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The Evolution & Classification of the Dragon © 2008 - 2010 Laura “Tamara” Henson

Disclaimer
This document is contains a revised version of the text “The Evolution & Classification of the Dragon”
originally published online as a free download in 2008. It has been fully updated to include several new
taxa and to correct nomaclature. All references have been confirmed as REAL, there are no fictional
sources given in this book. All taxonomic information and Latin names may be used in any source they are
not under copyright. Indeed I encourage people to use the conclusions in this paper, dragon genera and
species have enough junior synonyms as it is.

You are encouraged to make copies and print-outs as needed. This PDF has been published as a free
download – if you are asked to pay for it you have been a victim of fraud.

Illustrations
The art used in this book comes from a variety of sources. Most of the illustrations are from Simply
Software’s Sci-Fi & Fantasy Clipart 3 and Witches and Wizards Clipart both edited by Jon Gustafson and
© 1997-2008, No Hassle Home. Some are copyright free Clipart from various web sites. Other art is from
(or modified from) various books on science or dragons and their use is not a challenge to their copyright
status.

Printing Instructions: Print the front page and this page single sided, print the remainder of the document
double sided. The last page should printed single sided and used as the back cover.

Table of Contents

Introduction 3

Coelurosauravis 4

Dragon Genera and Species Compendium 10

List of Draconic Species 20

Draconic Taxonomy 32

Bibliography 37

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 Introduction
A few years ago I wrote a discussion and summary of all the known scientific names given to dragons. This
book is an updated version of that paper.

This project was sparked as I was doing research on the wildlife of Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar
novels. As I read up on the series, I realized that there were dragons in Pellucidar. Dragons? Sure thing,
disregarding the wyvern-like Thripdars and the Mahars, two of Burroughs' beasts, should be frightfully
familiar to draconologists.

In Tarzan at the Earth’s Core the characters meet a dyrodor. The dyrodor is usually described as a
Stegosaurus despite its sixty foot length, carnivorous habits, and ability to use its back plates to fly.
Because of its bulk some fans have wondered if the dyrodor had a body filled with lighter than air gas, a
theory first proposed for dragons. Then in the book Life-Size Dragons by John Grant, Fred Gambino
painted the following picture:

Fred Gambino’s Varanus undraconis

One thing for sure this animal, described as an ancestral dragon, is no monitor lizard (the genus Varanus is
only for these lizards) but it is a good match for Burroughs’ dyrodor.

Burroughs’ second dragon appeared in the novel Savage Pellucidar and was called the trodon (not to be
confused with the dinosaur Troodon). This beast had a pterodactylian head, four limbs, two wings, a
poisonous tongue, and a pouch in which it carried victims paralyzed by its poison back to its cave where its
hatchlings devoured them alive. After hatching it presumably carried its young in the pouch for Burroughs
called it a marsupial reptile. Just compare this picture from the 2003 bestseller Dr. Ernest Drake’s
Dragonology with both the description and two illustrations of a trodon.

3
 Dragons at the Earth’s Core: The Marsupial Dragon from Dragonology and two images of Burroughs’ Trodon

This made me think of what kind of prehistoric creature a dragon could have evolved from. Most authors
make dragons the descendants of dinosaurs, but no true dinosaur had the features that could have created
the dragon under natural conditions. However there was a creature from the Permian period that would fit
the bill. This was Coelurosauravus. What is a Coelurosauravius? Good question, scientists are still trying
to figure out where these critters fit on the tree of life.

Coelurosauravis
Until the late 1990s, the coelurosauravids (hollow-lizard-birds) were classified as “pseudosuchian
thecodonts”, a mixed bag of primitive archosaurs that included ancestral crocodilians, dinosaurs, and many
others. When the pseudosuchians were dismissed as an unnatural group, the majority of the old species
became placed in the protorosauria. As protorosaurs, coelurosauravians were considered to be either the
sister group of the pterosaurs (according to Dave Peters) or to the lizards. Larry Martin however viewed
them as basal crocodylomorphs, Alan Feduccia saw them as non-dinosaurian basal birds, and George
Olshvsky insisted that they were very primitive theropod dinosaurs ancestral to birds.

In 2004, Phil Senter claimed that Drepanosaurus, Coelurosauravus and Longisquama all formed a natural
group which he named Avicephala meaning “Bird-heads”. Senter’s analysis also indicated that
Avecephalans are stem group diapsids, not related to prolacertiformes, lizards, dinosaurs, or birds. Instead
Avicephala was considered a sister taxon to the Sauria (Lepidosauromorpha + Archosauromorpha). More
recent analysis has refuted Senter’s idea. These scientists place the drepanosaurs back in the protorosauria
but retain coelurosauravids as basal diapsids.

The main reason there is such confusion over the classification of these animals is that the group has a
mixture of primitive and advanced characters that obscure their relationships. Some of these features are:

1. The animals have acrodont dentition. Acrodont teeth are found in lots of primitive diapsids (and lizards)
but not in archosauromorphs (which have subthecodont or thecodont teeth).

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2. Archosauromorphs have at least 8 cervical vertebrae but coelurosauravians have the primitive six found
in most other diapsids.

3. It has been claimed that Longisquama had a preorbital opening as in Archosauriformes, However others
think this opening may be damage to the fossil, only new remains will tell us for sure.

4. Coelurosauravians have a furcula (wishbone) as do many dinosaurs including, of course, birds. Even
more amazingly, they also have a clear glenoid-form articulation on them (a flattened surface on each
ramus) as in birds.

5. Coelurosauravians have integumentary elements as in dinosaurs and birds. Coelurosauravian scales

always show a continuous margin with regularly spaced wrinkles. This indicates that these were continuous
sheets of keratinous material with a central shaft down the middle. This is different from the construction of
feathers (a shaft with branches with branches with branches), but as John C. McLoughlin pointed out in his
1979 book Archosauria: a New Look at the Old Dinosaur:

It seems reasonable to suppose that early endothermic

thecodonts evolved some mechanism for trapping “dead air”
next to the skin for prevention of heat loss, a mechanism which
would also permit air circulation should the animal overheat.
Although such a mechanism would be composed of soft tissue
and thus unlikely to survive in fossils, we are graced by fate in
having a delicately preserved little thecodont, Longisquamata
(“long scales”) of mid-Triassic Russia showing evidence of
having possessed scales modified to insulate the body’s surface.
These keeled and elongated scales overlapped one another,
trapping air pockets between themselves and the skin; to cool
the animal they might be erected to allow dissipation of excess heat. 1

While some have argued otherwise, the integument of Coelurosauravians could be protofeathers without
challenging the hypothesis that dinosaurs evolved into birds. It simply indicates that feathers evolved far
earlier than suspected. Interestingly experiments have shown that the scutes of crocodiles are actually
modified feathers instead of vice versa. On the other hand the “feathers” may be unrelated and merely look
similar as in the “hair” on pterosaurs and the fur on mammals.

· 6. This clade is also characterized by the (1) loss of lower temporal bar: osteological correlates for the
existence of a birdlike prepatagial membrane; (2) elbow joints that, similar to many birds, "locked" at about
165 degrees extension (i.e., about 25 degree short of full extension); (3) fusion of dorsal vertebrae into a
somewhat birdlike/pterosaur-like notarium; (4) lightened, externally "hollowed-out" long bones; (5)
extremely long forelimbs, and possibly other flight or gliding adaptations.

What has all of this to do with dragons? Well we know that Class Coelerosauravia used ossified
modifications of this integument as wings. When first discovered in 1910 Coelurosauravis was thought to
have elongated ribs that supported a gliding membrane as in the agamid lizard Draco volens. More
complete fossil remains described in 1997 showed that the fan-like wings were not supported by the ribs as
the new skeleton had a complete and normally proportioned ribcage. Instead the wings were supported by
independent bony rods extending outwards and back from either side of the backbone. In other words

1
And by the way McLouglin was not describing the long scales on the back that make up what are now known to be
the wings of Longisquamata in the quote above as he thought these scales to be display devices “used much as is the
tail on a tom turkey”.

5
Coelurosauravis (and possibly Longisquma as well) had four legs and two fan-like wings on their backs
just like the mythical dragon.

There are two known orders of Coelurosauravia:

Order WEIGELTISAURIA

Weigeltisaurs are the best-known extinct coelurosauravians with three

known genera and at least four specimens all placed in family
Coelurosauravidae. In this group, the wings are laterally oriented rib-like
rods that support a membrane used to glide from branch to branch much
like the living Draco lizard. Weigeltisaurs are also characterized by
having average lengths of about 12 inches and skulls that are notable for
having a broad back with a serrated crest that superficially resembles
those of ceratopsian dinosaurs. This now extinct order lived during the
Permian period and contains the short-necked genera Weigeltisaurus and
Coelurosauravus (= Daedalosaurus) Of Europe and possibly the long
necked Mechistotrachelos of the eastern United States.

Order LONGISQUAMATA

Longisquama insignis of family Longisquamidae is the only known species in this extinct order, which
comes from the early Triassic of Kyrgyzstan in Russia. Longisquama appeared to have feather-shaped
structures attached to its back. Despite opinions that these structures were a crest along the back or fern
fronds preserved with the animal most paleontologists are of the opinion that these structures are long,
modified scales attached in pairs to the lateral walls of the body and used as paired gliding membranes. As
many of these wings have been found without accompanying animal skeletons they may have been grown
only during the breeding season and shed once that season was over much like the antlers of deer or the
display feathers of some birds.

