Physical Geography

143
APPENDICES
APPENDIX
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Planets Mercury
Distance From Sun 58 million km
Diameter 4,900 km
Characteristic Feature No atmosphere. Rocky, many craters. Temp. 1700 C to 4000C Atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide. Vast plains and high mountains. Average temp. over 5000 C Atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and oxygen. Surface covered with water. Temp. is 150C Thin atmosphere, mostly carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Surface has polar ice caps and dry river beds. Temp. ranges from 1000 C to about 300 C Atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium. No solid surface. Temp. ranges to 1250 C in the atmosphere. Atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium. No solid surface. Average temp. in atmosphere is about 1800 C Atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium. No solid surface. Average temp. in atmosphere is about 2250 C Atmosphere is mostly hydrogen. No solid surface. average temp. in Atmosphere is about 2200 C
Number of Satellite
Venus
108 million km
12,000 km
1 satellite Moon
Earth
150 million km
12,750 km
Mars
228 million km
6,800 km
2 satellites Phobos and Deimos
Jupiter
778 million km
1,43,000 km
16 satellites called Galilean satellites. 4 largest satellites are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto 20 satellites largest visible satellite Titan
Saturn
1,427 million km
1,20,000 km
Uranus
2,869 million km
52,000 km
15 satellites
Neptune
4,505 million km
49,000 km
8 satellites
Pluto
5,890 million km
2,300 km
Atmosphere is mostly methane. Surface is solid with unknown features. Temp. is about 2300 C
1 satellite
11
APPENDIX
MOHS SCALE
OF
HARDNESS
Mineral Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond
Hardness (Based on Mohs Scale) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
111
APPENDIX
PRINCIPAL ECONOMIC MINERALS
Name Boehmite Diaspore Alunite Magnetite Hematite Goethite Siderite Rutile Ilmenite Pentlandite Niccolite Chalcopyrite Chalcocite Covellite Azurite Malachite Cuprite Copper Galena Jamesonite Bournonite Sphalerite Wurtzite Smithsonite Calamine Cassiterite Stannite Cinnabar Polyxene Argenite Proustite
Chemical Formula AlOOH HAlO2 KAl2(SO4)2. (OH)6 Fe3O4 Fe2O3 HFeO2 FeCO3 TiO2 FeTiO2 (Fe,Ni)9 S8 NiAs CuFe S2 Cu2S CuS 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Cu2O Cu PbS Pb4FeSb6S11 CuPbSbS3 ZnS ZnCO3 Zn4(Si2O7)(OH)2.H2O SnO2 Cu2FeSnS4 HgS (Pt, Fe) Ag2S Ag3AsS3
Economic Uses Ore of aluminium -do-doOre of iron -do-do-doOre of titanium -doOre of nickel -doOre of copper -do-do-do-do-do-doOre of lead -do-doOre of zinc Ore of zinc -doOre of tin -doOre of mercury Ore of platinum Ore of silver -do-
18
APPENDIX
RADIATION BALANCE
OF THE
EARTH
(SURFACE + ATMOSPHERE ENERGY BALANCE)

Incoming Solar Radiation Absorption by O3 Absorption by H2O and aerosols Absorption by clouds Back scattered by clouds Back scattered by air and aerosols Back scattered by surface Total Absorption by ground From the sun From the atmosphere and clouds Total Total Incoming Radiation Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation Short Waves Back radiation from H2O, CO2 and clouds to outer space Back radiation from ground to outer space Total Long Waves Back radiation from ground Back radiation from H2O, CO2 and clouds Total Total Outgoing Radiation Surface Balance (as Percentage of Incoming Solar Radiation Outside the Atmosphere) Incoming from the sun the atmosphere Total Outgoing to the atmosphere Long wave to H2O, CO2 and clouds Latent heat Sensible heat Outer space Back scattered from ground Long wave Total Nil 31 4 35 Percentage 3 13 2 24 7 4 53 25 22 47 100
5 60 65 100
25 26 51
13 24 5 4 5 51
APPENDIX
AREA
AND
VOLUME
OF
MAJOR OCEANS
AND
SEAS
Name
Area (sq. km.)
