JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4

Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics

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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
Mechanical Energy
1.1 Understanding Physics

PHYSICS
Mechanical Energy
Study of the natural phenomena and the
properties of matter. Heat Energy

Light Energy
Solid Matter Energy

Wave Energy
Liquid states forms

Electrical Energy
Gas

Nuclear Energy

Chemical Energy

Properties of Relationship Relationship Properties of

Matter with with Energy
energy matter

in the fields of

Mechanics Heat Wave Electronics

Properties Light Electricity & Atomic Physics

of matter Electromagnetism & Nuclear

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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
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1.2 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Base quantity
any quantity that can be measured by a scientific instrument.
1 A physical quantity is ……………………………………………………………………..
stopwatch, metre rule balance,thermometer,ammeter
2 Examples of scientific instruments etc.
:………………………………………………………
3 A base quantity is a physical quantity which cannot be defined in terms of other physical
quantities.
4 Study the following picture and list the physical quantities that can be measured.

The list of physical quantities :

Height,
1. ……………………………………….
mass,
2. ……………………………………….
size,
3. ……………………………………….
age,
4. ……………………………………….
temperature,
5. ……………………………………….
current
6. ……………………………………….
Power,
7. ……………………………………….
Thermal energy
8. ……………………………………….

battery

5 List of 5 basic physical quantities and their units.

Base quantity Symbol S.I. Unit Symbol for S.I. Unit
Length l meter m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time
t second s
Current
I Amppere A
Temperature
T Kelvin K

6 Two quantities that have also identified as basic quantity. There are :
i) …………………………..unit ………….. ii) ………………………. unit …………
Light intensity candela Amount of substance mol
…..

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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Standard Form

1 Standard form = A x 10n , simplify 1the

< Aexpression
< 10 and nof=very large and small numbers
integer
2 Standard form is used to …………………………………………………………………...
3 Some physical quantities have extremely small magnitudes. Write the following
quantities in standard form : 6.37 x 106 m
-27
1.673 x 10 kg
a. Radius of the earth = 6 370 000 m =………………………………………………….
-4
3.0 000
b. Mass of an electron = 0.000 000 000 000 x 10000
m 000 000 000 000 911 kg =………...
-8
7.2 x 10 m
c. Size of a particle = 0.000 03 m = ………………………………………………………
-7
5.5 x 10
b. Diameter of an atom = 0.000 000 072 m = …………………………………………...
c. Wavelength of light = 0.000 000 55 m = ……………………………………………..
Prefixes represent a large physical quantity or extremely small quantity in S.I
units.
1. Prefixes are usually used tounit
before the as a multiplying factor.
………………………………………………………………...
2. It will be written ……………………………………………………………………………
3. The list of prefixes : Eg :
10 12 Tera (T) 1 x 1012 m
1 Tm = …………………………………….
3.6 x 10-3A
109 Giga (G)
3.6 mA = …………………………………….
106 Mega (M) How to change the unit ;
2
10 3 Eg :
10 kilo (k) Hekto (ha) 6
101
Deka (da) 1. Mega to nano1.33 MA = 1.33 x 10 A
10-10
10
10-2 desi (d) = 1.33 x 10 6-(-9) nA
centi (s)
10-3 mili (m) = 1.33 x 10 -15 nA

10-6 micro (µ)

2. Tera to micro1.23 Tm to unit µm unit
10-9 nano (n)
1.23 Tm = 1.23 x 10 12m
10-12 pico (p)
= 1.23 x 10 12 – (-6)m
= 1.23 x 10 18m

3. piko to Mega
5456 pA to MA unit
5456 pA = 5.456 x 10 3 + (-12) pA
= 5.456
4. Some physical quantities have extremely large magnitudes. These x 10 -9pA
extremely large and
small values can be written in standard form or using standard prefixes.
= 5.456 x 10 Write
-9 –(6)
the
MA
quantities in standard prefixes: 9.1 x 10 1MHz
= 5.456 x 10 -15 MA
a. Frequency of radio wave = 91 000 000 Hz = ………………………………………….
12.8 Mm = 1.28 x 10 1 Mm
b. Diameter of the earth = 12 800 000 m = ………………………………………………
383 Mm = 3.83 x 10 2 Mm
6.0 x 10 12 Tm
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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Distance between the moon and the earth = 383 000 000 m = ………………………
d. Mass of the earth = 6 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg = ………………………

Derived quantities
a physical quantity which combines several basic quantities
1 A derived quantity is …….…………………………………………………………………
through multiplication, division or both
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2 Determine the derived unit for the following derived quantities.

