, quality of design and quality of conformance are largely sufficient to determine fitness for use. For products which are used over a long period e.g. fan, refrigerator, other factors come into play viz. availability, reliability and maintainability. These abilities are interrelated and are vital to fitness for use concept and have been discussed briefly in proceeding paragraphs.

(i) Availability – In today’s industrialized society, continuity of life depends on the continuity of services from sources of energy, communication, transport, water etc. A lot of effort has been made to provide this continuity & to discover promptly when failure occurs. One element of this effort has been to recognize continuity of service as a parameter of fitness for use and to recognize continuity of services as a parameter of fitness for use and a facility to measure it. This parameter has been named as availability. It is time related and it is measured by the extent to which the user can secure the services as and when he wants it. A product when it is in operative state is said to be available. The total time in operative state, also called as the up time is sum of the time spent in active use and the time in standby state. Similarly, the total time in non-operative state also called as downtime and it is the sum of the time spent under active repair and waiting for spare parts, authorization etc. Mathematically, availability can be expressed as:

Availability can also be expressed by the ratio of mean time between failures (MTBF) and sum of MTBF plus mean time to repair (MTTR).

Other terms which have been used as equivalent to availability are operational readiness and percent uptime.

(ii) Reliability – If a product never failed, availability would be 100% for that product. But products fail. Therefore, an essential sub-parameter of availability is freedom from failure. The term, reliability has been used for this sub parameter. Classic definition of reliability is:

The probability of a product performing without failure a specified function under given conditions for a specified period of time.¹

In general, reliability means the ability of a person, or system to perform and maintain its function in normal and hostile conditions. The Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines it as ....the ability of a system or component to perform its registered function under stated conditions for specified period of time.

The probability of performing without failure can be converted to other measures like mean time between failures (MTBF), failure rate etc. For simple systems, the calculations are simple but for complex systems these become very complex. Reliability is determined, to a large extent, by quality of design. Attainable reliability which is inherent – in the design is called intrinsic reliability. However during use, the achieved reliability is usually less than this because of unanticipated environments, lapses in quality conformance, inadequacies in maintenance etc.

Reliability should not be confused with conformance to product specifications or even with reliability estimates, which may be made, based on life tests in laboratory. Evaluation of achieved reliability requires collection and interpretation of data on performance and failure of a product while in actual use over a period of time.

(iii) Maintainability – The need of continuity of service has been emphasized in earlier paragraphs. This has stimulated efforts to improve maintenance of durable products. This maintenance may take place mainly in two ways.

–preventive or scheduled maintenance;

–unscheduled maintenance.

Preventive maintenance consists of tests and checks to detect potential failures, scheduled servicing and planned overhauls plus replacement of worn out or failure prone parts. Unscheduled maintenance consists, of restoring service in event of failure.

The term, "maintainability" has been used as an expression of the ease with which maintenance can be carried out. If we think of quantifying maintainability, we soon encounter the fact that multiple measures are involved as maintenance requires not only time but also manpower, spares, expendable supplies and other inputs. Of these measures, those which are time oriented are regarded as the most important as human activity is affected until service is restored. The measures of maintainability which are in use are:

–mean time to repair (MTTR);

–probability of restoring service in time period specified;

–meantime for scheduled maintenance.

Effectiveness of maintenance is greatly influenced by various factors which include:

–design for easy access and modular replacement at the premises of the user;

–instruments for easy diagnosis of cause of failure;

–repair tools;

–technical information about the product & its use.

Effectiveness of maintenance is also influenced by the availability of spares sometimes, this is called logistical support.

1.1.4 Field Service

The parameters which have been discussed in foregoing paragraphs are influenced mainly by what goes on prior to sale of the product. After the sale of the product to an user, the ability of the user to get continuity of service depends largely on service organization. The service organization is expected to carry out following functions:

–It should provide clear, unambiguous service contracts;

–It should establish stores of adequate repair equipment and spare parts;

–It should recruit & train service force to make them competent enough to diagnose & remedy failures;

–It should respond promptly to service calls;

–It should conduct its affairs with courtesy & integrity.

This parameter is known by different terms which include field service, customer service, sales service or just service. The features which distinguish this parameter are:

–it relates to the activities which are carried out after sale;

–it is performed by an establishment which is regarded as service industry rather than manufacturing industry;

–it includes extensive contact with the user on account of contractual or informal obligations.

The above mentioned parameters can be sketched out in the form of a tree that helps in bringing out inter-relationship. There are several ways of subdividing these parameters, structuring the resulting trees and setting up models for evaluation. One such tree is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Quality is a subjective term and thus each person or sector has its own definition. However, technically quality can have two meanings:

–the characteristics of product/service which bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs;

–a product/service free of deficiencies.

Fig. 1.1 – Fitness for use

There are two very well known quality gurus, Joseph Juran and Philip Crosby. According to Juran, quality means fitness for use and according to Crosby, quality means conformance to requirements.

2. QUALITY FUNCTION

An organization which produces & markets its products or provides services does it through a series of specialized activities

Fig. 1.2 – Quality Loop

carried out by several functional departments. The quality system applies to and interacts with all activities related to quality of a product or service. It can be explained through quality loop (Fig. 1.2). The quality system involves all phases from initial identification to final satisfaction of requirements and customer’s expectation. ISO:9004(1994) states the following phases and activities for a quality system:

–Marketing & market research

–Design/specification engineering and product development

–Procurement

–Process planning and development

–Production

–Inspection, testing & examination

–Packaging & storage

–Sales & distribution

–Installation & operation

–Technical assistance & maintenance

–Disposal after use

The last three elements are not applicable to the items which are consumed after purchasing e.g. food items, drugs. The last three elements apply to the items which are used for a longer time, for example, television, refrigerator etc.

In case of pharmaceutical formulations, element at S.No. 2 will be selection of dosage form deciding specifications and product development.

Relationship of these activities can also be explained through the spiral of progress in quality. Achievement of fitness for use involves a number of separate deeds & activities in a logical progression. The main activities in the progression have been shown in the spiral of progress (Fig. 1.3). A turn of the

Fig. 1.3 – The Spiral of Progress in Quality

*Not relevant in case of pharmaceutical products

spiral of progress commences with product research & development to create an improvement in fitness for use, the object. At the end of that turn, the experience of user may create a new idea which will start a new turn of the spiral for improvement.

It may be seen from the spiral of progress in quality that activities needed to achieve the object, fitness for use, are scattered among several persons in several specialized departments.

It may also be seen that some departments are in-house & some are not. The outside persons are a part of vendor companies, merchant companies, user companies, consumer families. In the companies, the specialized departments are also concerned with certain other functions, for example, cost, delivery, personnel, technology. From this, it can be very well made out that these departments have multiple goals as well. Today, this is a major problem how to make them conducive to each other or to harmonize them. These widely scattered activities constitute quality function.

Thus quality function can be defined as the entire collection of activities through which we achieve fitness for use, no matter where these activities are performed.

3. QUALITY CONTROL

The term, quality control comprises of two words quality & control. Control is universal regulatory process. In the industry, it takes the form of meeting standards. The process through which we establish & meet standards is called control. This process has universal series of steps. Steps applied to the problem of quality can be listed as follows:

–choosing the control subject, means what is to be regulated or controlled;

–choosing an unit of measure;

–setting a standard value, means specifying quality characteristic (e.g. plus, minus limits);

–providing a device which can measure the characteristic in terms of the unit of the measure (e.g. pH meter, UV spectrophotometer);

–conducting actual measurements;

–interpreting the difference between actual & standard (e.g. pharmacopoeial or pre-determined value and the value actually found);

–taking decision and acting on the difference.

An extensive discussion on this universal series of steps appear in Managerial Breakthrough by Juran.²

When this universal regulatory process is applied to the problems of product quality, it is called quality control.

In context with pharmaceutical industry, quality control as defined in the text of WHO GMPs³ may be considered adequate for clarity of the concept.

Quality Control (QC) includes activities like sampling, setting specifications, testing, organizing QC function, documentation, releasing product for sale etc.

All continuing performances are likely to have variations. Some of these variations are insignificant and are ignored and no corrective action is taken. But other variations are so significant that these trigger alarm signals. These variations are a form of sporadic departure from standard and demand that personnel responsible for control should act to restore status quo. For example, if tableting machine starts producing tablets which vary so much that the tablets do not pass weight variation test. This situation will require adjustment or other action depending on the cause.

Remedial action can be taken by discovering which process changes created the symptoms which triggered alarm signals. The sequence of events used to restore the status quo is known variously but most commonly as trouble shooting.