Percentage
Volume (cu. km)
Percentage
I. Oceans Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Arctic Ocean Sub Total II. Inter-Continental Seas Malay Sea Central American Sea Mediterranean Sea Sub Total III. Smaller Enclosed Seas Baltic Sea Hudson Bay Red Sea Persian Gulf Sub Total IV. Fringing Seas Bering Sea Okhotsk Sea Japan Sea E. China Sea Andaman Sea California Sea North Sea English Channel and Irish Seas Laurentian Sea Bass Sea Sub Total Grand Total (Hydrosphere)
82,441,500 73,442,700 1,65,246,200 14,090,100 3,35,220,500
22.83 20.34 45.77 3.91 92.85
323,613,300 291,030,000 707,555,000 16,980,000 1,339,178,000
23.61 21.23 51.63 1.23 97.70
8,143,100 4,319,500 2,965,900 15,428,500
2.26 1.21 0.82 4.29
9,873,000 9,573,000 4,238,000 23,684,000
0.72 0.70 0.30 1.72
422,300 1,232,300 437,900 238,800 2,331,300
0.12 0.34 0.12 0.06 0.64
23,000 1,58,000 2,15,000 6,000 4,02,000 0.05
2,268,200 1,527,600 1,007,700 1,249,200 797,600 162,200 575,300 178,500 237,800 74,800 8,078,900 3,61,059,200
0.62 0.42 0.28 0.34 0.22 0.04 0.17 0.05 0.06 0.02 2.22
3,259,000 1,279,000 1,361,000 235,000 694,000 132,000 54,000 10,000 30,000 5,000 7,059,000 13,70,323,500 0.51
Unit I
GEOGRAPHY
AS A
DISCIPLINE
CHAPTER

Y
NATURE
AND
SCOPE
OF
GEOGRAPHY
ou have already been introduced to geography as a part of social science in secondary school. As such you learnt about the world its people and places; distribution of various natural and cultural features and phenomena over the earths surface; and the emerging patterns of humanenvironment interactions at local, regional and global levels. Now, at this stage, you are being introduced to geography as a discipline for the first time. In this chapter, you will get to know the nature and scope of geography and its evolution over the years and the main branches. Soon you would realise that this fascinating area of study, offers immense possibilities to use and apply the knowledge and skills required for living and working in todays world. NATURE OF GEOGRAPHY You must have noted that geography is concerned with the study of the earths surface where all life forms including human beings live and all human activities take place. The earths surface includes the oceans, the atmosphere, the upper part of the earths crust and the biosphere. The earths sur face is ever changing, sometimes slowly and imperceptibly, while at others, rapidly and perceptibly. In general, the natural phenomena like mountains, rivers, lakes etc. change slowly while the cultural phenomena like buildings, roads, crops, etc. change fast. Geography studies the origin of these changing phenomena; the processes that change them and have brought them to the present state and arranged them in space in the way they exist. It also studies the
implications of location and arrangement of these phenomena for human beings. Over 6,000 million people live on the earth in innumerable places called villages, towns and cities spread over many continents and countries. Continents, mountains, rivers, plains and many other physical features are the outcome of natural processes in action, while countries, villages, towns, cities, agriculture, industry, means of transport and communication etc. are the products of human activities. A process is a sequence of change systematically related through a chain of causes and effects. Human beings use the natural resources of the earth such as land, water, air, minerals, animals, forests and many others to make a living and to shape their culture. In doing so they change the earth surface enormously. It is no longer natural in the real sense except in remote areas that are still inaccessible, such as Antarctica. The inhabited part of the earth has a clear imprint of the human use of nature. Geography thus, studies the sur face features of the earth and their association with one another and derives meaningful spatial or regional patterns. It studies the factors and processes, which change these features; their mutual relationships; and their spatial arrangement. And finally it studies the implications of the above changes for human beings and their activities. It would be pertinent to note that all surface features of the earth that attract the attention of geographers are not visible; many of them are conceptual and, therefore, cannot be seen on the ground. For example, we cannot see education, health, per capita income as we can see rivers, mountains, roads
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
etc. We can, however, see their social topography when we convert their intensities into patterns on maps. Thus, we have maps that show literacy, mortality, longevity of life, environment, prevalence of diseases, quality of life, etc. Nature provides the base, the resources as well as the resistances. Human beings use these natural endowments to evolve their cultures and civilisations. Culture is the cumulative product of experiences; it consists of values, norms, beliefs, thoughts, ethical standards and styles of life and living. Civilisation is the physical manifestation of culture. Houses, villages, cities, means of transport and communication, agriculture, industry, etc. forms part of civilisation. Apparently, the two are closely related and almost inseparable. In our discussion, we will use the term culture to include civilisation. Culture is cumulative and therefore, ever changing. In ancient societies human interaction with nature was rather direct: As time passed, experience accumulated to give rise to various kinds of cultures. Cultures are not only the outcome of the interaction between humans and nature but also among the humans living in different natural environments. It is an ever evolving and ever changing phenomenon. That is why in similar natural settings, cultures and civilisations are not always the same. The earth surface that geographer studies is, therefore, not homogeneous or isometric; it is marked by vast differences in both natural and cultural features. Geography is thus, a natural-cum-human science engaged in the study of factors and processes, both natural and human, that shape the earth surface and give rise to different cultures and civilisations. It classifies and delineates the earth features to arrive at regional patterns and structures; it identifies the agencies and processes at work to change the existing patterns; and predicts the possible outcomes of the processes at work. Thus, geography tries to answer the following questions: What are the natural and cultural features on the surface of the earth?