Derived Name of
Formula Derived unit
quantity derived unit
area area = length x width m x m = m2 –
volume volume = length x width x height m x m x m = m3 –

mass kg
density density = 3
= kg m −3 –
volume m
displacement m
velocity velocity = = m s −1 –
time s
momentum momentum = mass x velocity kg m s-1 –

m s −1
change in velocity = m s -1 s −1
Acceleration acceleration = s –
time
= m s −2
Force force = mass x acceleration kg m s-2 Newton (N)
force
pressure pressure = kg m s-2 / m2 kg m-1 s-2
area (Nm-2)
-2
weight weight = mass x gravitational acceleration kg ms Newton (N)
work work = force x displacement Nm Joule (J)

work
power power =
time J s -1 Watt (W)

1
kinetic energy K.E = × mass × velocity 2
2 Kg ms-2 Joule (J)
potential
energy
P.E = mass x gravitational acceleration x height Kg ms-2 Joule (J)

charge charge = current x time Ampere second Coulomb (C)

(As)
work
voltage voltage = J C-1 Volt (v)
charge

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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Derived Name of
Formula Derived unit
quantity derived unit
voltage
resistance resistance = v A-1 Ohm (Ω)
current

Note that the physical quantities such as width, thickness, height, distance, displacement,
perimeter, radius and diameter arewhich
Quantity equivalent to length.
has only magnitude or size

1.3 SCALARMass, Length, Speed,

AND VECTOR volume
QUANTITIES
Quantity which has magnitude or size and direction.
1 Scalar quantities are ………………………………………………………………………
Velocity, Force, Displacement, Acceleration
Examples : …………………………………………………………………………………
2 Vector quantities are………………………………………………………………………...
Examples : …………………………………………………………………………………
3 Study the following description of events carefully and then decide which events require
magnitude, direction or both to specify them.
Ý

Description of events Magnitude Direction

0 Ý Ý
1. The temperature in the room is 25 C
2. The location of Ayer Hitam is 60 km to the north-
west of Johor Bahru Ý
3. The power of the electric bulb is 80 W
Ý Ý
4. A car is travelling at 80 km h-1 from Johor Bahru
to Kuala Lumpur

1.4 MEASUREMENTS

Using Appropriate Instruments to Measure

measuring instrument with different measuring capabilities.
1 There are various types of………………………………………………………………….
measure a particular quantity.

2 We must know how to choose the appropriate instrument to ……………………………..

3 Examples of instrument and its measuring ability.

Measuring instrument Range of measurement Smallest scale division

Measuring tape Up to a few meters 0.1 cm
Meter rule
1m 0.1 cm (0.01 m)
Vernier caliper
Micrometer screw gauge 10 cm 0.01 cm

4 less than
Sample of measuring instruments : 2 cm (20 mm) 0.001 cm (0.01 mm)

5
is use to measure electric current
JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
4.1 Ammeter : ……………………………………………………………………………..
is3incorret 1
reading the volume of liquid.
use to determine 2 3 correct
1 2
0 4 reading
0 4

pointer mirror
pointer mirror
Pointer’s image can be seen Pointer’s image is behind the pointer
4.2 Measuring cylinder : ……………………………………………………....................
wrong position of eye
Rightthe
position
is use to determine lengthof eye (eye are in a line perpendicular to the plane of
the scale)
wrong position of eye

water

4.3 Ruler : ………………………………………………………………………………………

wrong right wrong

10 11 12 13 14 15 Reading = ……………… cm
small object depth of a hole
external diameter of a cylinder or pipe internal diameter of a pipe or tube
0.1 cm
4.4 Vernier calliper

A venier calliper is used to measure :

a. ………………………………………………b. ………………………………………….

c. ………………………………………………d. ………………………………………….

A vernier calliper gives readings to an accuracy of …………………………………...…. cm.

0.9

inside jaws
cm 0
0.09
Vernier scale1 2 3 4 Main scale
SKALA
0.01 cm
0
outside jaws

Main scale in cm

Length of vernier scale = ……… cm 0 1

0.2 cm
Vernier scale is divided into 10 divisions
0.06 cm 0 5 10 Vernier scale
0.26 cm The differenct between the main scale and vernier scale
is = ……………………………. cm
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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Length of the divisions = ………. cm

0 1 cm

Main scale = …………………. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Find the division of
Vernier scale = ………………….. vernier scale which is
coincides with any part of
Final reading = ………………….. the main scale
The diagram below shows a vernier calliper with reading.