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 The four known vertebrate wing configurations

Clearly if dragons were descended from real animals than those animals would have to be the
Coelurosauravids as nothing else on Earth had four limbs and wings. Curious I decided to see if I could
modify a series of well known dragon images (from Dungeons & Dragons) to see if I could get a typical
dragon wing from a coelurosauravid wing. The result exceeded my hopes as it actually made sense of a
feature constantly found in dragon depictions, a bony rod extending from the “elbow” of the wing. There is
nothing like this in a bat’s wing but it makes sense here as the natural result of the fusion and reduction of
the bony rods that make up the wing.

7
So I had the ancestry of dragons, but what scientific name should they have? As I began researching it soon
became obvious that the dragon had, by far, the most proposed scientific names of any legendary beast. It
was a taxonomic wastebasket. But which one had priority? Before I could choose one I had to remember
the three basic rules of giving an animal a scientific name.

1. One animal cannot have a scientific name that has already been used for another species. This means that
the most commonly proposed generic name given to the dragon, Draco, is invalid. It cannot be used
because it is already the generic name of a small Indonesian lizard.

2. The first named title has priority. This means that some names that are more properly descriptive or
better known must be replaced with an older but less well known moniker. For example, Brontosaurus was
named by Marsh in 1879 but decades later it was found that the dinosaur Apatosaurus (named by Marsh in
1877) was a juvenile of the same animal. As a result Brontosaurus became “sunk” into Apatosaurus and
the animal is now called by its latter name.

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3. A genus cannot exist without containing at least one species. This means that the several genera
proposed by Dickinson in his famous book The Flight of Dragons are invalid.

To find out which names have priority I decided to list all proposed names by publication date. In the
process of collecting this data I deliberately ignored several animals that are not usually thought of as
dragons but are clearly related, such as gargoyles, pegasi, chimeras and griffins, and concentrated only on
the animals that are commonly called dragons. The creatures I decided to use are the Guivres (four-legged
winged dragons), Knuckers (four-legged wingless dragons), Wyverns (two-legged winged dragons),
Lindwyrms (two-legged wingless dragons), Orms (limbless snake-like dragons), and Amphipteres (winged
snake-like dragons).

A full list of the resulting data is found in the next chapter.

The only image I could find of a dragon’s flight stroke in which the wings were of the Coelurosauravis type
© 2007, Wizards of the Coast

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 Dragon Genera & Species Compendium
Below is a complete list of every scientific name I could find for dragons placed in order of publication.
Some are from books on mythology, some from novels, and many were published in Role Playing Games. 2

Gary Gygax & Jeff Perren Chainmail 1975

Common Name Genus Species

Great Red Draco conflagrato or horribilis

This is the earliest published Latin name I have yet found for the dragon. It was found in the Chainmail
Wargame rules and deals “with the great Red Dragon (Draco Confligrato or Draco Horribilis).” Other
species (in particular the blue and green) are mentioned but not named.

Gary Gygax Monster Manual 1977

Common Name Genus Species

Black Dragon Draco causticus sputem

Blue Dragon Draco electrus
Brass Dragon Draco impudentus gallus
Bronze Dragon Draco gerus bronzo
Copper Dragon Draco comes stabuli
Gold Draco orientalus sino dux
Green Draco chlorinus nauseous respiratorus
Red Draco conflagrato horribilis
Silver Draco nobilis argentus
White Draco rigidus frigidus

The earliest Latin names for more than a single species of dragon was published in the original Monster
Manual for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Game. The named dragons were divided into two
subgenera in the 1990 Draconomicon by Nigel Findley. These subgenera were Inficedraco (black, blue,
green, red, and white) and Ferrodraco (brass, copper, bronze, silver, and gold). The two groups can also be
divided by wing structure into three types: bat winged dragons (black, blue, bronze, green, red, silver and
white), fan winged dragons (brass and copper), and a wingless oriental dragon (the gold). However these
wing structures are not consistent and other Ad&d products have shown brass, copper, and gold dragons
with bat wings. In other words wing structure varies with artist and game edition and, with the exception of
the gold dragon, has no bearing on taxonomy. The wingless/winged gold dragon is an exception for, as its
Latin name indicates, it was originally a subspecies of the oriental dragon and Chinese myth claimed that
dragons only became winged after living for several centuries. Thus, wingless golds are young and winged
ones ancient. 3

2
Would these be a nomen ludum?
3
This differs from Wizard of the Coast/Hasbro’s (3rd & 4th) edition d&d where all golds are fan winged, but those
versions of the game differ in many respects, including changes in the breath weapons, from the original. They also
lack Latin names (or, in fact, any description at all) so are useless for taxonomic purposes. The information above is all
from the original 1st and 2nd editions by TSR Inc.

10
Sandy Peterson & Steve Perrin Runequest Creatures 4 1978
Common Name Genus Species

Basilisk Viperigallo necatrix

Dragon Draco pyrofer
Sea Serpent Megaserpentes maritimus
Stoorworm Dracovermis insidens
Wyrm Virmidraco tarbus
Wyvern Dracopterus pelorus

The dragon of Runequest is the western dragon; the sea serpent is a wingless aquatic dragon. The
stoorworm is a typical orm, the wyrm is actually a typical amphiptere, and the wyvern and basilisk
(cockatrice) are the same creatures that go by those names in legend.

Peter Dickinson The Flight of Dragons 1979

Common Name Genus Species

Ancestral Dragon Eodracon none given

Ancestral Dragon Pterodracon none given
Plestocene Dragon Pseudodracon none given
Mythical Dragon Mythodracon none given

Dickinson believed that dragons had died off in the latest Plestiocene. He placed both ancestral dragons in
the early Cenozoic, but as he also placed Archaeopteryx during this time, this timing should be taken with a
grain of salt. In any case, Dickinson did not give any of his animals a species name so all of his names are
invalid.

Dragons & Unicorns:

Paul & Karin Johnsguard A Natural History 1982
Common Name Genus Species

Ancestral Dragon Protodraco none given

Ancestral Dragon Mesodraco none given
Flying Dragon Pterodraco volens
American Mist Breathing Dragon Neodraco americana
European Fire Breathing Dragon Neodraco pyrogena
Oriental Mist Breathing Dragon Neodraco pluvialis

The Johnsguards traced dragons back to the hypsilophodont dinosaurs, and the ancestral forms were not
given a species name which invalidates the name. Of the forms that were given names the flying dragon is
a typical wyvern and the other three species are knuckers, with the male European fire-breathing dragon
having tiny wing-like fore limbs.

4
Runequest Creatures was reprinted as booklet 4 in the 3RD Edition Game Master’s boxed set published by Avalon
Hills, 1984.

11
Gary Gygax Monster Manual 2 1983
Common Name Genus Species

Cloud Dragon Draco cumulus welkin

Mist Dragon Draco nebulus obscura

Of the four dragons in this sequel to the Monster Manual only two were given Latin names, the four-clawed
Cloud and three clawed Mist. Both were dragons of the oriental type with no wings and extensive manes.

The Encyclopedia of
Michael Page Things that Never Were 1987
Common Name Genus Species

European Dragon Draconis teutonica

Occidental Dragon Draconis gallii
British Dragon Draconis albionensis
Wyvern Draconis bipedes
Worm Draconis nematoda
Levantine Dragon Draconis cappadociae
Oriental Dragon Draconis sinoensis
Hydra Draconis ladonii

The European is the typical dragon of Germany and Scandinavia. The occidental is identical but lives in
France, Italy, and Spain. The British dragon is actually the Firedrake. The worm is the legless orm of
northern myth. The Levantine dragon is the dragon of Greece, Russia, and Africa. The oriental dragon,
hydra, and wyvern are the creatures normally known by those names.

Jordan Weisman, et al. Shadowrun 1989

Common Name Genus Species

Basilisk Varanus lapidis

Cockatrice Aveterror lapidaris
Eastern Dragon Draco orientalis
Feathered Serpent Alatuserpens quetzalcoatlus
Western Dragon Draco occidentalis
Great Dragon Draco sapiens

Dozens of authors were involved in this game including Jordan Weisman, Bob Charrette, and Paul Hume.
Note that scientific names are found only in the older editions of the game. The basilisk of Shadowrun is
described as a mutated varanid lizard but the cockatrice is the typical draconian chicken of legend. The
eastern dragon is the typical oriental wingless dragon and the western is a typical guivre. The feathered
serpent is an amphiptere, though it has two short legs like a wyvern. The great dragons are not a separate
species but are simply eastern, western, and feathered dragons who can speak.

Nigel D. Findley Paranormal Animals of 1990

North America

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 Common Name Genus Species

Chimera Draco chimaera

Fire drake Draco minimalis
Ice drake Draco algoris
Sea Drake Neotylosaurus pacificus
Lake Serpent Pleuracanthus laci
Saltwater Serpent Pleuracanthus oceani
Wyvern Alatuserpens pili

The Chimera of Shadowrun is not the chimera of legend but is a large, wingless, dragon (or crocodile) with
long horns and a skin frill around its neck. The fire drake and ice drake are miniature dragons only 5-6 feet
long. The sea drake is a pliosaur-like beast while the lake and saltwater serpents resemble plestiosaurs. The
wyvern resembles the feathered serpent of the above book but has no feathers and longer limbs.