How have they come into being? How are they distributed and why? How are they associated with each other? Are the existing patterns of distribution conducive to human welfare? What can be done to modify them? What are the implications of the proposed changes for humans? To sum up, geography is a science that studies the spatial arrangement of things on the surface of the earth resulting from a dynamic interaction between humans and nature. Unlike other disciplines, geography cannot be defined by its subject matter for anything present on the earth surface can be and is studied by it. Geography uses information provided by various disciplines, all the way from nuclear physics to, let us say, ancient history, as raw materials to analyse the emerging patterns and structures of the earth sur face and their implications for human beings. SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY Literal meaning of the term geography is description of the earth (geo = earth + graphos=description). The term was first used by Eratosthenes, a Greek geographer who lived in Alexandria, Egypt during 276-192 BC. This is how geography was conceived in ancient times. At present, it is no longer confined to the description of the earth. It has now acquired the status of a science that explains the arrangement of various natural and cultural features on the earth surface. In this section we will examine the scope of geography in greater details. Geography is often called the mother of all sciences. There is some truth in it. Humans in their early stages of civilised life had to cope with an omnipotent and omnipresent nature. Nature was most important object of curiosity. As apparent from ancient literary works of practically all cultures, nature was often personified and its elements were presented as Gods and Goddesses, and devils and evil spirits, depending upon how they affected human life. Humans suffered from serious limitations imposed by nature because nature
NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY
was overpowering and the technological means to control it were primitive and toothless. As such humans adjusted themselves to natural environment; they did not try to transgress the dictates of nature; they cooperated with nature and felt one with it. Domestication of animals and plants set in motion a great change in human life. It culminated in Agricultural Revolution, which lasted until eighteenth century in Europe and nineteenth century in Asia, Africa and Latin America. As the cultural base of humans expanded, their relationship with nature changed from subservience to cooperation. Their tools and techniques improved, as did their knowledge pool. By the seventeenth century, they broke the shackles of nature and ventured to control it to their advantage. They developed a great variety of mechanical and chemical devices to usher in a change that is popularly known as Industrial Revolution. It took about three centuries, eighteenth to twentieth to spread all over the world. The strength of the Industrial Revolution lay in scientific inventions on the one hand and European discovery of the sea routes to reach sparsely settled rich lands of Americas, Australia, Africa and highly advanced cultures of Asia on the other. With increasing interaction, knowledge about continents and oceans, mountains and plains, rivers and lakes, and peoples and places increased many fold and measurements of distances, directions, heights, and depths along with details of cultural landscapes became necessary for preparing maps and charts. Geography became really global. The attitude of human beings changed and they started moving away from mythology to scientific presentation of both natural and human phenomena. Once the spirit of scientific enquiry was kindled and information about the world became more copious, the urge for deeper analysis of the processes that gave rise to such a great variety of natural and cultural features in the world grew. This necessitated
specialisation, which ultimately gave rise to systematic disciplines like physics, chemistry, biology, economics, sociology, political science, etc. that once formed part of one unified discipline called geography. Today there are hundreds of disciplines and sub-disciplines aiming at unravelling the mysteries of nature and human behaviour, not holistically, but from one or the other perspective. They individually see part of the reality even if in great depth, not the whole of it. The branching off of specialised disciplines did not, however, diminish the place and importance of geography. The need for a discipline, which looked at the causes and consequences of the arrangement of various natural and cultural features of earth surface holistically existed before and exists even today. Geography does not compete with specialised sister disciplines; apart from generating its own information, it takes knowledge generated by them and processes it to build up theories and principles to explain the ongoing changes on the earth surface. Geography is, therefore, a truly holistic and interdisciplinary field of study engaged in understanding the changing spatial structure at different territorial levels, global to local, and at different times, from past to the future. EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHY As noted earlier, geography is perhaps the oldest intellectual preoccupation of man. Its foundation was laid by Indian, Chinese, Greek, Arab, and other scholars of times immemorial who ventured out beyond their own locale to write about other lands and peoples. Atharva Veda written around tenth century BC gives the details of the then known earth; its physical features, biogeography and human settlements. Indian Rishis went to different parts of the world to carry the message of Indian culture particularly of Hinduism and Buddhism to Central Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, eastern coast of Africa, etc. The Chinese scholars made similar trips to different parts of the then known world particularly to India, and so did the Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Greek and Arab