0 1

0.15
0 5 10 Vernier calliper reading = ……………. cm
4.5 Micrometer screw gauge.
A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure :
objects that are small in size
a. ………………………………………………
diameter of a wire
b. ………………………………………….
diameter of small spheres such as ball bearings
c. ………………………………………………

One complete turn of the thimble

(50 division) moves the spindle by
0.50 mm.
Division of thimble
0.5 ÷ 50
= …………………..
0.01 mm 4.5 mm
= ………………….. Sleeve scale : ……………
A accuracy of micrometer
0.01 mm 0.22 mm
screw gauge = …………….. Thimble scale : ………….
4.62 mm
Total reading : …………..

Example :
2.0 mm
Sleeve scale : ……………
0.22 mm
Thimble scale : ………….
2.22 mm
Total reading : …………...

4.6 Some others measuring instruments :

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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________

Analogue stopwatch digital stopwatch thermometer miliammeter

……………………… …………………… ……………………… ………..

Measuring tape measuring cylinder beaker

………………………. …………………….. ………………
Hands-on activity 1.1 on page 1 of the practical book to learn more about choosing
appropriate instruments.
Exercise: Vernier Callipers And Micrometer Screw Gauge

1. Write down the readings shown by the following

(a) 7
8

Answer: …7.79 cm…………..

0 5 10

4 5
(b) A B

Answer: …4.27 cm…………..

P Q
0 5 10

(c)
6 7
Answer: ……6.28 cm………..

0 5 1

(d) Answer: …0.02 cm…………..

0 1

0 5 10

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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________

2. (a) The following diagram shows the scale of a vernier calliper when the jaws are closed.

0 1

0 5 10

Zero error = …0.02……… cm

(b). The following diagram shows the scale of the same vernier calliper when there are
40 pieces of cardboard between the jaws.

5 6

0 5 10

Reading shown = …5.64…….cm

Corrected reading = …5.62……..cm

3. Write down the readings shown by the following micrometer screw gauges.
(a) (b)

40 3
0 5 0 5 10 5

35 3
0

Answer: …………………………. Answer:…………………..

(c) (d)
0
25 0 5 20

20 15

Answer:………………………… Answer:…………………….

4. (a) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

0 0 5
0

0
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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________

45

Zero error = …0.02…….. mm Zero error = …0.03…….. mm

(b) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

5 0 20
0 5

0
15

Zero error = 0.03………mm Reading shown = 6.67………..mm

Corrected reading = 6.64………..mm

5. Write down the readings shown by the following micrometer screw gauges.
(a) (b)

40 3
0 5 0 5 10 5

35 3
0

Answer: …6.88 mm………… Answer: …..12.32 mm……

(c) (d)
0
25 0 5 20

20 15

Answer:………4.71 mm………… Answer: 9.17 mm…………

6. (a) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

0 0 5
0

45
0

Zero error = …-0.02 mm Zero error = …0.03.. mm

(b) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

5 0 20
0 5

0 10
JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________

15

Reading shown = ….6.67..mm

Zero error = …0.03.mm
Corrected reading = …6.64..mm
Accuracy and consistency in measurements.
The ability of an instrument to measure nearest to the actual value
1. Accuracy : …………………………………………………………………………………
The ability of an instrument to measure consistently with little or no relative
2. Consistency :deviation
………………………………………………………………………………
among readings.
The ability of an instrument to detect a small change in the quantity measured.
3. Sensitivity : …………………………………………………………………………………

target
consistent but inaccurate consistent and accurate inaccurate and not consistent
………………………… ……………………… ……………………………..

target
Accurate but not consistent inaccurate but consistent inaccurate but not consistent
…………………….. …………………………….. ………………………………
Hands-on activity 1.2 on page 2 of the practical book to determine the sensitivity of
some measuring instruments.

Errors in measurements of approximation only.

how close the measurement is to the actual value.
1. All measurements are values ………………………………………………………………
2. In other word, it is aerror exist
matter in all measurements.
of ……………………………………………………………
3. This is because ……………………………………………………………………………
Systematic errors
4. Two main types of errors:
4.1 ……………………………………………
a weakness
Occurs due to : of the instrument
the difference between reaction time of the brain and the action.
a) ………………………………………………………………………………………
zero error is when the pointer is not at zero when not in use.
b) ………………………………………………………………………………………
c) ………………………………………………………………………………………
Range of the measuring instrument – absolute error .
Reaction time of the brain. 11
Initial reading is not at the zero scale – zero error
JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Examples :
Refer to the smallest reading that can be measured by an instrument.
a) ………………………………………………………………………………………
b) ………………………………………………………………………………………
c) ………………………………………………………………………………………
Absolute error : ………………………………………………………………………………
If, the smallest reading = 0.1 cm
Then, Absolute error = 0.1 / 2 = 0.05 cm
……….…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
It occurs because the position of the eye is not perpendicular to the scale of the
instrument.
Example :
wrong

right position of the eye (no error)

wrong
Parallax error : ………………………………………………………………………………

Random error
where the pointer is not at zero when not in use
carelessness in making the measurement.
parallex error , incorrect positioning of the eye when taking the readings.

