Surge Intro PDF
Surge Intro PDF
Surge Intro PDF
Inland Extent
Storm surge can penetrate well inland from the coastline. During Hurricane Ike, the surge moved inland nearly 30 miles in some locations in southeastern Texas and southwestern Louisiana.
Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tide.
Its the change in the water level that is due to the presence of the storm Since storm surge is a difference between water levels, it does not have a reference level
Storm tide is the water level rise during a storm due to the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide.
Since storm tide is the combination of surge and tide, it does require a reference level A 15 ft. storm surge on top of a high tide that is 2 ft. above mean sea level produces a 17 ft. storm tide.
Vulnerability
All locations along the U.S. East and Gulf coasts are vulnerable to storm surge. This figure shows the areas that could be inundated by water in any given category 4 hurricane.
The wind circulation around the eye of a hurricane (left above) blows on the ocean surface and produces a vertical circulation in the ocean (right above). In deep water, there is nothing to disturb this circulation and there is very little indication of storm surge.
Once the hurricane reaches shallower waters near the coast, the vertical circulation in the ocean becomes disrupted by the ocean bottom. The water can no longer go down, so it has nowhere else to go but up and inland.
In general, storm surge occurs where winds are blowing onshore. The highest surge tends to occur near the radius of maximum winds, or where the strongest winds of the hurricane occur.
Hurricane Ike, a category 2 at landfall in Texas, also produced catastrophic damage with a 20ft. storm surge.
Tides
Water levels rise and fall along the coast every day due to the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. This is the tide. In general, areas along the Gulf of Mexico, except Florida, experience one high and one low tide per day (diurnal tide). Elsewhere along the U.S. East Coast experience two high and two low tides per day (semi-diurnal tide). When the tide is combined with the storm surge, it is called the storm tide. Unfortunately, we cant time the arrival of a storm within the tidal cycle, so its safer to assume high tide when making decisions.
FAST FACTS
Freshwater Input
Heavy rainfall ahead of a hurricane can cause river levels to rise well inland from the coast. Once all this water flows downriver and reaches the coast, local water levels especially near deltas and in bays will rise.
32% 27%
Population density increase in coastal counties along the Gulf of Mexico coastline from 1990 to 2008.
Waves
Breaking waves contribute to the water level rise through wave runup and wave setup. Wave runup occurs when a wave breaks and the water is propelled onto the beach, as in the picture below.
Percent of major roads in the Gulf region that are at or below 4 ft. elevation.
Wave setup occurs when waves continually break onshore and the water from the runup piles up along the coast because it cant get
Central Pressure
Lower pressure will produce a higher surge. However, as was shown on page 2, the central pressure is a minimal contributor compared to the other factors.
Storm Intensity
Stronger winds will produce a higher surge. The two images below show how much storm surge is produced by two different storms, the second one having maximum winds that are 15 mph stronger than the first. All other variable are equal.
Size
A larger storm will produce higher surge. There are two reasons for this. First, the winds in a larger storm are pushing on a larger area of the ocean. Second, the strong winds in a larger storm will tend to affect an area longer than a smaller storm. Size is a key difference between the surge generated by storms like Katrina and Charley.
Instruments often fail during an event Data is often tied to different reference levels, and the conversions are complicated Each method has different or even unknown error characteristics Data may be measuring different things (stillwater vs. wave runup)
Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensors from the United States Geological Survey are temporary barometric pressure sensors that provide information about storm surge duration, times of arrival and retreat, and maximum depths. The sensors are installed around posts and other structures before the arrival of a hurricane.
Pros:
Available in real time Generally located in areas sheltered from waves and are able to measure stillwater Traditionally the most reliable way of measuring surge
Cons:
Limited number of stations along the coast, so there is often no real-time validation of storm surge in the most vulnerable areas Often fail at the height of an event due to loss of electrical power or damage
Pros:
Traditionally the best method for capturing the highest surge from an event
Pros:
Are able to provide timing information that cannot be obtained from high water marks Can be deployed ahead of a storm at the locations of the highest expected surge
Cons:
Are not available in real time Are perishable, so surveys need to be conducted as soon as possible after a storm Can be subjective Generally include the effects of wave runup and setup, and only a small percentage represent stillwater
Cons:
Information from the sensors is not available in real time Can include the effects of waves, which will provide an overestimation of the storm surge height May be difficult to recover the instruments after a storm