travellers. They were the first discoverers of the unknown lands. The experiential knowledge of these itinerants produced a unique culture, the imprints of which still persist in the commonality of certain human values in South, Southeast and East Asia. One gets a sense of unity in diversity . In sixth century BC, Thales of Miletus, a Greek geographer gave the size and shape of the earth; in second century BC, Ptolemy gave latitudes and longitudes for map making and locating places. In first century BC, Strabo, a Roman geographer gave detailed description of the world in 17 volumes. The contributions of Indian astronomers and geographers were highly advanced for their times. Aryabhatta propounded the theory of heliocentric universe a century before Copernicus, and Bhaskaracharya mentioned about the gravity of the earth, 1,200 years before Newton. Kalidasas description of the geography of central India in Meghdoota is highly professional. Arabs too made significant contributions and carried the known knowledge to far off places. In fourteenth century AD, Ibn Batuta, travelled to India and wrote about its land and people. During fourteenth to eighteenth centuries, discoveries of new lands and ocean routes generated vast amount of information about physical configurations of the world and the places and people beyond the shores of Europe. These details enabled Europeans to migrate from overpopulated Europe to less populated lands of Americas, Australia and parts of Africa relieving Europe from the growing pressure of population. It also enabled the Europeans to politically and economically subjugate practically the whole of the resource rich Asia, Africa, Australia and Americas. Control over the resources of the world and the opportunity for emigration to other lands, were the main factors behind the rise of Eur ope as the most developed continent of the world. By the end of the eighteenth century, efforts were afoot to scientifically analyse the geographical accounts available from various sources. Two German geographers, A.V.
Humboldt and Karl Ritter played a leading role. Prior to them Imanuel Kant, the great German master of logical thought, had given geography its place in the overall framework of organised objective knowledge otherwise known as science. He enumerated five sub-fields of geography: mathematical geography; moral (cultural) geography; political geography; commercial geography, and theological (religious) geography. Geography became a very popular subject in schools because it gave knowledge about the lands to prospective migrants, administrators and traders. Gradually, along with the description of places and peoples, explanation for varying responses of people to natural environment was also presented. Thus, geography, in the later half of the nineteenth century, emerged as the study of the dynamics of man-environment relationship and its imprints on the earth surface. Geographers were not however united on the question of man-environment relationship. Those who postulated that environment controlled or determined human activities were called determinists. They were lead by Friederich Ratzel and Elsworth Huntington. And those who said that man could modify the environment to create new opportunities for himself were lead by Vidal de la Blache and L. Febvre. They were known as possibilists. In early twentieth century, H.J. Mackinder, a British geographer of German origin, looked at geography as a science of relationships; as a study of arrangement and association of things on the face of the earth to form regional systems and structures. He strongly advocated for synthesis of physical and cultural streams of geography into a regional frame. According to him humans could not exist without nature and nature could not escape the influence of humans. The two together shaped the earth surface and gave rise to regional patter ns and structures. Thus, Mackinder defined geography as an outlook, as a way of looking at the earth; it did not confine itself to any specific domain of factual information; it
studied the spatial patterns on the earth surface, the processes involved in their evolution, and the impacts they produced on humans and their activities. Thus, geography in the twentieth century became a discipline, which studied the earth surface from two perspectives: systematic and regional. The former produced subdisciplines like geomorphology, climatology, biogeography, political geography, economic geography, health geography etc., while the latter gave rise to regional geography, regional science, regional development, regional planning, area planning, etc. The first started with systematic knowledge to arrive at regional patterns, while the second started with regions to arrive at systematic details. In both cases, humans remained a central theme: how systemic processes and regional patterns affected humans and their activities. In the second half of the twentieth century, search for an acceptable definition of geography was abandoned. It was realised that no living discipline could be defined once for all. It must change with time. Geography too must change and no definition could be considered final. A group of geographers, economists, and statisticians under the leadership of Walter Isard of University of Pennsylvania, USA joined hands to evolve a new and hybrid analytical discipline called Regional Science. It brought geography closer to other social sciences and mathematics and triggered of f what is now known as quantitative revolution in geography. As quantitative methods and techniques of Regional Science penetrated other social sciences, an environment of cross-fertilisation set in and quantitative geography became a craze during 1960s and 1970s. It provided scientific tools to study the relationship between physical and human phenomena, and carry out regional analysis with a precision never attempted before. It enabled geographers to handle large number of factors and processes together to discern meaningful patterns and structures. Along with quantitative revolution, the signs of another major revolutionary change
became apparent in 1970s. It was Information Revolution; its impact became apparent in 1990s. Apart from the fact that it enabled geographers to use their newly acquired quantitative techniques with greater ease and swiftness, it produced immense amount of information in photographs taken from several thousand metres above the earth otherwise known as remote sensing. Such photos were taken from aircrafts in post- World War II decades. To begin with, it was meant to secure information about enemy positions and movements during the war but soon it became an important source of information for development of agriculture, industry, transportation, communication and public utilities. Along with the air photographs came photogrammetry, the technique of air photo interpretation. The 1980s brought artificial satellites, which circled the earth at a set speed and route, several kilometres above the earth to take photographs of much larger chunks of the earth and with far greater precision and sharpness than the aircrafts could ever do. It is possible to get satellite imageries (photographs) with a resolution of less than one metre, that is to say that even a metre long thing could be photographed and identified. Further, practically all details of the earth surface, above it and below it, can be photographed. It is possible to image mineral deposits and sources of ground water, to chart weather conditions, to locate various features of the earth surface and changes therein, and to trace the movement of people, armies, goods and services from place to place The satellite imageries have made air photograph antiquated. The information they provide is unimaginably vast and detailed. They have enabled geographers to develop Geographic Information System (GIS), Land Information System (LIS), and Global Positioning System (GPS) as location decision, administrative and managerial tools. Geography of the twenty-first century is set to enter a new era of Spatial Information Technology (SIT). Geographers of tomorrow would be trained not only in answering the question what is where and
why but also in what should be where and why; not only in generating information for decision making but also in actively participating in decision making. The last quarter of the twentieth century has put geography on a new trajectory of development with SIT as the main source of information and information processing. It was also a period when concern about the deteriorating environment became vocal. Pollution of land, water, and air reached an alarming state. Environment had always been a major concern of geography. Environmental geography thus, emerged as a major branch of geography. BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY Today geography is the only discipline that brings all natural and human sciences on a common platfor m to understand the dynamics of the spatial configuration of the earth surface. It is an interdisciplinary and integrative science having numerous branches (Fig.1.1). Space in geographic terminology is the congregation of places on earth sur face to form patter ns and structures, which support life particularly human life. Systematic Geography Geography looks at the earth surface from two perspectives: systematic, and regional. A study of specific natural or social phenomenon that gives rise to certain spatial patterns and structures on the earth surface is called systematic study. There can be as many systematic branches of geography as the phenomena studied. Ordinarily, systematic geography is divided into four main branches: Physiography, conventionally known as physical geography; Biogeography, including environmental geography; Human geography, also referred as cultural geography; and Geographic methods and techniques.
Physical Geography Physical geography can be divided into four main sub-branches: Geomorphology; Climatology; Hydrology; Soil geography. Geomorphology is a genetic study of landfor ms like continents, mountains, plateaus, plains, river valleys, and a vast number of other features. Climatology is the systematic study of climate and its constituent elements like temperature, pressure, winds, rainfall, storms, etc. and their distribution. Hydrology is the study of the role water plays in nature and human life through oceans, rivers, glaciers, and water vapour. Soil geography is the study of soil formation, its typology and distribution. Biogeography The main sub-branches of biogeography are: Plant geography; Zoogeography; Human ecology; and Environmental geography. Plant geography studies the distribution of various kinds of forests and grasslands. Zoo geography studies the distribution of animals and micro-organisms, and human ecology studies the changing human-nature relationship and its consequences for human life and living. Environmental geography studies the quality of the living environment and its implications for human welfare. Human Geography Human beings working with the nature create a great variety of cultural phenomena like villages, towns, cities, countries, factories, roads, houses, etc. They are also responsible for destroying many things through conflicts and wars. Study of location and distribution of all such phenomena fall under the purview of human geography. The main sub-branches of human geography are: Cultural geography; Social geography;
Geography
Systematic
Regional
t t t t t
Physical Human/ Cultural Methods and Techniques of Geography
Bio
Regional Studies
Regional Planning
Regional Analysis
Regional Development
t t t
Plant
t t t
Zoo Field Survey Cartography Quantitative
Environmental
t
Human Ecology
Geo-Informatics
Geomorphology
Climatology
Hydrology
Soil
t t
Cultural
Social
Population
Urban Rural Economic
Agricultural
Industrial
Political
Geography of Trade and Transport
Fig1.1 : Geography Branches and Sub-Fields
10
Population geography; Urban geography; Rural geography; Economic geography; Agricultural geography; Industrial geography; Political geography; Geography of trade and transport. Each of these studies the distribution of the relevant elements, tries to find out the processes involved in their origin and uneven distribution, delimits the patter ns of distribution, and predicts the emerging patterns and structures. Geographic Methods and Techniques Under geographic methods and techniques come: Field studies (physical as well socioeconomic surveys); Cartography; Quantitative geography; Spatial information system (GIS, LIS, GPS). Regional Geography Unlike systematic geography, regional geography starts with the spatial imprints of one or all the systematic geographic processes discernible as regions of different sizes. Regions could be based on a single factor like relief, rainfall, vegetation, per capita income, literacy and so on. They could also be multifactor regions created by the association of two or more factors. Administrative areas like states, districts, tehsils/taluks, revenue villages also can be treated as regions, even if they have no rationale other than convenience. For planning and development purposes, one can form specialised regions. Identification of the relevant geographical characteristics of a region; study of interplay between nature and human and its regional implications; delimitation of regions using given criteria; tracing of mutual relationship among the regions, both vertical and horizontal; finding regional structures of economy, society, and polity; and regional
planning for problem areas and regions, are some of the principle concerns of regional geography. The main sub-branches of regional geography are: Regional studies; Regional analysis; Regional development; Regional planning including area and community planning. Regional studies encompass study of selected areas and regions to bring out their geographic personality and potentials. They include regional surveys. Regional analysis is far more technical than regional studies both in terms of methodology used and the scope. Regional analysis uses highly advanced statistical and mathematical techniques in analysing the data and lays greater emphasis on interregional relations and flows to determine the potentials of a region for future development. Regional development is a branch of study that focuses on the processes of development in a region and suggests policies and programs, which can help the region overcome its problems. Regional planning is a technical exercise involving the theory and practice of area planning for urban as well rural areas. To sum up, geography is a unified field of study known for its approach and point of view rather than for its subject matter. It studies the spatial structure of the earth surface and its implications for human life and living. As such the branches of geography listed above are not exhaustive; they are only indicative. There can be as many branches as the subject matters studied to arrive at meaningful scientific conclusions about the causes and consequences of the existing or emerging spatial patterns and structures of the whole or part of the earth surface. There are two ways of studying geographic problems. One of the ways is to select a geographical factor such as climate and study its mechanism to evolve typologies and to examine the causes and consequences of their spatial distribution on the surface of the earth. The focus in this case is on climate and climatic types as modified by local and
11
regional factors. Such a study falls within the purview of systematic geography. Alter natively, one can start with a region, let us say a state of India, or a river basin, and then study it from different perspectives to understand its uniqueness, to diagnose its problems and to suggest policies and plans to solve the problems. In either case region is a common denominator. Scientific study of the causes and consequences of the spatial structure of the earth surface forms the core of geography. IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY This book pertains to physical geography. It covers all that is natural lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Lithosphere covers land forms, atmosphere deals with climates, hydrosphere is the study of water features and biosphere focuses on living things like plants, animals, micro organisms and human beings. Soils are the products of all the four elements of physical geography. Modern geography, as it emerged in Europe, was oriented to physical aspects. This tradition continued almost till the end of the nineteenth century. Colonial era was marked by over emphasis on physical environment as a determining factor in human behaviour, but there were dissenting voices particularly from France and the United States where geographic patterns were considered primarily as products
of human mind working on the physical base of the earth rather than of nature working on man. Movement from the theory of environmental determinism to that of social determinism did play a balancing role and made geography once again a broad based discipline but it induced a mindset which treated natural environment land, water, air, soils, vegetation, animals etc. as mere resources to achieve economic progress. Resource exploitation became a desirable activity. This led to the destruction, pollution and shortage of practically all natural resources including free gifts like air. By 1950, humans realised the damage they had done to their own future. They realised that natural resources constituted the life support system on the earth. Their destruction could lead to extinction of all life on planet earth. Geographers in India, under the influence of American geographers and guided by theories of economic growth deemphasised physical geography. In the light of the new situation emerging from environmental crisis, geography has sought to return to its physical base. Geography of the twenty-first century has once again become a balanced, integrated and comprehensive discipline giving equal importance to both physical and human geography. There can be no geography without physical geography; nor there can be one without human geography.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Who first used the term geography? (ii) Why is geography often called the mother of all sciences? (iii) Why was the need felt for specialisation, which gave rise to systematic disciplines? (iv) Why did geography become a popular subject in schools by the end of the eighteenth century? (v) Name the two major revolutionary changes in geography, which influenced it most during the second half of the twentieth century. (vi) What are the two ways of studying geographic problems?
12
2. Distinguish between: (i) Culture and civilisation; (ii) Systematic and regional geographies; (iii) Deterministic and Possibilistic schools of thought; (iv) Physical geography and biogeography. 3. Write short notes on the following: (i) Geography in the twentieth century; (ii) Geographic methods and techniques; (iii) Contributions of ancient Greek and Indian scholars to geography. 4. Discuss the scope of geography with changing times. 5. There can be no geography without physical or human geography. Explain this statement by giving suitable examples. Project Work Collect information regarding some eminent Indian geographers of the twentieth century and their contributions.
13
Unit II
THE EARTH
CHAPTER
ORIGIN
OF THE
EARTH
iewed from space, the planet earth appears as a round ball that shines bright and blue. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, believed that the earth was at the centre of the universe and that the moon, sun, planets and stars orbited around it. Indian astronomer Aryabhatta, however, believed in heliocentric solar system. Today, we know that the sun is a star and the planets revolving around it came out of it in the distant past. The sun, its nine planets and the satellites of the planets constitute the solar system. Planets differ in size, constituent matter and temperature. All these characteristics are related to their respective distances from the sun. The earth is one of the small inner planets, along with Mercury, Venus and Mars. Inner planets comprise of heavy elements and are closest to the sun. The earth is, however, the only planet with conditions favourable for the sustenance of life. ORIGIN OF THE PLANETS Nebular Hypothesis : In 1755, Ger man philosopher Imanuel Kant hypothesised that slowly rotating cloud of gas, called Nebula, in some unspecified fashion condensed into a number of discrete and globular bodies. The great French mathematician Laplace also proposed, more or less, the same theory in 1796. According to Kant and Laplace, the original mass of gas cooled and began to contract. The rotational speed increased as a consequence of the law of conservation of angular momentum. Thus, successive rings of gaseous material were spun off from the central mass by centrifugal force. In the final stages the rings condensed into planets.
Collision Hypothesis : Sir James Jeans and Sir Harold Jeffreys, well-known scientists of England, came forward with the collision hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, gaseous material was pulled away from the pre-existing sun by the gravitational attraction of a passing star. Giant tongues of matter came out. These tongues broke into small chunks or planetesimals , which went flying as cold bodies into orbits around the sun in the plane of the passing star. By collision and gravitational attraction, the larger planetesimals swept up the smaller pieces, and thus, were formed the planets. THE BIRTH OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM The earth was formed at the same time as the sun and the other planets of the solar system. The entire solar system, consisting of the sun, nine planets, and their satellites form a very small part of the galaxy that consists of many stars (Appendix I). Innumerable such galaxies form the universe. Our galaxy is popularly, called the Milky Way . The pressure and temperature at the centre of the Nebula that produced the solar system became so great, that it triggered a nuclear reaction. Some of the hydrogen in the cloud fused into helium, releasing great amount of energy. The gaseous cloud exploded to form a supernova. The explosion caused shock waves that pushed the denser portions of cloud to collapse under their own gravity. The dense core grew larger and hotter as its gravity attracted more material. In the process, the hot core developed into a protostar. Finally, the protostar became the infant sun.
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Homogeneous Accretion Hypothesis : The homogeneous accretion hypothesis maintains that the earth accreted from an intimate mixture of silicate particles and metal particles. The material was assumed to have been formed in the solar nebula by a complex series of chemical and physical processes which had occurred prior to the accretion of planets. According to hypothesis, accretion of the earth occurred over a sufficiently long period (107 108 years) so that its gravitational potential energy was efficiently radiated away and it formed in an initially cool and unmelted condition. Subsequently, heating by long-lived radioactive elements occurred, leading to melting of the metal parts and its segregation into the core. The major element composition of the earth and its depletions in volatile elements can be explained through this hypothesis. It also explains the approximate chemical uniformity of the mantle formed after the formation of the core. Heterogeneous Accretion Hypothesis : According to heterogeneous accretion hypothesis, the composition of the material from which the earth accreted changed with time giving rise to layered structure of the earth. According to this model, the earth formed inside out, with a cool, oxidised, and
volatile rich nucleus and more metal-rich and devolatilised outer rings. ORIGIN OF THE SATELLITES (MOON) A discussion on the origin of the earth will be incomplete without discussing the origin of the moon. In this case also there are many hypotheses. Radiometric dating of the rocks from the moon show that it was born along with the earth. It is not younger. Apparently then, there are two possibilities. It either came out of the sun in a gaseous form but being too small was attracted by the earth, or it flung out of the earth due to a huge meteorite falling on the earth. The area where the meteorite fell, a huge hollow was created, which is now filled up by the ocean and the landmass flung to the outer space created the moon. In all fairness, several possible courses for our planets evolution are presented here. In general, there is fair agreement in the course of events. Looking for the plausible explanation to the earths evolution is like making a house out of a variety of blocks. The constraint is that each block has to fit with the ones under it and over it and that the whole structure has to stand up, but there may be more than one way to build the house.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Why do planets differ in size, constituent matter and temperature? (ii) What is a Nebula? (iii) What are planetesimals? (iv) Who first proposed Nebular hypothesis? (v) Name our galaxy. (vi) What is a protostar? (vii) How is it known that the moon was born along with the earth? 2. Write short notes on: (i) Collision hypothesis; (ii) Homogeneous accretion hypothesis; and (iii) Origin of the moon. 3. Discuss various hypotheses for the evolution of planets. 4. Describe the evolution of the solar system.
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!
A
CHAPTER
INTERIOR
OF THE
EARTH
lthough earthquakes can have catastrophic effects, they can also reveal a great deal about the earths internal structure. The shock waves arising from earthquakes pass through the interior of the earth in different ways and provide the evidence about the inaccessible interior regions of the earth. Several kinds of wave motions (P and S waves) produced by the earthquakes are of a class called body waves because they travel through the solid body of the earth. Body waves are distinguished from surface waves , which move along the free upper crust of the earth. Surface waves are of
two types; they travel more or less together, but with different motions (Fig. 3.1). One type consists of Rayleigh waves, named after the English physicist, Lord Rayleigh. They can be visualised as water waves travelling across the surface of a still pond after a pebble has been tossed into the water. The second type of surface waves is the Love wave, named after the physicist A.E.H. Love. Motion in the Love wave is entirely horizontal, at right angles to the direction of wave motion. The waves travel at different rates from a common source. Therefore, time interval between their arrival at the recording station will also vary. Besides, the density of rocks and nature of the medium, whether solid or liquid, through which the P and S waves pass, also affect the propagation of waves. Based on these observations, the earths interior has been divided into three layers crust, mantle and core (Fig. 3.2). THE EARTHS CORE Study of seismogram (a seismograph record) has confirmed the existence of a spherical core at the earths centre and has added insights into its physical nature. In case the earth were entirely solid, both P and S waves would travel through in all directions. The body waves of any large earthquake could be recorded directly opposite its focus. It was, however, found that there is a region on the globe opposite the earthquake focus where S waves are not received. That means, the S waves cannot pass through the central part of the earth because this part is made of a medium
Fig.3.1 : Forms of Surface Seismic Waves A. Rayleigh Waves; and B. Love Waves
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Fig.3.2 : Dimensions of the Earths Mantle and Core
which is not solid. Physicists have proved through experiments that S waves cannot be sent through a liquid medium. This proves that the earths core is in liquid state in contrast to the surrounding mantle which is solid. The seismic waves bend as they travel through the core and therefore, P waves are not directly received in a zone, known as shadow zone, between 1030 and 1430 distant from the focus. Also, S waves are not received there because they do not travel through the liquid core. Only surface waves are received in this shadow zone. Beyond 1430 only P waves passing through the core and surface waves travelling along the surface are received. From the extent of the shadow zone, the earths core is calculated to have a radius of 3,470 km, a little more than half the earths total radius.
THE EARTHS MANTLE The P waves make abrupt drop in velocity at the mantle-core boundary, whereas S wave terminates at the mantle-core boundary (Fig.3.3). Thus making a plane of discontinuous surface between the core and the mantle known as Gutenberg discontinuity . Through the earths mantle, upto nearly 2,900 km, the speed of earthquake waves is so high that only a very rigid and dense rock will satisfy the observed conditions. Solid or rigid in this case means either crystalline or glassy. It also means that, when subjected to the sudden twists and bends of earthquake waves, the rock behaves as an elastic solid, that is, it changes shape when shear stresses are applied, but returns exactly to its former
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
19
shape when those stresses are removed. Thus, the mantle consists of solid rock. