ORBITAL MECHANICS: HOW OBJECTS MOVE IN SPACE

FROM KEPLER
FIRST LAW: A SATELLITE REVOLVES IN AN ELLIPTICAL ORBIT AROUND A CENTER OF ATTRACTION POSITIONED AT ONE FOCI OF THE ELLIPSE. SECOND LAW: THE RATE OF TRAVEL ALONG THE ORBIT IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE AREA OF SWEEP IN THE ELLIPSE. THIRD LAW: PERIOD OF THE ORBIT SQUARED IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE MEAN DISTANCE TO CENTER CUBED.

ORBIT PLANE APOGEE

CENTER OF ATTRACTION (FOCI)

PERIGEE
SATELLITE

EARTH EXAMPLE

ORBITAL MECHANICS: WHY OBJECTS MOVE THE WAY THEY DO

NEWTONIAN THEORY
Fg = G M m / r2
ORBITAL PATH V = ORBITAL VELOCITY

Fc = m V2 / r A SATELLITE MAINTAINS ITS ORBIT WHEN Fc = Fg

G = UNIVERSAL GRAVITY CONSTANT M = MASS OF EARTH m = MASS OF SATELLITE r = DISTANCE EARTH CENTER TO SATELLITE IN NEAR CIRCULAR ORBITS THE ORBITAL VELOCITY IS ABOUT CONSTANT. IN HIGHLY ELLIPTICAL ORBITS THE SATELLITE SPEEDS UP TO MAX VELOCITY AT PERIGEE AND SLOWS DOWN TO MIN VELOCITY AT APOGEE.

Fc = CENTRIPETAL FORCE DUE TO REVOLUTION ALTITUDE Fg = GRAVITATION FORCE

Newtons Laws
A body remains at rest or in constant motion unless acted upon by external forces The time rate of change of an objects momentum is equal to the applied force For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The force of gravity between two bodies is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them.

Acceleration, Time, Distance

F = ma Vf = V0 + at 2 s = V0t + at2

Vector Addition
Vector addition is done by adding the two head to tail vectors to equal the tail to tail and head to head vector

V1 V2

V3

V1+ V3 = V2

Law of Sines a / sin A = b / sin B = c / sin C Law of Cosines a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc Cos A b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac Cos B c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab Cos C

b
A c

a B

Trigonometric Functions
sine = opposite/ hypotenuse = y/r cosine = adjacent / hypotenuse = x/r tangent = opposite / adjacent = y/x -1< sin or cos <+1 - infinity < tangent < + infinity
y r q

y x

sin 0 = 0 cos 0 = 1 sin 90 = 1 cos 90 = 0 tan 0 = 0 tan 90 = + infinity

r2 = x2 + y2 sin2 q + cos2 q = 1

Rocket Engines
Liquid Propellant
Mono propellant
Catalysts

Performance Energy Safety Simplicity Expanding Gases Thrust Termination Restart

Bi-propellant

Solid Propellant
Grain Patterns

Hybrid Nuclear Electric

Specific Heat
Specific Heat : the amount of heat that enters or leaves a unit mass while the substance changes one degree in temperature. c = Btu per lbsm - degree Rankine cp : specific heat at constant pressure cv : specific heat at constant volume k : ratio of specific heats

dQ c = w dT

cp k= c v

>1

Specific Impulse
Isp = 9.797

k k-1

)( )[ 1 - ( ) ]
k

Tc mg

Pe Pc

k-1

Pe : Nozzle Exit Pressure (psi) <14.7 psi Pc : Combustion Chamber Pressure (psi) 6,000 psi Tc : Combustion Chamber Temperature (degrees Rankine) 5,000o R mg : average molecular weight of combustion products (lb/mole) 2H2+O 2 2H2O 18 lbs/mole = mg

Isp =

F . W

Launch Velocity Losses

Gravity losses Pitch over to get correct velocity vector alignment for orbital insertion Drag from atmosphere Not instantaneous application of velocity