Montse Sant The Book of the Dragon 1992

Common Name Genus Species

Worm of the Deep Drago drago

Earth Dragon Draco rex
Water Dragon Draco splendens
Fire Dragon Draco flameus
Little Fire dragon Draco flamula
Sicilian Dragonet Pirofagus estupidus

In the first edition the name of the author is Montse Sant and the artist is Ciruelo. However, in the 2nd
edition Ciruelo is given as the only author though the text is identical, so is Montse Sant a pseudonym for
Ciruelo? As for the proposed species all are familiar from earlier publications. The worm of the deep is
described as an immense wingless lizard. The Earth, water, and fire dragons are varieties of the common
European dragon adapted to forests, sea shores and mountains respectively. The Little Fire dragon is the
same animal called the fire drake in Nigel D. Findley’s book. The Sicilian dragon (which is also given the
scientific name of Estupidus catalanus) is a small knucker-like creature similar to both the salamander of
myth and the “fire lizards” of Ad&d (not Pern), as a positive identification cannot be made I suggest
abandoning this taxa.

Carl Sargent Paranormal Animals of 1993

Europe
Common Name Genus Species

Aitvaras Alutuserpens lithuanii

Gorgon Draco odiosus
Hydra Wyrm Pleuracanthus polycaput

Aitvaris of this volume is the European amphiphere not the chicken sized guivre that held that name in
actual myth. Oddly enough though described as a flying serpent it is illustrated as a normal limbless (if
giant) snake! The Gorgon is an the European knucker illustrated in the typical ‘Drac’ form as found in
French art (a serpentine water dragon with four legs and snaky, seaweed-like tentacles on it’s head) and has
nothing to do with the Greek monster of the same name – something the book points out. The Hydra, on the
other hand, is the multi-headed lizard of Greek legend.

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.

Joel Levy A Natural History of 1999

the Unnatural World
Common Name Genus Species

Salamander Salamandra pyra

European Dragon Draco magnificens
Oriental Dragon Draco sinensis
Wyvern Pseudodraconis none given
Drake Ophidio draconis
Sea Serpent Hydrophidius giganteus
Basilisk Ophidiogallus basiliscus
Amphisbaena Amphisbaena janus
Couatl Ophidiotrogon quetzalcouatlis

This book is often reviled because it makes a mistake common to many books and websites written by
nonscientists – it uses the word cryptozoology (the study of animals not yet accepted by science) for
mythozoology (the study of mythical animals). It gives names for several familiar dragon species with the
drake and salamander being the fire drake and salamanders of other works and the Amphisbaena being the
two headed winged amphisien of Mongolian myth, though all three genera given are preoccupied.

On a more positive note this book gives Latin names to dozens of mythical beasts of all kinds and is filled
with good art and fun “mockumentary” type “field reports”.

Dougald A. Steer Dr. Ernest Drake’s 2003

Dragonology
Common Name Genus Species

Common Dragon Draco occidentalis (2 subspecies)

Asian Lung Draco orientalis
Tibetan Lung Draco montana
Knucker Draco troglodytes
Marsupial Draco marsupialis
Lindworm Draco serpenalis
American Amphiptere Draco americanus ( 3 subspecies)
Wyvern Draco africanus

This bestselling book described eight species and five subspecies of dragon. The common dragon comes in
two subspecies the European Dragon (Draco occidentalis magnus) and the polar dwelling frost dragon (D.
o. maritimus). The Asian and Tibetan dragon are very similar wingless four limbed dragons that differ
mainly in coloring. The knucker is a serpentine European beast with four legs and vestigial wings. The
marsupial dragon of Australia is a dead ringer for the trodon of Pelucidar. The lindworm is a wingless
dragon with two limbs that is known for its swiftness. The American amphiptere is identical to the
feathered serpent of Shadowrun and comes in three subspecies: the North American (Draco americanus
tex), the Mexican (D. a. mex), and the South American (D. a. incognito). The last to be described is the
wyvern which, contrary to mythology, is described as the largest of dragons.

14
 John Grant Life-size Dragons 2006
Common Name Genus Species

Ancestral Dragon (dyrodor) Varanus undraconis

Ancestral Dragon Draco serpens
Ancestral Dragon Draco escalensis
Ancestral Dragon Draco extravagens
Splendid Dragon Draco effulgens
Red Dragon Draco rex
Oriental Dragon Varanus sinensis
Dragonet Draco minoris
Lesser Dragon Draco gambini
Hydra Draco triceps
Purple Dragon Draco protruberans
Crested dragon Draco faseolo
Jungle Dragon Draco jangalae
Frost Dragon Draco glacialis
Desert Dragon Draco aridus

The many dragons named in this book fall into five groups, ancestral dragons, western dragons, oriental
dragons, drakes, and hydras. The ancestral dragons are four extinct species identified only by their
scientific names. The most interesting of these is “Varanus” undraconis (as the picture on page 1 shows
this creature defiantly does not belong to genus Varanus and needs a new genus) which resembles the
dyrodor of Pellucidar. The western dragon species are all very similar and differ mainly in color and
habitat. Species include the Splendid dragon, Red dragon, Purple dragon, Crested dragon, Jungle dragon,
Frost dragon, and Desert dragons. The oriental dragon is not illustrated but as described it also falls outside
genus Varanus. The Dragonet and Lesser Dragon are both smaller than a large dog and fit the fire and ice
drakes of earlier authors in all but color. The last is the hydra, a western dragon with multiple heads.

Dougald A. Steer The Dragonology Handbook 2005

Common Name Genus Species

Cockatrice Gallicus halitosis

Basilisk Draco basiliskos

This book includes scientific names for the Gargoyle (which it considers a subspecies of the western
dragon), the cockatrice (as previously described), and the basilisk which is described as a shape shifter and
depicted as a tiny western dragon.

Tony DiTerlizzi Arthur Spiderwick’s Field 2005

& Holly Black Guide to the Fantastical World
Around You
Common Name Genus Species

Salamander Salamander flammulatucus

Cockatrice Basilicus europeanus
Sea Serpent Serpens marinus

15
 Old World Wyrm Draco antiquissimus
Wyvern Draco alatus

The salamander is a small wingless dragon depicted with six legs, the sea serpent resembles the one in
Runequest (though illustrated as a giant eel), the old world wyrm is very similar to the knucker of the
previous books but has multiple limbs, and the wyvern is the typical dragon of that name.

Joseph Nigg How to Raise and 2006

Train a Dragon
Common Name Genus Species

Asian Dragon Draco asiaticus

Cockatrice Draco basileus
Dragon of India Draco indicus
Drakon Draco none given
Joppa Dragon Draco cetus
Hydra Draco hydrus
Mushussu Draco babylonicus
Piasa Draco piasaurus
Rainbow Serpent Draco arcus
Salamander Draco salamandra
Sea dragon Draco mare
Western Dragon Draco generis
Tarasque Draco tarascus
Worm Draco britannicus

This book is a spoof of horse and dog showing manuals in which over a dozen dragon species from
mythology are described. The Asian dragon is the typical oriental dragon, the cockatrice is the same animal
described in the earlier sources, the Dragon of India is the wyvern, the draco is a limbless serpent, the
Joppa dragon is a huge walrus-like beast, and the hydra is multi-headed. The Mushussu is the knucker of
the middle east which has longer limbs than the European knucker, an animal called the Worm in this book.
The piasa is a North American guivre with a human-like face and oriental dragon-like horns. The rainbow
serpent is depicted as a flying serpent and the salamander is similar to the above depictions. The western
dragon is a typical guivre while the Tarasque has six legs and a turtle shell.

Dougald A. Steer Field Guide to Dragons 2007

Common Name Genus Species

Miniature Dragon Draco parvulus

This species was illustrated in Steer’s earlier books but it was not named until this volume was published. It
is the same animal that is called the Pukis or Puuk in European myth and faerie dragons or dragonettes in
recent fiction. Several other new species were also depicted but as none were from actual myth they are
irrelevant to this discussion.

Dougald A. Steer Dr. Ernest Drake’s 2008

Monsterology

16
 Common Name Genus Species

Salamander Salamandra ignis

Sea Serpent Serpens monstruos
Lake Serpent Serpens aquadulicus
Jaculus Serpens volucer

The salamander is the same as previous depictions and it is also shown with six legs. The sea serpent is
snakelike, the lake serpents resemble plesiosaurs, while the jaculus is a nothing more than the European
amphiptere (a typical winged serpent), yet they are all placed in the same genus. In addition the genus
Serpens is preoccupied by a snake.

Zachary Miller Draconian Systematics 2008

Common Name Genus Species

Ancestral Dragon Protodracos rex

Ancestral Dragon Ambulodracos franco
Ancestral Dragon Harenadracos none given
Ancestral Dragon Dracosparticus none given
Ancestral Dragon Protopaluso none given
Wingless Knucker Tauropesa none given
Winged Knucker Argos argos
No Description Eudracos none given
No Description Feradracos none given
No Description Sinospondylus none given
No Description Megalodracos none given
No Description Chasmodracos none given
No Description Spinodracos none given

Zachary coins many new families in this blog paper (the Eudracocidae, Palusodraconidae, Argosidae,
Taurodracocidae, Harenadracocidae, Rugodracocidae, Chasmodracocidae, Dracolympidae,
Cryodracocidae, and Felimimidae) but as none are given a description (not even an illustration) they are
invalid. Worse yet the sources claimed by Miller (such as Irwin & Jones, 1978) do not exist. Indeed the
entire article is a hoax, a sort of late April fools joke. Nevertheless, ignoring the nonexistent sources and
attributing all the information to Miller one can gain some insight from this paper.

First the Clade Draconia is formally defined as "medium to large diapsid reptiles with three functional pairs
of limbs, one of which has been modified into bat-like wings." He also gives valid genus and species names
to a few extinct forms previously described such as Protodracos rex and Abulodracos franco which seem to
be the same as Paul & Karin Johnsguard’s Protodraco and Mesodraco respectively. Unfortunately all
other latin names given in this paper are invalid due to lack of description, no species name, or phony
references. Thus all of these genera plus the families named from them must be ignored.

William O’Connor Dracopedia 2009

Clade Common Name Genus Species

Class Dragonia
Order Draconia?
Family Dracorexidae Great Welsh Red Dracorexus idraigoxus

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 Great Norwegian Blue Dracorexus sognefjordus
Great Icelandic White Dracorexus reykjavikus
Great Chinese Gold Dracorexus cathidaeus
American Acadian Green Dracorexus acadius
Family Volucrisidae American Dragonette Volucrisus cheyennus
Family Dracomexidae Monarch Feydragon Dracomexus monarchus
Jabberwocky (Leafwing) Dracomexus pennafoliumus
Swallowtail Feydragon Dracomexus furcaudus
Order Terradracia
Family Cathaidae Asian Temple Dragon Cathaidaus dracotemplum
Family Nimbiaquidae Cloud Dragon Nimbiaquidus nebulus
Storm Dragon Nimbiaquidus tempestus
Kilin (dragon horse) Nimbiaquidus dracocaperus
Family Drakidae Common (European) Drake Drakus plebeius
Racing Drake Drakus propertus
War drake Drakus bellumus
St. Cuthbert’s Drake Drakus eruous
Pit Drake Drakus barathrumus
Family Lapisoculidae Sonora Basilisk Lapisoculidus incustambulus
Kilauea Salamander Vulcanilacertidus incendiambulus
Order Hydracoformes
Family Hydridae European Hydra Hydrus rhonus
Cerebrus Hydra Hydrus cerebrus
Naga (Indian Hydra) Hydrus gangus
Lernaen Hydra Hydrus lernaeus
Medusian Hydra Hydrus medusus
Order Pennadracoformes
Family Wyvernidae American Wyvern Wyvernus morcaudus
Family Amphipteridae Striped Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperasignus
Firewing Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperapennignus
Vulcan Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperavolcanus
Garden Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperahortus
Starburst Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperacometus
Golden Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperaurulentus
Rock Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperapetrus
Mothwing Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperablattus
Swallowtail Amphiptere Amphiptererus viperacaudiduplexus
Family Quetzalcoatylidae South American Coatyl Quetzalcoatylus aztecus
Order Orcadraciformes
Family Ouroboridae European Lindwyrm Ouroboridus pedeviperus
American Banyan Wyrm Ouroboridus americanus
Indian Drakon Ouroboridus marikeshus
Family Cetusidae Scottish Sea Dragon Cetusidus orcadius
Sea lion Cetusidus leodracus
Family Dracangullidae Faeroe Sea Orc Dracanguillidus faeroeus
Striped Sea Orc Dracanguillidus marivenatorus

This is a book on drawing dragons that uses the premise that dragons are real animals in an alternate
universe where they have been known and bred by man for centuries. All dragons in this world belong to
the single class Dragonia. Most of his families (in which the author adds the word Draco as an unnecessary

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prefix) fall within the typical draconian groups. No cladogram is given but in the chart above I have
organized his clades in a logical fashion for ease of use.

The four legged winged guivres are the only group not given an order by O’Connor but it is likely,
considering his choice of species that he considered them to belong to Naomi Novik’s Draconia (2006).
This clade consist of the Dracorexidae (Great dragons), the Volucrisidae (dragonels, riding dragons and
dragonets), and the Dracimexidae (faerie dragons). The great dragons are the typical d&d type dragons.
The Volucrisids are similar but bipedal and smaller (cat to horse sized) and while five species are depicted
only the American appaloosa species is given a Latin name. The faerie dragons are similar to the dragonets
except that the fore limbs have become incorporated into the wing to create a superficially insect-like wing
structure, an anatomical distinction unique to this author’s art and not in mythology.

The next clade would be order Terradracia. This is a very variable group that incorporates all dragons with
four legs but no wings. The most basal would probably be the Cathaidae (oriental temple and spirit
dragons) as they still have vestigial frill-like wings. Several species are mentioned (including the spirit and
jade dragon) but only the Pan Lung is given a Latin name. Closely related to the Cathaidids but lacking
wings entirely are the fur covered oriental dragons of family Nimbiaquidae. This group includes the cloud
dragon (aka the frost drake, fu-dog or luck dragon), the storm (or mist) dragon and the qilin or dragon
horse.

The dog-like drakes and gargoyles of family Drakidae are next. Several species are named but the few
given Latin names are more properly breeds (as they were bred by man from the common drake in this
alternate universe) instead of species. The basilisks and salamanders (Lapisoculidae) are very similar to the
drakes, differing only in having multiple limbs and the ability to shoot a paralyzing fluid from glands near
its eyes.

The Hydras of order Hydracoformes resemble wingless dragons with multiple heads. Most have four legs
but some are limbless. All members of this order are placed in a single genus and family. The European is
the common four legged 6-8 headed dragon, the Cerberus is dog-like and three headed, the Naga is a multi-
headed oriental dragon, the lernaen is a 12 headed snake, and the medusian is a fat multi-headed worm-like
beast.

The Pennadracoformes are the winged dragons with no forelimbs. There are three families with a single
genus each: Wyvernidae, (wyverns), Amphipteridae (bat-winged serpents) and Quetzalcoatldae (feathered
serpents). Amphipterus includes nine named species that differ mainly in color and size. Quetzalcoatlus
(this name is invalid as it is already in use for a pterosaur) has three species (the American, Egyptian, and
the phoenix) of which only one is given a scientific name. Wyvernus are the typical wyverns and include
the European, American (the only one given a Latin name), and the feathered Asian dragon bird. The
cockatrice is claimed to be a hybrid between members of this order and domestic chickens.

The Orcadraciformes are serpentine wingless dragons. They are divided into three families. The
Ouroboridae are land living python-like dragons that include the lindworms (which have only a single pair
of limbs) as well as the legless orms of Europe and the Pa-snakes of the Orient. The aquatic species are
placed in two families: the Dracanguillidae and Cetusidae with a single genus each. The Dracanguillidus
are true sea serpents with small fin-like limbs on a serpentine body. The two species put in the Cetusidae
are so different however that their inclusion in the same genus is doubtful. The Scottish Sea Orc is a
pleasiosaur or turtle-like animal with a long neck, tiny fin-like wings, and four webbed feet. In contrast the
sea lion is a serpentine beast with a short neck and a single pair of clawed yet webbed forefeet much like
the lindwyrm.

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 Complete List of Draconic Species
This chapter is a listing of all the dragon species of legend. Most of these species (with two exceptions) can
be found somewhere in mythology and the animals will be presumed to be real species. The names given
below are the results of the listing above, if I could not find an appropriate name than the clade is marked
new and first published in this paper (thus it is Henson, 2008). For cladograms and a definition of family
names see the next chapter.

Family Dracorexidae (O’Conner, 2009)

This is the stereotypical dragon family containing the true dragons, those that have four limbs and two
wings. It includes the great dragons, knuckers, and dragon turtles. It may or may not include the limbless
orms, see the cladograms in the next chapter for this debate. Most, if not all the dragons in this family have
a breath weapon.

Genus Draconis (Page, 1987)

This genus includes all of the guivres also known as “heraldic dragons”. Dragons of this type are found in
European, Asian and North American art. They have two wings, four legs, acidic blood, and usually
breathe fire. In my opinion, all the western dragon types are similar enough to belong to one species. I
originally thought that Draco causticus had priority but I latter learned that this was a mistake and that the
name Draco conflagrato was published two years previously. As Draco is an invalid scientific name (it is
preoccupied by a lizard) we need a new genus. The next available name is Draconus (Page, 1987), so the
type species is Draconus conflagrato. This group also includes the puks (also known as drakes,
pseudodragons, and fairy dragons) a group that is nothing but miniature guivres.

Western Dragon
Draconis conflagrato (Gygax, 1975)
Synonyms: Draco causticus, Draco pyrofer, Draconis teutonica, Draconis galli, Draconis cappadociae,
Draco occidentalis, Draco sapiens, Draco rex, Draco splendens, Draco flameus, Draco magnificens,
Draco effulgens, Draco protruberans, Draco faselo, Draco jangalae, Draco glacialis, Draco aridus, Draco
generis, Dracorexus idraigoxus, Dracoreus sognefijordus, Dracorexus reykjavikus, Dracorex acadius.

The typical dragon depicted in the art of Britain, Europe, North Africa, and Russia. It is a huge animal with
a stocky body, long neck, long beaky snout, leathern wings, a tail that usually ends in an arrow-shaped fin,
and heavy scales. The horns are not branched and are somewhat goat like. When born dragons of this

20
species are miniature copies of their parents with no larval stage. Western dragons come in many
subspecies and colors including white polar types, black swamp dwellers, green forest dragons, and red
mountain species. In most myths dragons of this type are vicious and evil but exceptions are fairly common
in older myths. Most western dragons are said to breathe fire, acid, lightning, or poisonous fumes.

Earthquake Dragon
Draconis piasaurus (Nigg, 2006)
Synonyms: Draco piasaurus

These dragons are from Iranian, Chinese, and American myth. In the orient they are called Li-lung or Di-
lung while in the Americas they are called Piasa. Like western dragons the earthquake dragon has a stocky
body and no larval stage but, like common eastern dragon, it has the branched horns of a deer. Other
characteristics of this species include a head and heavy mane similar to that of a lion (though some
illustrations give it a human face), elongated feather-like scales on the wings, and a tail ending in a fish-like
fin. The coloring of these dragons is said to be a mixture of blue-green, red, white, and black. Earthquake
dragons are said to create earthquakes with their roars and to guard streams and rivers. They are fierce and
may be kindly or deadly man-eaters depending on the legend.

Common Eastern Dragon

Draconis orientalus (Gygax, 1977)
Synonyms: Draco pyrofer, Draconis sinoensis, Draco sapiens, Draco sinensis, Varanus sinensis, Draco
asiaticus, Dracorex cathidaeus.

The common eastern dragon is found only in southern and eastern Asia, including Iran, China, Japan,
Korea, and Indonesia. It has an elongated body with small wings and short legs. The young resemble small
snakes and, as they age they eventually grow limbs, branched (deer-like) horns, and, after several centuries
of growth, wings. The head has a shaggy mane around the ears and the broad crocodilian jaws have spikes
on the chin. Eastern dragons have a tattered tail fin that resembles a tuft of flowing fur. There are always
four or five claws on each foot. In color these dragons may be any shade but the most powerful are said to
have azure blue or golden scales. Oriental dragons are said to breathe forth clouds of mist, lightning, or,
more rarely, fire. Most dragons of this type are benevolent but evil ones are known from Japanese and
Korean myth.

Trodon
Draconis marsupialis (Steer, 2003)
Synonyms: None

This dragon appears in no myths that I know of but originally appeared in a Pellucidar novel by Edgar Rice
Burroughs. Later it was said to live in the Australian desert. It resembles a western dragon but has
extremely elongated hind legs and tiny forelimbs. It has a pouch like a kangaroo and either a poisonous
tongue or poison gas breath. It is included here due to its common occurrence in recent artwork.

Dragonell
Draconis cheyennus (Steer, 2003)
Synonyms: Volucrisisus cheyennus

This dragon appears in no myths but originally appeared in Dungeons & Dragons to represent the fell-
beasts of Lord of the rings fame. It is a winged, herbivorous, kangaroo or ostrich like dragon described as a
cross between a true dragon and a pterosaur. Fierce but easy to tame it was supposed to be the “drake”

21
ridden into battle by dragon riders. Oddly enough in the 3rd edition of the game it was depicted as a bat-
winged reptilian cow with the horns of a ram. This is another fictional species common in art.

Fire Drake
Draconis minimalis (Findley, 1977)
Synonyms: Draconis albionensis, Draco flamula, Ophidio draconis, Draco minoris

The fire-drake resembles a western dragon in every respect but size. A full grown dragon of this species
being no larger than a pony. The scale color is orange to reddish brown and the snout is very beak-like. It
was said to have flammable blood and a vicious temper. It inhabited volcanic mountains in Europe.

Ice Drake
Draconis algoris (Findley, 1977)
Synonyms: None

This dragon is similar to the fire drake but it has light grey to white scales and inhabits caves or polar
regions. It was said to breathe out a stream of poison or icy frost. The ice drake is found mainly in modern
fantasy novels and games but in folklore it is rare outside of Russian mythology.

Puki
Draconis parvulus (Steer, 2007)
Synonyms: Draco parvulus, Volucrisus sp., Dracomexus monarchus, Dracomexus pennafolum,
Dracomexus furcaudus

Pukis, also known as aitvaras, tulihands, puuks, pseudodragons, and fairy dragons are tiny cat-sized
dragons. In shape the puki resembles a miniature western dragon (or a Pernese fire lizard) with bright
scales and multicolored wings like those of a butterfly. Some European myths say they can turn into cats or
chickens. No myths say that they breathe fire but many have them flying among flames or having flame
dripping from the tip of the tail. Dragons of this type are found in the myths of eastern Europe, Greece
(where they were said to fly about fires), and South America.

Genus Hydrus (O’Connor, 2009)

These dragons have multiple heads but otherwise resemble western or eastern dragons. Instead of a genus
hydras may simply be a freak individuals of other dragon types in some myths hydras are fully winged,
others are wingless, and some have four legs, two legs, or no legs at all. Oddly enough hydras are vicious
monsters in every non Indian myth I know of that features them.

Common Hydra
Hydrus ladonii (Page, 1987)
Synonyms: Draco triceps, Draco hydrus, Hydrus rhonus, Hydrus cerebrus

The typical four legged hydra, with or without wings. Usually depicted as a forest dwelling brownish
creature with three to eight heads.

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 Indian Naga
Hydrus gangus (O’Conner, 2009)
Synonyms: none,

This hydra is sometimes depicted as having limbs but in most Indian art it is a limbless serpent with three
to nine crested heads. Unlike most hydras it was considered a beast of good fortune as it represented the
rains. Sometimes depicted as a shape changing cobra or even as a single headed orm instead of a hydra.

Lernaen Hydra
Hydrus lernaeus (Page, 1987)
Synonyms: Hydrus medusus, Pleurocanthus polycaput

A multiple headed snake from Greek myth, usually with a limbless heavy bag-like body and 8-12 heads, in
reality it was probably based on octopi and squid. Unlike other hydras the heads would regenerate when cut
off.

Genus Neodraco (Johnsguard, 1982)

Dragons of this genus are flightless and have four legs with reduced wings. In some species only the male
has a pair of tiny wings (presumably for display) while the females are wingless. In other species the wings
are completely absent. Knuckers are often called drakes, but as that name is also used for small guivers,
male dragons, and male ducks, I prefer the more precise knucker.

British Knucker
Neodraco pyrogena (Johnsguard, 1982)
Synonyms: Drago drago, Draco troglodytes, Draco antiquissimus, Draco britanicus, Draco osiosus,
Drakus plebeius, Drakus propertus, Drakus bellumus, Drakus eruous, Drakus barathrumus, Argos argos

This is the most common dragon in British mythology, it is an elongated, serpentine beast, with four
spindly legs and slimy-looking scales. Wings are present only on the male and are little more than fin like
flaps. European knuckers were said to breathe fire or spit poison. They preferred to live in swampy areas,
near rivers or by rocky tarns. More recent artistic renderings make them very doglike in anatomy but the
beast of legend was an elongated serpentine lizard.

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 American Knucker
Neodraco americana (Johnsguard, 1982)
Synonyms: Draco chimaera

This is the common wingless dragon that is often mistaken for a dinosaur in Native American art. It has a
serpentine body, fairly long neck, mule-like ears, and a long tail. The scales are usually depicted as being
green. Both sexes are wingless but males have horns. It is said to spit water at its enemies. American
knuckers were water dwellers and could be found in seas, lakes, or rivers.

Common Oriental Knucker

Neodraco pluvialis (Johnsguard, 1982)
Synonyms:, Draco orientalis , Draco Montana, Cathaidaus dracotemplum

The common oriental knucker with a serpentine body, four short limbs, and frills instead of wings. It differs
from the oriental guivre (Draconis orientalus) in having only three toes on each paw instead of four or five.
Oriental knuckers were said to have soft flesh, large tusks, and pale brownish green to white coloring. They
were said to breathe out mist.

Mist Knucker
Neodraco nebulus (Gygax, 1983)
Synonyms: Draco nebulus, Nimbiaquidus nebulus

An oriental dragon with a serpentine body, four short limbs, and a covering of thick blue-grey to snow
white fur. They are most common in polar or mountainous areas and represented luck and clouds. They
were said to breathe out clouds of mist.

Storm Knucker
Neodraco cumulus (Gygax, 1983)
Synonyms: Draco cumulus, Nimbiaquidus tempestrus

An oriental dragon with a serpentine body, four short limbs, and a covering of thick shaggy golden brown
to reddish fur. They are most common in jungle areas and represented disaster and typhoons. They were
said to breathe out tornado strong winds.

Qilin
Neodraco dracocaperus (O’Connor, 2009)
Synonyms: Nimbiaquidus dracocaperus

This horse-sized dragon is often mistaken for the zhi or ki-rin (oriental unicorn from China and Japan
respectively) but in actuality the qilin (also spelled kilin or ri-rin) is the dragon horse of oriental art. It has
a golden or blue-grey scaled body with long equine limbs and a shaggy gold or white mane upon its neck
and fringes of thick fur upon the limbs. The tail ends in a shaggy tuft and two moose-like horns crown the
skull.

Mushussu
Neodraco babylonicus (Nigg, 2006)
Synonyms: Draco babylonicus

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This Middle Eastern dragon resembles a monitor lizard with two straight horns on the head, a bumpy neck
ridge on a long neck, and no wings. The forelegs are surprisingly cat-like while the hind limbs are the usual
birdlike dragon talons. Most depictions give it a snake-like head but a few drawings give it a head like a
lioness. It was said to inhabit areas of vegetation along coastlines, rivers and oases. A good depiction of
this species can be found on the Ishtar gate in Babylon. It was also said to be the sacred animal of the god
Marduk. If the biblical leviathan is the same animal (as many believe) then it breathed fire.

Genus Pleuracanthus (Findley, 1990)

This genus is for the common Dragon Turtle or Long necked water dragon. It is a plesiosaur-like species
common in Oriental and Celtic myth. Modern reports stress its resemblance to an Elasmosaurus (though at
a mere 6-8 feet in length, the neck is much shorter than in that animal) but ancient reports tend to compare
it to a giant sea horse or to a turtle. It is very similar to genus Neodraco and may belong to that clade.

Dragon Turtle
Pleuracanthus laci (Findley, 1990)
Synonyms: Pleuracanthus oceani, Draco mare, Serpens monstruos, Serpens aquadulicus, Cetusidus
orcadius

The dragon turtle is a compact creature with four webbed feet (some say flippers) and a long neck. The
back is very broad and has a ridge along the spine so that the animal somewhat resembles a Plesiosaurus or
giant turtle with a horned head reminiscent of a camel or giraffe. The animal is either has tiny fin-like
wings on the shoulders or is wingless, as in the true knuckers this may be a sex-linked trait with only the
male being winged. The coloring of the animal is usually silver, blue-grey, elephant grey, or golden brown.
Occasionally the wings are mistaken for a dorsal fin. Dragon turtles are common in fresh water (especially
in Loch Ness) but may also be seen in the sea. This type of dragon is said to breathe hot steam instead of
fire.

Genus Lapisoculidus (O’Connor, 2009)

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This genus is completely wingless but unlike derived members of Neodraco this clade has at least three
pairs of legs. How a vertebrate can develop such a unique feature has not been explained – perhaps the
extra limbs are actually false limbs derived from the wing struts.

Pal-rai-yuk
Lapisoculidus antiquissimus (DiTerlizzi & Black, 2005)
Synonyms: Draco antiquissimus, Draco tarascus

Dragons of this type are mainly confined to the far north. Most reports are from Alaska and Canada (the
native name is given above) but the Scottish Behir and Italian Tarasque seem to be the same species. The
pal-rai-yuk is a snakelike, wingless beast with six (or more) pairs of legs. In has shaggy mane and large
spikes (though the tarasque legend exaggerates these into a turtle-like shell) on the back. It is said to be a
ravenous killer that hunts by lunging out of the water like a crocodile. Most legends said it had a poisonous
bite but the Tarasque breathed fire, and the Behir breathed lightning. Coloring is usually blue, grey, or
white.

Salamander
Lapisoculidus pyra (Findley, 1990)
Synonyms: Salamander pyra, Salamander flammulatucus, Draco salamandra, Salamandra ignis,
Vulcanilacertidus incendiambulus

This is the smallest of all wingless dragons, being only a few inches long. It resembles the common fire
salamander or Europe (Salamandra salamandra) but has hard scales, six legs and a wooly fringe of fur
along the sides. The back was said to be marked with blue star-shaped markings. Salamanders did not
breathe fire but produced a poisonous liquid so cold it extinguished any fire it touched.

Common Basilisk
Lapisoculidus lapidis (Weisman, 1989)
Synonyms: Varanus lapidis, Draco basiliskos, Lapisoculidus incustambulus

This dragon is an armored creature like a horned toad (or miniature tarasque) with six to eight legs.
O’Connor states that the animal produces a venomous secretion that is produced out of glands near the
eyes. This liquid can be sprayed out at prey in which it then paralyses those it squirts on thus creating the
rumor that the animals gaze turns one to stone.

Family Dracangullidae (O’Connor, 2009)

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This family of dragons is characterized by an almost complete absence of legs and wings. In fact, at first
glance, they look much like large pythons or anacondas. Dracangullids differ from true snakes in having
movable eyelids, a crocodilian jaw, horns, and a selection of flexible tendrils growing from the jaw that is
often compared to a beard. They also differ from snakes in undulating vertically instead of horizontally.
Dracangullids lack breath weapons or venom, instead they constrict their prey in their coils. Prey is not
swallowed whole but is torn into chunks. Many stories tell of the slimy skin of these dragons, no doubt an
oily lubricant similar to that possessed by seals rather than true slime. While originally classified as their
own suborder it is more likely that these animals are simply knuckers who have taken the trait of reducing
the limbs and wings to an extreme.

Genus Megaserpentes (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)

This is the most primitive genus of dracanguillid as they still have limbs. The body is hyper-elongated and
serpentine with a relatively short neck and four flippers. It is completely aquatic and crawls slowly on its
belly, like a caterpillar when on land.

Classic Sea Serpent

Megaserpentes maritimus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)
Synonyms: Neotylosaurus pacificus, Hydrophidius giganteus, Serpens marinus, Draco cetus,
Cadborosaurus wissli, Dracanguillidus faeroeus, Dracoguillidus marivenatorus, Cetusidus leodracus
(juvenile?)

The classic sea serpent is a much more elongated animal than is the dragon turtle and its thicker neck,
smaller fins, and habit of either swimming level with the surface or looping its coils into multiple humps
give it a much more snake-like profile. Other characteristic features include a fluked tail and noticeable
scales. It is an almost exclusively marine animal and any lakes it inhabited are invariably connected to the
sea. In coloring it is a pale greenish grey or silvery blue, often with a reddish crest. Ancient tales tell of sea
serpents constricting boats but modern sightings are much more mundane. The best area to see this species
in modern times seems to be the San Francisco Bay area of California, USA.

Genus Dracovermis (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)

This genus of snake-like dragon is found only on land, though they do tend to prefer swampy bogs or
jungle. Dracovermis completely lacks any trace of limbs and resembles a monstrous anaconda or python
with a horned head and draconian tail. Dragons of this type appear in English, South European (especially
in Greece), central African, South American, and Oriental (as the Pa-lung) mythology. It is difficult to tell
if these are all the same species or not as the reports are very similar. Pending further information I am
lumping them all into one species.

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 Orm
Dracovermis insidens (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)
Synonyms: Draconis nematoda, Draco draco, Ourobooridus americanus, Ouroboridus marikeshus

The common wyrm or orm is a huge (at least 50 foot) python-like beast with bull-like horns, glowing eyes,
crocodilian jaws, and a bearded chin. Coloring is a slimy blackish green or grey, though some Greek tales
mention yellow wyrms. All myths agree that it is a voracious and unintelligent predator that prefers the
flesh of the largest prey, elephants in the old world and cattle in the new.

Family Wyvernidae (O’Conner, 2009)

The Wyvernids are a family of winged dragons that have lost the forelimbs. In addition many species also
sport feather-like scales on the wings and body. Many are brightly colored and have brilliant coloration,
presumably as a warning to predators.

Genus Dracopterus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)

This genus is characterized by having two powerful hind legs and two wings. It differs from the other
genera in the family by having an unusual tail structure. Members of this genus is often depicted as having
a second head at the end of its tail. However during the middle ages scorpions were also drawn in this
fashion and it seems to have been an artistic convention used to indicate that the tail ended in a poisonous
sting. Indeed myths stress that these dragons had no breath weapon but instead depended on a venomous
sting or bite. This genus is only rarely depicted as having feathers.

Wyvern
Dracopterus pelorus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)
Synonyms: Pterodraco volens, Draconis bipeds, Alatuserpens pili, Pseudodraconis sp, Draco africanus,
Draco alatus, Draco indicus, Wyvernus morcaudus

The common wyvern is the classic wyvernid, a pterosaur-like beast with two strong hind legs, two wings,
and a long tail tipped with a stinger. Some modern books claim it is the largest of dragons but ancient
depictions show it as only the size of a small pony. The coloring is a brownish green or grey with a red
underside.

Amphisien

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 Dracopterus janus (Levy, 1999)
Synonyms: Amphisbaena janus

This Mongolian species of dragon is often confused with the amphisbaena. The former is a species of
wyvern with a scaled head and tail, bird-like claws and two wings. The latter is a limbless lizard whose
eyeless head looks exactly like its tail. The confusion is caused because ancient authors believed that both
species had two heads, one in the usual place and one at the end of the tail. As previously explained this
was a common way for ancient artists to indicate a venomous sting. Unlike the wyvern, the amphisen was
also said to have a venomous bite so perhaps the tail had markings on it to resemble the eyes and mouth of
the actual head. This species is also unusual in that is depicted as having a naked head and tail but with
feathery scales on the body and wings similar to that of the genus Virmidraco.

Genus Virmidraco (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)

This genus is better known the amphipteres or winged serpents. They are very elongated wyvernids with
enlarged scales on the body and fully feathered wings. They differ from the other members of this family in
having a snake-like head and tiny, often unnoticeable, rear legs. All myths agree that winged serpents have
a deadly poisonous bite but cultures differ on how they are perceived. For example, the old world
amphiptere is universally considered to be an animal of bad luck while the American and Pacific species
were considered to be avatars of the gods.

Eurasian Amphiptere
Virmidraco tarbus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)
Synonyms: Alutuserpens lithuanni, Serpens volucer, Amphipterus viperasignus, Amphipterus
viperapennignus, Amphipterus viperavolcanus, Amphipterus viperahortus, Amphipterus viperacometus,
Amphipterus viperaurulentus, Amphipterus viperapetrus, Amphipterus viperablattus, Amphipterus
viperacaudiduplexus

This amphiptere is found in Europe, west Africa, and India. It was said to prefer dense forests or jungles
but migrated across the deserts from India through Egypt and into the Congo (and visa versa) during the
spring and fall in huge flocks. During biblical times it was regarded as poisonous but was also a symbol of
healing. It received a darker reputation during the Middle Ages when legends began to claim that it would
dive down and pierce victims with its horny tail. It was also said to kill chickens and poison crops (it
injected its venom into fruit then sucked out the pulp) but was not considered as dangerous as other dragon
species. The last known population, in Wales, was exterminated during the early 20th century by chicken
ranchers. Reports say it was a beautiful animal, with feathers colored like a peacock and a scaled serpentine
tail and body of a deep emerald green color. Unfortunately no specimen was saved for science.

American Amphiptere

29
 Virmidraco quetzalcoatlus (Weisman et al. , 1989)
Synonyms: Alatuserpens quetzalcoatlus, Draco sapiens, Draco americanus, Ophidiotrogon
Quetzalcoatlus, Quetzalcoatylus aztecus

The American amphiptere or coatl is a close relative of the Common species and like that species it is said
to be a jungle dweller with emerald green scales, a feathery crest, and colorful wings compared to those of
a macaw. Known from the American south from Florida to Mexico and south to Patagonia, it is best known
as the symbol of the god Quetzalcoatl . Unlike its European cousin the American Amphiptere is considered
a symbol of good luck whose migration across the desert from Florida to Brazil was said to bring life
giving rain to the western tribes, indeed its association with storms caused it to be dubbed the “lightning
snake” in Hopi art.

Pacific Amphiptere
Virmidraco arcus (Steer, 1977)
Synonyms: Draco arcus

The Pacific Amphiptere is the most widespread of all amphipteres, being found in Japan, eastern China,
Indonesia, east Africa, and the Pacific Islands including Hawaii and Australia. In most countries it is known
as the Rainbow serpent but it is called the singing snake (or P’eng-Niao in China) and the bird dragon (Hai
Riyo or Tobi Tatsu) in Japan. In appearance it has a multicolored body (most images show it as a rosy pink
striped with light blue, green and gold. The feathers of the wings are distinct, with the tertiary feathers (the
feathers nearest the body) being as long as the primary flight feathers. This has caused this amphiptere to be
depicted with four wings in the art of places as diverse as China, Egypt, and the Pacific Islands. The
coloring of the wings is depicted as being similar to that of a bird of paradise, with feathers of red, orange,
and violet. Like the American species most native cultures venerated it as the avatar of a god or had it help
the gods in creating the world. Most pictures show it as a winged snake with a long tail tipped with a fan of
feathers but Japanese art depicts it as having the horned head of an Asian dragon and a body like a
mandarin duck.

Genus Viperigallo (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)

Viperigallo is a single species of wyvernid characterized by having scraggy feathering on the head and
body but leathery wings, a chicken-like head, and a deadly breath. The beak contains sharp teeth and a
forked tongue while rooster-like wattles and a comb decorate the skull. The tail is long and scaly
throughout much of its length but ends in a tuft of feathers. Called the king of serpents some myths claim
its gaze causes one to turn to stone while others say its breath causes instant death, all agree that its bite is
extremely poisonous. It is often confused with the basilisk.

Cockatrice

30
 Viperigallo necatrix (Peterson & Perrin, 1978)
Synonyms: Aveterror lapidaris, Gallicus halitosis, Basilicus europeanus, Draco basileus, Ophidiogallus
basiliscus,

The cockatrice or basilisk is a desert dweller found from Spain to Mongolia. It looks much like a mangy
rooster with bat-like wings and a long, reptilian tail. Later myths gave a lengthily and bizarre origin for this
beast, claiming that it was born from the egg of a male chicken that had been incubated on a dung heap by a
toad or snake under the dog star. Earlier myths said it simply laid eggs. Most descriptions claim that the
cockatrice is a colorful beast, chartreuse and gold with red wattles, blue-grey wings, and black feathers.
This coloration is no doubt to warn other animals of its venomous nature for it was believed that the
cockatrice was the most poisonous of animals. The only cure was the leaf of the rue plant and its only
natural enemy was the mongoose (changed into a weasel in Europe where mongooses were unknown).

Genus Ouroboridus (O’Connor, 2009)

This genus appears to be a close relative of the wyverns (genus Dracopterus) but lack wings. The names
Lindorm or Lindworm are commonly used for dragons of this type. This species is occasionally shown with
a mane around the neck indicating that only one sex (presumably the male as a mane-less individual
depicted in a painting is seemingly menstruating) was maned. This feature and the two eagle clawed feet
apparently reminded the writers of the Bestiaries of a lion and chicken respectively, thus it was also given
the name Leongalli. The Lindworm is occasionally shown as having a second head or a sting on the tail like
a wyvern. This tail sting indicates that lindorms are wingless wyverns and not derived knuckers.

Lindworm
Ouroboridus serpenalis (Steer, 1977)
Synonyms: Draco serpenalis, Ouroboridus pedeviperus

This dragon was said to be found in the cold deserts of the Mongolian highlands. It is bulky beast with a
long tail, strong hind limbs and no forelimbs. Some descriptions say it had only forelegs (like some skinks)
but pictures usually show it with back legs. It was said to be the fastest runner of all the dragons and a few
legends say it had venomous jaws or even a wyvern-like tail sting. Coloring is usually said to be a greenish
or reddish brown.

31
 Draconic Taxonomy
To my knowledge there have been four attempts to classify dragons above the genus level. The first was by
Naomi Novik in her 2006 novel Temeraire (AKA: His Majesty’s Dragon in the USA). Novik put dragons
in the order Draconia. No other rank/clades were given. Several months later (11/14/06) Jonas Inanga
published a picture on www.deviantart.com in which he illustrated the future evolution of Permian flying
lizards (presumably Coelurosauravis) to dragons of two orders: Ophidomorpha (gradual loss of wings and
limbs to create orms) and Eudraconia (winged dragons including wyverns) which he placed in a super order
called Dracomorphidae. Zachary Miller, in his blog When Pigs Fly, then wrote an article entitled
Draconian Systematics , however both the authors he quotes and the journals they published in are
fictional, thus making the entire article a hoax. Worse most of his genera (and thus the clades given) are
invalid due to a lack of description or species designation. On the other hand he independently confirmed a
Avecephalian origin for the Draconia suggesting a sister-group relationship between dragons and the
Drepanosauridae , then thought to be a sister clade to the Coelurosauravians. The last attempt was in 2009
when the artist William O’Connor published his massive Dracopedia.

In the paper below I am going to assume that all the dragons are both real and are a monophyletic group
belonging to clade Coelurosauravia. As I have placed the Archosauria, Lepidosauria, and Mammalia as
classes I am going to do the same to Coelurosauravia. That would make Coelurosauravia a Class. Both
Longisquamata and Weigeltisauria have been defined as orders. No super orders have been named to unite
these groups and I am loath to do so pending further discoveries. As a result I am reducing
Dracomorphidae to ordial rank. The order Dracomorpidae can easily be divided into two semiorders which
I am naming Stegodraconia and Eudracomorphidae.

Stegodraconia includes Burroughs’s dyrodor, Stegodraco undraconus (Grant 2006)5. The dyrodor is an
example of what the most basal Dracomorphs would have looked like. Stegodraco shares with the
Eudracomorphs a series of air sacks connected with the gut which is filled with methane and other stomach
gasses to help reduce the animal’s weight. It differs from the more advanced clade in that it lacks true
wings but instead has dermal protrusions resembling the plates on the back of the dinosaur Stegosaurus
with which it glides.

The second semiorder is the Eudracomorphae. This includes the suborders Alatustheria6 (new) and
Draconia (Novik, 2006). These two clades share the feature of having the muscles that folded the original
rods of the coelurosauravid wing enlarged and modified for a flapping stroke. As a result the bony rods of

5
Stegodraco (“roofed dragon”) is a name created by me for this species, it celebrates the stegosaurus –like
appearance of the beast.
6
Suborder Alatustheria contains three main superfamilies which will be described in a second article:

Superfamily: Opinicoidea (herbivorous griffin-like species with a draconian heads)

Family Opinicidae (the opinicus)

Superfamily: Alatusleonoidea (clawed alatustheres)

Family: Alatusleonidae (griffins)
Family: Dracoprileonidae (chimeras)
Family: Saenidae (winged canines like the simurgh)
Family: Sphinxidae (sphinxs & mantacores)

Superfamily: Equovolatoidea (hoofed alatustheres)

Family: Gryphoequidae (hippogriffs)
Family: Equovolatidae (winged horses, deer, cattle, etc)
Family: Homocephalidae (shedu and kin)

32
the wing have merged and fused to form a sort of false arm to allow true flight. Alatustheres include the
mammal-like griffins, pegasi, sphinx, and manticores. The Draconia are the true dragons who can expel
their flight bladder gas to create a breath weapon.

Because it is possible that some of the species given below are not true dragons (in particular one can make
a good case for wyverns being derived rhamphorynchid pterosaurs and for the wyrms being derived
knuckers) I am going to define all these names as stem based clades so the classification will remain stable.

. Dracomorphidae ( Inangua, 2006): all species closer related to Draconis conflagrato than to
Coelurosauravis jaekeli or Longisquamata insignis.

. Stegodraconia (Henson, 2009): Stegodraco undraconus and all animals more closely related to that taxa
than to Draconis conflagrato or Gryphus gryphus7.

. Dragonia (O’Connor, 2009): Draconis conflagrato and Gryphus gryphus and all animals more closely
related to these two taxa than to Stegodraco undraconus.

. Alatustheria (Henson, 2009): Gryphus gryphus and all animals more closely related to that taxa than to
Draconis conflagrato.

. Draconia (Novik, 2006): Draconis conflagrato and all animals more closely related to that taxa than to
Gryphus gryphus.

. Eudraconia (Inanga, 2006): Draconis conflagrato and all animals more closely related to that taxa than
to Dracovermis insidens.

. Ophidomorpha (Inanga, 2006): Dracovermis insidens and all animals more closely related to that taxa
than to Draconis conflagrato.

Cladogram One: Higher Systamatics

Amniota (animals that possess an amniotic egg)

|
|__ Synapsida (Mammals and their closest relatives)
|
|__ Sauropsids (Birds and their closest relatives)
|
| __ Mesosauria (extinct Mesosaurus)
|
|__ Reptilia (Advanced Sauropsids)
|
|__ Anapsida (Parareptiles and possibly turtles)
|
|__ Romeriida = Eureptilia (Advanced reptiles)
|
| __ Captorhinia (extinct Captorhynus, Bolosaurus, Protorothyridus, etc.)

7
Gryphus gryphus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) is oldest name I know of for the Griffin.

33
 |__ |
|__ Diapsida (reptiles with two temporial fenestrae
|
| __ Araeoscelidia (extinct Petrolacosaurus)
|__ |
|__ Neodiapsida (advanced diapsids)
|
| __ Sauria (Lizards, snakes, crocodiles, drepanosaurs, dinosaurs, and birds)
|__|
|__ Coelurosauravia (Rod winged flyers)
|
|__ Longisquamata (extinct Longisquama)
|
|__ Weigeltisauria (extinct Coelurosauravis)
|
|__ Dracomorphidae (Dragons and their relatives

Cladogram Two: Inangua, 2006

This is the classification proposed by Inangua in 2006. It assumes that the limbless dragons and the winged
dragons evolved independently since the Triassic. Clade Terradracia was proposed by O’Connor in 2009.

Dracomorphidae (dragons and their closest relatives)

|
|__ Stegodraconia (dyrodors)
|
|__ Dragonia (advanced winged dracomorphids)
|
| __ Alatustheria (griffins, pegasi, sphinxes, chimaeras, and lammasu)
|
|__ Draconia (dragons)
|
|__ Eudraconia (winged dragons)
| |
| |__ Dracorexidae (True Dragons)
| | |
| | | __ Draconis (Guivres)
| | |
| | | __ Terradracia (wingless dragons)
| | |
| | | __ Neodraco (Knuckers)
| | | |
| | | __ | __ Pleurocanthus (Dragon Turtles)
| | |
| | |__ Lapisoculidus (multi-limbed dragons)
| |
| |
| |__ Wyvernidae (Bird-Dragons)
| |
| | __ Dracopterus (wyvern)
| |__ |

34
 | | |__ Ouroborus (Lindwurm)
| |
| |
| | __ Virmidraco (Amphipteres)
| |__ |
| |__ Viperigallo (Cockatrice)
|
| __ Ophidomorpha (Legless dragons)
|
| __ Megaserpentes (Sea serpents)
|__ |
|__ Dracovermis (Land orms)

Cladogram Three: My Preferred Classification

I suspect that the “Ophidiomorpha” are simply derived knuckers and prefer the following cladogram in
which the dracangullids are reduced to a tribe belonging to the subfamily Nimbiaquinae (O’Connor, 2009)

Draconia = Eudraconia = Ophidomorpha (dragons)

|
|__ Dracorexidae (true dragons)
| |
| | __ Dracorexinae (“6 limbed” Dragons)
| | |
| | |__ Draconis (Guivres)
| |
| | __ Nimibiaquinae = Terradracia (dragons with reduced wings)
| |
| | __ Nimibiaquini (Flightless dragons with limbs)
| | |
| | |__ Nimibiaquina (knuckers & dragon turtles)
| | | |
| | | | __ Neodraco (Knuckers)
| | | | __ |
| | | |__ Pleurocanthus (Dragon Turtles)
| | |
| | |__ Lapisoculidina (multi-limbed wingless dragons)
| | |
| | |__ Lapisoculidus (basilisks & behirs)
| |
| |__ Dracangullini (Legless dragons)
| | |
| | | __ Megaserpentes (Sea serpents)
| | | __|
| | |__ Dracovermis (Land orms)
| |
| |__ Hydrinae ? (Hydras)
|
|__ Wyvernidae (Bird Dragons)
|
| __ Dracopterus (Wyvern)
|__ |
| |__ Ouroborus (Lindwurm)

35
 |
| __ Virmidraco (Amphipteres)
|__ |
|__ Viperigallo (Cockatrice)

Inangua’s Linnaean Classification

Class Coelurosauravia (Senter, 2004) Rod winged flyers

Order Dracomorphidae (Inanga, 2006) Dracomorphs
Semiorder Dragonia (O’Connor, 2009) Dracomorphs with flapping flight
Suborder Draconia (Novik, 2006) Dragons
Infraorder Eudraconia (Inanga, 2006) Winged Dragons
Family Dracorexidae (O’Connor, 2009) Guivres and knuckers
Genus Draconis (Page, 1989) Guivres
Genus Neodraco (Johnsguard, 1982) Knuckers
Genus Pleurocanthus (Findley, 1990) Dragon Turtles
Genus Lapisoculidus (O’Connor, 2009)
Family Wyvernidae (O’Connor, 2009) Wyverns and kin
Genus Dracopterus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) True wyverns
Genus Ouroborus (O’Connor, 2009) Lindorms
Genus Viperigallo (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Cockatrice
Genus Virmidraco (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Amphipteres
Infraorder Ophidomorpha (Inanga, 2006) Limbless dragons
Family Dracoguillidae (O’Connor, 2009) orms and sea serpents
Genus Dracovermis (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Orms
Genus Megaserpentes (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Sea Serpents
Incertae Sedis
Genus Hydrus

My Linnaean Classification

Class Coelurosauravia (Senter, 2004) Rod winged flyers

Order Dracomorphidae (Inanga, 2006) Dracomorphs
Semiorder Dragonia (O’Connor) Dracomorphs with flapping flight
Suborder Draconia (Novik, 2006) Dragons
Family Dracorexidae (O’Connor) Guivres and knuckers
Subfamily Dracorexinae (O’Connor, 2009)
Genus Draconis (Page, 1989) Guivres
Subfamily Nimibiaquinae = Terradracia (O’Connor, 2009)
Tribe Nimibiaquini (O’Connor, 2009)
Subtribe Nimibiaquina (O’Connor, 2009)
Genus Neodraco (Johnsguard, 1982) Knuckers
Genus Pleurocanthus (Findley, 1990) Dragon Turtles
Subtribe Lapisoculidina (O’Connor, 2009)
Genus Lapisoculidus (O’Connor, 2009) Multi-leggers
Tribe Dracanguillini (O’Connor, 2009)
Genus Dracovermis (Peterson/Perrin, 1978) Orms
Genus Megaserpentes (Peterson/Perrin, 1978) Sea Orms
Incertae Sedis
Genus Hydrus (O’Connor, 2009) multiheaded dragons

Family Wyverndae (O’Connor, 2009) Wyverns and kin

36
 Genus Dracopterus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) wyverns
Genus Ouroborous (O’Connor, 2009) Lindorms
Genus Viperigallo (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Cockatrice
Genus Virmidraco (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Amphipteres

Here I come to the end of this discussion on dragon taxonomy, if such an animal is ever actually discovered
we are now prepared to name it. If I have missed any draconic Latin names from sources not listed here
please leave a commit on Scribid.com with the name and reference so I can place them in future updates to
this paper.

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37
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