Poverty Assessment in the Indigenous Communities of the Cordillera Region 7

THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES

DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF • Northern and Western Mindanao (Regions IX

A
ccording to the NCIP, the total population of • Southern and Eastern Mindanao (Regions XI
indigenous peoples in the Philippines in 1998 [Davao Region] and XIII [Caraga])
was estimated to be between 12 and 15 million.
However, because NCIP estimates are based on an • Central Mindanao (Region XII [SOCCSKSARGEN])
unofficial count, reference should also be made to the
latest complete survey of the National Statistics Office
conducted in 1995. Comparing the two sources suggests DISTRIBUTION AND
that the indigenous population might even exceed 20% SOCIOCULTURAL FEATURES OF
of the national total. Caution should be taken: the INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
Government may have excluded groups or individuals
as indigenous because they did not qualify in the
technical definition of the term. It is possible that the Within the ethnographic areas defined above are
actual indigenous population is much bigger. different indigenous peoples exhibiting varying social,
According to the NCIP, the majority (61%) of the cultural, political, and linguistic features. Each of these
indigenous peoples are in Mindanao while a third (33%) indigenous groups has its own history of contact with
reside in Luzon. The remainder (6%) are scattered among the dominant Filipino society and this has placed each
the Visayan islands. group somewhere on a spectrum from “isolation” to
The Summer Institute of Linguistics14 estimated “acculturation.”
that there are 171 different languages in the Philippines. In Region 1 and CAR, the indigenous peoples are
Of these, 168 are living languages and 3 are extinct. concentrated in the northern mountain ranges of the
The same numbers also represent the different cultural Cordillera occupying the interior hills, narrow strips of
entities that speak these languages. flat land along deep valleys, and plateaus. The
The Philippines was divided into seven Tingguian, Isneg, and northern Kalinga are found in
ethnographic areas as set by IPRA for representation in the watershed areas of the Abulag, Tineg, and Chico
the NCIP (see map, page viii): rivers. These groups are largely swidden (slash-and-
burn) cultivators who depend on farming rice, root
• Region I and CAR crops, and vegetables. Along the slopes of Mount Data
and nearby areas are the Bontoc, Sagada, Ifugao, and
• Region II Southern Kalinga. They are wet-rice cultivators who
grow their crops both on terraces and swidden fields.
• The rest of Luzon (Regions III, IV[part], and V) The Ibaloi and Kankanaey inhabit the southern region
of the Cordillera. Like their neighbors to the north, their
• Island groups (Regions IV [part], VI, VII, and VIII) subsistence economy is based on wet and dry
agriculture. In more recent years, these groups have
 8 Indigenous Peoples/Ethnic Minorities and Poverty Reduction: Philippines