0
sudden change of1 ambient
cm
factors such
0 as temperature or1 air circulation.
cm

Zero error : …………………………………………………………………………………...

0Readings
1 2 3 4 5 6are
7 8 close
9 10 to the actual value but
Correct reading = observed reading – zero error 0 1they
2 3 4are
5 6not
7 8 consistent.
9 10
+0.03 cm
Can be minimized
Positive Zero error by
= consistently repeating the measurement at different places in
zero error negative zero error - 0.04 cm
Zero error =
an identical manner.

Horizontal Horizontal
reference 3 divisions above
reference
2 divisions below
horizontal reference
horizontal reference
Gather all available information about the object or phenomenon to
be studied.
Using the five senses, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell.
Zero error of screw meter gauge
Positive zero error A conclusion from an observation or phenomena using information that
already exist.
Zero error = Zero error =
Variables are factors or physical quantities which change in the course
of a scientific investigation.
4.2 ……………………………………………..
There are three variables :
Occurs due to i. Manipulated variables – physical quantity which change according
to the aim of the experiment.
a) ………………………………………………………………………………………
ii. Responding variables – physicals quantity which is the result of
b) ………………………………………………………………………………………
the changed by manipulated variable.
iii. Fixed variables – physicals quantities which are kept constantduring
the experiment.
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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
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c) ………………………………………………………………………………………
Example :
a) …………………………………………………………………………………..…
b) ……………………………………………………………………………………..
.....................................................................................................................

1.5 SCIENCETIFIC INVESTIGATION

Steps Explanation

Making
1
observation

Drawing
2
inferences

Identifying
3 and controlling
variables

Formulating a Statement of relationship between the manipulated variable and the

4
hypothesis responding variable those we would expect.
Hypothesis can either be true or false.

Conducting i. Conduct an experiment includes the compilation and

5
experiments interpretation of data.
ii. Making a conclusion regarding the validity of the hypothesis.

Plan and report an experiment

Situation : A few children are playing on a different length of swing in a

playground. It is found that the time of oscillation for each swing is different.
Steps Example : refer to the situation above
The period of the oscillation depends on the length of the
1 Inference pendulum.
2 Hypothesis When the length of the pendulum increases, the period of the
oscillation increases.
Investigate the relationship between length and period of a
simple pendulum.
Manipulated variable
13
: the length of the pendulum.
Responding variable : Period
Fixed variable : the mass of the pendulum and the displacement.
JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
3 Aim

4 Variables

5 List of
apparatus and
materials
6 Arrangement of
the apparatus

Retort stand
protractor

ll

bob

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure above.

7 Procedures
2. Measure the length of the pendulum,l = 60.0 cm by using a meter
rule.
3. Give the pendulum bob a small displacement 300.Time of
10 oscillations is measured by using a stop watch.
4. Repeat the timing for another 10 oscillations. Calculate the average
time.
Period = t10 oscillations
10
5. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 using l = 50.0 cm, 40.0 cm, 30.0 cm and
20.0 cm
8 Tabulate the Length,l /
Length,l Time for 10 oscillations / s Period/ s
data cm 1 2 (T = t10/10)
Average
60.0 15.8 15.7 15.8 1.58
50.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 1.50
40.0 13.1 13.1 13.1 1.31
30.0 11.9 11.9 11.9 1.19
20.0 9.9 9.9 9.9 0.99

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 JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
9 Analyse the Graf of period, T vs
data T/s pendulum’s
length, l
1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 l / cm

Discussion Precautions :
1
1. Oscillation time is measured when the pendulum attained a steady
0 state.
2. Time for 10 oscillations is repeated twice to increase accuracy.
3. Discussion (refer to given questions)
Conclusion
11 The period increases when the length of the pendulum increases.
Hypothesis accepted.

Reinforcement Chapter 1

Part A :Objective Question

A Newton B kilogram
1. Which of the following is a base SI C ampere D second
quantity?
A Weight B Energy 4. Which of the following quantities
C Velocity D Mass cannot be derived?
A Electric current B Power
2. Which of the following is a derived C Momentum D Force
quantity?
A Length B Mass 5. Which of the following quantities is
C Temperature D Voltage not derived from the basic physical
quantity of length?
3. Which of the following is not a basic A Electric charge B Density
unit? C Velocity D Volume

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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Initial velocity u, final velocity v, B scalar quantities
time t and another physical quantity k C derived quantities
is related by the equation v - u = kt. D vector quantities
The unit for k is
A m s-1 B m-1 s 13. Which of the following shows the
-2
C ms D m2 s-2 correct conversion of units?
A 24 mm3 =2.4 x 10-6 m3
7. Which of the following has the B 300 mm3=3.0 x 10-7 m3
smallest magnitude? C 800 mm3=8.0 x 10-2 m3
A megametre B centimetre D 1 000 mm3=1.0 x 10-4 m3
C kilometre D mikrometre
14. Which of the following measurements
8. 4 328 000 000 mm in standard form is is the shortest ?
A 4.328 x 10-9 m B 4.328 x 10-6 m A 3.45 x 103 m
C 4.328 x 106 m D 4.328 x 109 m B 3.45 x 104 cm
C 3.45 x 107 mm
9. Which of the following measurements D 3.45 x 1012 µm
is the longest?
A 1.2 x 10-5 cm B 120 x 10-4 dm 15. The Hitz FM channel broadcasts radio
C 0.12 mm D 1.2 x 10-11 km waves at a frequency of 92.8 MHz in
the north region. What is the frequency
10. The diameter of a particle is 250 µm. of the radio wave in Hz?
What is its diameter in cm? A 9.28 x 104 B 9.28 x 105
A 2.5 x 10-2 B 2.5 x 10-4 C 9.28 x 10 7
D 9.28 x 1010
-6
C 2.5 x 10 D 2.5 x 10-8
16. An object moves along a straight line
11. Which of the following prefixes is for time, t. The length of the line, s is
arranged in ascending order? 1 2
given by the equation s = gt . The
A mili, senti, mikro, desi 2
B mikro, mili, senti, desi SI unit of g is
C mili, mikro, desi, senti A m2 s2 B m s-2
D desi, mikro, mili, senti C s-1 D s-2 m
Part B : Structure Question
12. Velocity, density, force and energy are
A basic quantities
1. A car moves with an average speed of 75 km h-1 from town P to town Q in 2 hours as
shown in Figure 1. By using this information, you may calculate the distance between the
two towns.
P Q

Figure 1
(a) (i) Based on the statements given, state two basic quantities and their respective
SI units.
Distance : m and time : s
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) State a derived quantity and its SI unit.
Speed – m s-1
………………………………………………………………………………………

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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
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(b) Convert the value 1 . m to standard form.
5 x 10-3
= 0.2 x 103 m
= 2.0 x 102 m

(c) Complete Table 1 by writing the value of each given prefix.

10-9

10-6
106
109

Table 1
(d) Power is defined as the rate of change of work done. Derive the unit for power in
terms of its basic units.
work Force × displacement kgms −2 × m
Power = = Unit = = kg m2 s-3
time time s

(e) Calculate the volume of a wooden block with dimension of 7 cm, 5 cm breadth and 12
cm height in m3 and convert its value in standard form.
Volume = (7 x 10-2) (5 x 10-2) (12 x 10-2)
= 420 x 10-6
= 4.20 x 10-4 m3

2. Figure 2 shows an ammeter of 0—3 A range.

Figure 2
Mirror
(a) (i) Name component X. ………………………………………………………………...
To avoid parallax error
(ii) What is the function of X? ………………………………………………………….

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JPN Pahang Physics Module Form 4
Teacher’s Guide Chapter 1 : Introduction To Physics
_________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Table 2 shows three current readings obtained by three students.

Table 2
No
(i) Did all the students use the ammeter in Figure2? ..………………………………….
(ii) Explain your answer in (b)(i).
3rd readings obtained by student 2 and 3 are out of the meter range.
………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Figure 3 shows the meniscus of water in a measuring cylinder K, L, and M are three eye
positions while measuring the volume of the water.

(a) (i) Which of the eye positions is

correct while
L taking the reading of the volume
of water?

…….……………………………
………

Figure 3

(b) The water in the measuring cylinder is

replaced with 30 cm3 of mercury.
(i) In The cohesive force is
Figure
larger4,than
drawthe
theadhesive
meniscus of the
force
mercury in the measuring cylinder. Figure 4
(ii) Explain why the shape of the meniscus of mercury is as drawn in (b)(i).

………………………………………………………………………………………

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