Losses are between 15 and 17 % of DV

Rocket Formulas
Rocket Equation

DV = Isp x g x ln MR
Mass Ratio MR =
minitial mfinal

Specific Impulse F Isp = . W Thrust

. W Ve + Ae ( Pe - Pa) F= g

Three Stage Booster

All three stages
1st Stage 2nd Stage 3rd Stage Payload Weights (lbs.) Structure Propellants Burn Time (sec) Isp (sec) Stage Weight MR

35,000 10,000 4,000 10,000

365,000 125,000 50,000

100 120 80

280 290 250

400,000 599,000 135,000 199,000 54,000

2.56

2.69 4.57

DV1 = (280)(32.2)ln (2.56) = 8,475 ft/sec DV2 = (290)(32.2)ln (2.69) = 9,238 ft/sec DV3 = (250)(32.2)ln (4.57) = 12,232 ft/sec

Vl = 29,945 ft/sec

Vposigrade = 29,535 ft/sec Vretrograde = 30,183 ft/sec

Can place payload in posigrade orbit, but not in retrograde orbit,

ORBIT FORMULAS
ELLIPTICAL & CIRCULAR ORBITS
a

c
a

}
Apogee
rA

2a = rA + rP

= eccentricity

}b
c

rP

Perigee

c = a - rP

e=
e= e= e=

a - rP a rP a a
r + r = 2a if r = r then at that point 2r = 2a r=a a2 - c2 .. . b =

b c

1-

1 - 2rP rA + rP rA - rP rA + rP

CONSTANTS FOR ORBIT

PHYSICAL E = Specific Energy H = Specific Momentum m = Universal gravitational attraction mr
m2 n

GEOMETRIC

a b c
E<0 ,

e e e

= 0 for a circle

V
m1

E<0 , 0<

< 1 for an ellipse

= 1 for a parabola > 1 for a hyperbola

H2 r = 1+ 1+

m
2EH2

cos n

ke

H2

Polar coordinates for any conic section pages 32, 33, 34 Handout

2 1 + 2EH

m2

Orbital Period
CIRCULAR ORBIT ELLIPTICAL ORBIT 2pr V m r 4 p2r2 m r
2

Period =

2pa V

V = P2 =

a = mean distance from focus = = semi major axis

2 4 p a3

P2

P2 = 4 p m

r3

P2

= (2.805 x

1015)a3

KEPLERS THIRD LAW

units

2 = sec ft3

EARTH SATELLITES
Eccentricity = Major Axis = Minor Axis = e 2a 2b

E = specific energy
H = specific angular momentum E = V2 2
H = Vr cos M r

rp = a - c ra = a + c rp + ra = 2a c e = a
c2 = a2 - b2

m 2a

(1)

for circular orbits a = r

V=

2m - m r a

for elliptical orbits from (1)

therefore

m r

Coordinate Systems
Cartesian Coordinates
Abscissa = x Ordinate = y (x,y)

Polar Coordinates
Radius Vector = r Vectorial Angle = q (r,q)

+y
r

-x

+x

-y

Description of Orbit
Right Ascension
Measured eastward from the vernal equinox
In Spring when the suns center crosses the equatorial plane once thought to be aligned with the first point of the constellation Aries

Inclination Argument of Perigee Two of the following

Eccentricity Perigee Apogee

Orbit Calculations
Ellipse is the curve traced by a point moving in a plane such that the sum of its distances from the foci is constant. r
p

ra
r b

c
a a

x2 y2 + = 1 a2 b2
r + r = 2a e= c a a2 = b2 + c2

INCLINATION
FUNCTION OF LAUNCH AZIMUTH AND LAUNCH SITE LATITUDE cos i (inclination) = cos (latitude) sin (azimuth) N

North = 0 degrees Azimuth

azimuth

270o
West

90o East

cos i + cos (lat) sin (az) sin 90o = 1 sin 0o = 0 sin 180o = 0 sin 270o = -1

180o

South

launch azimuth from 180o to360o = retrograde orbit launch azimuth from 0o to 180o = posigrade orbit