been integrated into the outside market economy with provinces of Davao, Bukidnon, and Cotabato are the
the growth of commercial gardening of temperate Bagobo. Groups that occupy the upper headwaters of
vegetables. the Davao, Tinanan, and Kulaman rivers are the
In Region 2, several lowland indigenous groups Manuvu, Matigsalug, Ata, and others.
like the Ibanag, Itawes, Yogad, and Gaddang inhabit the In the coastal areas along Davao Gulf and interior
Cagayan Valley of northeastern Luzon. The Caraballo hinterlands of southeastern Mindanao are the Mandaya,
range at its southern end is home to the Ilongot, Coastal Bagobo, Agusan Manobo, and Ata.
Ikalahan, Isinai, and some Aeta groups, which continue For the most part, the indigenous peoples in
to carry out wet-rice agriculture, swidden farming, Mindanao basically subsist through swidden and wet-
hunting and gathering, and some commerce. rice cultivation, hunting, fishing, gathering, and the trade
There are other indigenous groups in Regions III, of locally manufactured items.
IV, and V. Along the area of the Sierra Madre range of Outside influences have caused changes in the
eastern Luzon are the Dumagat, Pugot, and other Aeta economic systems of indigenous peoples. The
groups whose economies have depended on swidden consequences for the communities involved are varied,
agriculture, hunting and gathering, fishing, and trade. and it seems that efficient accommodation of elements
Communities of Paan Pinatubo (sometimes called from the new system is often facilitated by innovative
Hambal, Ayta, and Sambal) live under the shadow of social organization that ensures control of the land by
the Zambales range, and Baluga inhabit the the indigenous community. For example, when the
northwestern part of Pampanga and the southwestern Igorots of Sagada were introduced into the western
area of Tarlac. Along the Pacific coast in the province of market economy, the gradual transformation did not
Quezon, Pollilo Island, and the Bicol peninsula are Agta entail much conflict because the Igorots have maintained
groups, known as Kabihug (Camarines Norte), Agta control over their own resources and become involved
Tabangnon, Agta Cimarron, and Itom (Camarines Sur, in social relations that are not commoditized.15 Similarly
Albay, and Sorsogon). Increasingly, these groups have in the case of the Buhid of Mindoro, government
depended on cultivation, fishing, gathering of forest economic and developmental interventions have not
products, and wage labor. resulted in the outright assimilation and economic
The island groups include the seven Mangyan deprivation of the group because of ingenuities in
groups in the island of Mindoro: the Iraya, Alangan, landownership among them.16
Tadyawan, Tao-Buid, Buhid, Hanunoo, and Gubatnon. In other cases, the introduction of a different
In the interior foothills and remote coastal areas of Panay cultural system led to the disintegration of indigenous
and Negros Islands are the Sulod and the Ati. In the society. For instance, the promotion of American rule
island of Palawan, the Tagbanua are found in northern among the Tiruray of Cotabato transformed them into
and central areas. The Batak are found in small pockets peasant communities, as immigrants introduced new
north of Puerto Princesa City and in northeastern lifestyles and a market economy.17 The same could be
Palawan. The Palawanon are in the southern part of said of the Higaonon of northern Bukidnon Province,
Palawan near Brooks Point. who suffered abuse and exploitation from immigrants.
Generally, the Mangyans of Mindoro; the Sulod After independence, the Philippine Government
and Ati of Panay; the Aeta groups in Negros Island; and established a greater presence in the formerly remote
the Batak, Cuyonen, Palawanon, and Tagbanua of areas of indigenous occupation. This required that
Palawan practice swidden agriculture, combined with communities of indigenous peoples elect village captains,
hunting, fishing, gathering, and trade. mayors, and national leaders. All of this created changes
Along the hinterlands and coastal lowlands of the in the leadership structure of the hitherto isolated
Zamboanga peninsula live the Subanen, while toward communities. However, there remain groups little
the uplands of northern Mindanao, particularly on the influenced by change and others where the imposed
plateaus of Bukidnon, are the indigenous peoples who structure and traditional structure continue to coexist.
call themselves Higaonon meaning “mountain dwellers.” Among the Agta, the network of intertwining
Within the highlands of central Mindanao, familial and kinship ties continues to provide
particularly along the mountainous slopes of the assistance, privileges, and protection to its members.
 The Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines 9