In any system of control, the standard level of performance is regarded as goal also. In this concept, it is implied that it is not possible or it is not economical to improve the standard level of performance. But some determined men make improvements over standard level and make it obsolete, however, this process of making improvements differs from control process as at the very outset the standard level is itself regarded on the wrong level of performance. The difference between the old standard level & the new standard level is regarded as chronic disease. When a new superior level of performance is attained through determined efforts, it is called break through.

When the quality control is achieved by utilizing all the strength of the company, it is considered as company-wide quality control (CWQC). The other terms which is used for this approach is total quality control (TQC).

4. QUALITY POLICY

All organizations have either in mind or in writing some principles, intentions, beliefs, creeds etc. which are their guides to managerial conduct. They rest on a philosophical and ethical base. They pertain to important issues and are intended to have long life. Such principles are known as policies.

In very small organization where one man makes all the decisions, these guides are in his mind. He operates in accordance with his unwritten code of conduct & his deeds reflect that code. This code (policy) is published by word-of-mouth. As organization grows, more than one man make decisions, the decisions taken by the managers affect people inside as well as outside the organization and the decisions may affect the managers also. If consistency is not there in the decisions, neither insiders nor outsiders can predict the expectations.

It is desirable to have predictability. An accepted way of creating predictability is to think, write down & publish the policies. These policies become the basis for consistent conduct.

It will be useful to write some thing about the subject matter. Quality policy statements are brief declarations like:

‘It is the policy of M/s. ....................... that its products will meet all specified & implied standards of quality’.

However, such statements are regarded by the managers too vague to provide guidelines for the conduct. Nobody questions such statements. These policies are considered as motherhood policies. Choice of subject matter for quality policy may be varied. However, there are certain matters which are so fundamental that these should be considered by any company which is going to prepare written quality policy. These fundamental matters include the following:

■Which level of clientele constitute the organizations market? This matter will have bearing on the quality of design.

■Has the organization to strive for quality leadership or competitiveness or just adequacy?

■Has the organization been selling standard products or has it been selling a service in which the product is one of the ingredients of sale? This matter will have bearing on conformance to specifications.

■Has the organization to market its products on the basis of high reliability at higher initial price or lower reliability at lower initial price?

■Whether the effort is to be made to optimize user’s cost or manufacturer’s cost?

■Whether the abilities are to be quantified?

■Whether the organization is to rely for its controls on systems or on men?

■At which level quality planning is to be done?

■Whether the vendor is to be put on the team?

■Whether top management should participate in quality planning & assurance or these should be delegated to others?

Considerations mentioned above are general. Some considerations may not be applicable to drugs e.g. quantification of abilities.

When the organization grows to such an extent that it gets involved in multiple markets & products, no one set of quality policies can fit into its all activities, this problem can be solved by creating several levels of quality policy & one of the levels is corporate quality policy. A corporate quality policy consists of the statement of those policies which are company-wide in nature and are binding on all company’s units. The corporate quality policy usually states the following:

–the purpose of writing & publishing quality policies;

–motherhood statement;

–the minimal actions to be taken by the divisions of the company with respect to quality;

–delegation of authority to divisions to establish subsidiary quality policies appropriate to their requirements as the divisions may be doing different types of activities;

–if required, quality policies for functional organization units or for programmed activities e.g. research and development.

While deciding & writing quality policy, following points may be considered:

–the policy should be relevant to the organization, its products and people;

–the objectives should be ambitious but achievable;

–the policy should be practical in approach & realistic;

–the policy should be written in easy to understand language.

In the process of formulating policies, the key managers should participate. However, they may not do detailed staff work. One way of doing this is to assign to a specialist the job of obtaining form these key managers the following:

–their nominations as to what should be the subject matter of quality policies;

–their judgment as to the direction of the company towards these subjects

Through this method, it is possible to find out consensus among these key managers on the identified subjects. A draft can be prepared based on the consensus which can be further discussed for finalizing the policies.

Until 1960s, examples of written quality policy were rare. Thereafter, the number is increasing & the increase is likely to continue. Under ISO certification process, it is necessary for a company to have written quality policy. Many companies in India are opting for ISO certification and therefore, number of written quality policy is increasing. While the written quality policy is mainly for internal use but broader publication may be necessary in view of the growing competition. Advantages of written policy are:

–it makes those concerned