Celestial Sphere

Argument of Perigee (w) Perigee Celestial Equator Inclination

Right Ascension Orbit Trace

ORBITAL MECHANICS: GROUND TRACES

INCLINED ORBIT SAT ORBIT 4 ORBIT 3 ORBIT 2 ORBIT 1

EQUATORIAL ORBIT MULTIPLE ORBITS

EARTH MOTION BENEATH SATELLITE

ANGLE OF INCLINATION (0 DEG. FOR EQUATORIAL)

GROUND TRACES
THE POINTS ON THE EARTHS SURFACE OVER WHICH A SATELLITE PASSES AS IT TRAVELS ALONG ITS ORBIT

PRINCIPLE : GROUND TRACE IS THE RESULT OF THE ORBITAL PLANE BEING FIXED AND THE EARTH ROTATING UNDERNEATH IT
AMPLITUDE OF GROUND TRACE (LATITUDE RANGE) IS EQUAL TO THE ORBITAL INCLINATION MOVEMENT OF GROUND TRACE IS DICTATED BY THE SATELLITE ALTITUDE AND THE CORRESPONDING TIME FOR IT TO COMPLETE ONE ORBIT

ORBITAL MECHANICS: SPECIFIC ORBITS AND APPLICATIONS

POLAR (100- 700 NM AT 80 - 100 DEG. INCLINATION) SATELLITE PASSES THROUGH THE EARTH'S SHADOW AND PERMITS VIEWING OF THE ENTIRE EARTHS SURFACE EACH DAY WITH A SINGLE SATELLITE SUN SYNCHRONOUS (80 - 800 NM AT 95 - 105 DEG INCLINATION) PROCESSION OF ORBITAL PLANE SYNCHRONIZED WITH THE EARTHS ROTATION SO SATELLITE IS ALWAYS IN VIEW OF THE SUN PERMITS OBSERVATION OF POINTS ON THE EARTH AT THE SAME TIME EACH DAY SEMISYNCHRONOUS (10,898 NM AT 55 DEG INCLINATION) 12 HR PERIODS PERMITTING IDENTICAL GROUNDTRACES EACH DAY HIGHLY INCLINED ELLIPTICAL (FIXED PERIGEE POSITION) SATELLITE SPENDS A GREAT DEAL OF TIME NEAR THE APOGEE COVERING ONE HEMISPHERE CLASSICALLY CALLED MOLNIYA ORBIT BECAUSE OF ITS HEAVY USE BY THE RUSSIANS FOR NORTHERN HEMISPHERE COVERAGE GEOSYNCHRONOUS (GEO) (CIRCULAR, 19,300 NM AT 0 DEG INCLINATION) 24 HR PERIOD PERMITS SATELLITE POSITIONING OVER ONE POINT ON EARTH. ORBITAL PERIOD SYNCHRONIZED WITH THE EARTHS ROTATION (NO OTHER ORBIT HAS THIS FEATURE)

Linear and Angular Motion

ANGULAR MOTION LINEAR MOTION

Distance

q= wavg =

S/r qf

radians qf radians

S = r q ft Vtangential = r w ft/sec

Velocity

tf
wf

to
wo radians

sec

Acceleration

aavg =

tf

to

sec2

atangential = r a ft/sec2

wf = wo + a t q = wo t + a t2 2 (1 radian = 57.3 degrees)

r
Q

s s Q= r
radians

CONSERVATION OF:
ENERGY
V2 2
-

MOMENTUM
constant = F Angular Momentum = mr2w mr2w = constant = mH H = V r cos f Specific Angular Momentum

m r

Specific Energy#

Vr

f
V

#Specific means per 1b mass

CONSTANTS FOR ORBIT

PHYSICAL E = Specific Energy H = Specific Momentum m = Universal gravitational attraction mr
m2 n

GEOMETRIC

a b c
E<0 ,

e e e

= 0 for a circle

V
m1

E<0 , 0<

< 1 for an ellipse

= 1 for a parabola > 1 for a hyperbola

H2 r = 1+ 1+

m
2EH2

cos n

ke

H2

2 1 + 2EH

m2

ESCAPE VELOCITY
E=0

V2 E1 = 2
V2 0= 2

m r
m r 2 m r sec2

Vescape=

(2)

14.075x1015 20.9 x 106 ft

= 36,700 ft sec