Leadership among the Bungkalot, Teduray, and Sulod communities had developed social and political
is assumed by the elder who possesses the personal structures to regulate their relations within their
skill to persuade and influence, and who is a good communities as well as with outsiders. Intercommunity
speaker with knowledge of customary law. The council relations ranged from cooperation to conflict. However,
of leaders, called intugtukan among the Bontoc, tontong the idea of majority-minority dichotomy and its
by the Ibaloi, and pakilukesen by the Arumanen attendant problem of marginalization and
Manobo is composed of persons of wealth and discrimination were absent. These problems emerged
charisma, and with knowledge of customary law. They during the colonial period.
meet to settle cases and decide on important social With the advent of Spanish colonization, the
and religious affairs. “minorization” of the indigenous peoples started. The
The influence, power, and authority of the Datu Spanish colonizers forced their subjects to live in
prevails among the Manuvu, Higaonon, and some pueblos through a policy called reduccion. Those natives
Bagobo groups. He is assisted by a council of leaders that refused to live in these pueblos retreated into the
and other respected members of the community in the hinterlands and were called remontados and infieles.
performance of his obligations. Among the functions of The natives of the mountains, like the Igorots of the
a Manuvu Datu are settling cases, keeping the peace, Cordillera, put up a strong resistance against colonial
and deciding where the village is to move for the next intrusions against their territories. Because of this, they
swidden cycle.18 were called tribus indipendientes by the Spanish
chroniclers. They were also labeled as barbarians,
pagans, and all sorts of derogatory names. Soon, even
STATE POLICIES TOWARD the assimilated indios internalized these prejudices
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: against indigenous peoples. Thus, a dichotomy
A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW between the assimilated majority and unassimilated
minority emerged.
The Spaniards introduced laws that contradicted,
The indigenous peoples in the Philippines are, to even denied, customary concepts of land use and
a large extent, a creation of history.19 Prior to Spanish ownership. They introduced the Regalian Doctrine, first,
colonization, indigenous communities already had through a policy of encomienda. These were land grants
customary concepts and practices of land use and by the King of Spain, but were managed by an
ownership. The indigenous concept of landownership encomiendero. The latter was tasked to collect tributo
was one of collectivism, where private ownership by (taxes) and enforced the economic policies of the Crown
one or a few individuals seemed alien. (bandala, polo y servicio, etc.). Later, the Spanish Crown
The customary laws of the ethnolinguistic groups enacted the Maura Law, which reiterated that all pueblo
embodied this basic rule, but there were also variations. lands were protected lands; they could not be alienated
Among the Manobo, Mamanua, and Hanunuo groups, because they belonged to the King.22 In spite of these
land was considered as communally owned by the colonial policies, the unassimilated indigenous peoples
people forming the community. The Ibaloi concept of continued to practice their customary practices with
ownership was one of sharing the land with the gods, regard to their land and resources.
ancestors, kindred, and future descendants. But to the The Americans essentially retained the concept
Subanon, only the paramount god, Apo Gumalang, had of the Regalian doctrine. They made laws that
the right to own land. This was also the case with the reinforced the state’s control over the public domain,
Kalingas, for whom only Apo Kabunyan, the high god, citing the reason, among others, that there was no
could claim ownership over land.20 These people saw effective system of land registration during the Spanish
themselves only as caretakers of their resources. period. The laws passed during that period included
The indigenous peoples’ strong attachment to the following.
their land and resources led to intermittent conflicts
(the so-called tribal wars) with other groups (kin) that • Land Registration Act No. 496 of 1902, which
violated their territory. 21 At varying levels, these declared all lands subject to the Torrens system
 10 Indigenous Peoples/Ethnic Minorities and Poverty Reduction: Philippines

and empowered the State to issue to any legitimate PD 705 made the indigenous peoples of the
claimant a proof of title over a parcel of land. Cordillera virtually “squatters in their own land,” because
most of these lands are located in mountainous areas
• Philippine Commission Act No. 178 of 1903, which that are within the 18% slope rule.
ordered that all unregistered lands become part The 1987 Philippine Constitution also retained the
of the public domain, and that only the State had Regalian Doctrine. Section 2, Article XII, of the 1987
the authority to classify or exploit the same. Constitution states that all “lands of the public domain,
waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral
• Mining Law of 1905, which gave the Americans oils, all forces of potential energy, fisheries, forests or
the right to acquire public land for mining timber, wildlife, flora and fauna, and other natural
purposes. resources are owned by the State.”
At the same time, the 1987 Constitution also
• Public Land Acts of 1913, 1919, and 1925, through contained provisions that recognized “the rights of
which Mindanao and all other areas of fertile lands indigenous cultural communities within the framework
that the State considered unoccupied, unreserved, of national unity and development” (Art. II, Sec. 22) and
or otherwise unappropriated public lands became the creation of autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao
available to homesteaders and corporations, and in the Cordillera (Art. X, Secs. 15–19).
despite the fact that the indigenous peoples were However, the state’s constitutional recognition of
in these lands. indigenous rights “in the context of national
development” did not fundamentally change the
Postcolonial administrations of the Republic of situation of the indigenous population. This could be
the Philippines did not veer away from the western seen in the implementation of government policies and
concepts of land use and ownership. The 1935 programs in their territories, like reforestation programs,
Constitution stated that all agricultural, timber, and the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)
mineral lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, Act of 1992, Mining Act of 1995, and Official
coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces of Development Assistance (ODA) projects.
potential energy, and other natural resources of the Massive reforestation programs, which are funded
Philippines belong to the State.23 This constitutional by multilateral finance institutions, are linked to
mandate gave rise to a number of laws that continue commercial tree planting activities. Those taking place
to deny indigenous peoples’ customary land use and in indigenous peoples’ lands consider the encroached
ownership. The most controversial of these laws was territories as forestlands, in which the inhabitants are
Presidential Decree (PD) 705 of the Revised Forestry requested to plant certain species of trees.25 Because of
Code, enacted in May 1975. this there is no available useful area for them to continue
PD 705 further delimited landownership among agricultural activities needed for their own subsistence.
indigenous peoples, so that even ownership of rice Often, people are also displaced when government
terraces of the indigenous peoples of the Cordillera (for forces conduct military operations in the area to deal
example), became questionable. This decree stated that with pockets of resistance to the projects.
“no lands of the public domain with a slope of 18% or The NIPAS Act was to protect plant and animal
more shall be classified as alienable and disposable, species that are endangered, or have the possibility to
nor any forest land 50% or more in slope, as grazing become such. The law aims to establish national parks
land. Lands 18% or more in slope that have already as designated areas for the preservation of biological
been declared as alienable and disposable shall be resources. Its conservation scheme, which excludes
reverted to the classification of forest lands… to form local residents while entrusting the areas to state
part of the forest reserve…that when public interest so bodies, has limited access by indigenous peoples to
requires, steps shall be taken to expropriate, cancel the territories in which they carry out their subsistence
effective titles, reject public land applications, or reject activities. The provisions for people’s participation in
occupants thereof.”24 protected areas management seem to be confined to
an initial level of consultation and not as far as the
 The Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines 11

identification, planning, and implementation levels.26 where mine tailings found their way into rivers, have
Likewise, it is possible for the new bureaucratic sparked a series of protests against the Mining Act,
structures that accompany the NIPAS implementation and continue today.29
to challenge the indigenous sociopolitical system in the ODA projects carried out during the last quarter
area.27 of the 20th century to improve the economic condition
When the Mining Act was signed into law in 1995, of the people and to promote social justice were also
it essentially allowed greater control of the Philippines’ funded by foreign bilateral and multilateral institutions.
geological resources by transnational and local mining The projects have resulted in a number of positive
corporations. The agreements embodied within the law, outcomes for the expected beneficiaries, including
like the granting of royalty payments for the right to increased land productivity, a rise in net incomes, and
mine in indigenous peoples’ lands, have favored the improvements in access to water supply. However,
apparent expropriation of these lands as the local there have also been negative outcomes. In the
people yield to corporate mining interests. Cordillera, there have been violations of indigenous
Displacements of indigenous peoples have also land rights, restructuring of the local economy to the
resulted from mining operations that necessitated the advantage of outside market forces, and absence of
transfer of occupants. Among those affected are the some expected outputs of projects.30
B’laan of North Cotabato, Subanen of Zamboanga del In 1997, following the 1987 Constitution’s
Sur, Aetas of Central Luzon, Igorots of the Cordillera mandate, Republic Act (RA) 8371 of the IPRA was
region, and some groups in the Cagayan Valley. 28 enacted. A landmark piece of legislation, the IPRA
Environmental disasters from mining activities, like the promises to change the course of history of indigenous
Marcopper mine accident in Marinduque Province peoples in the Philippines.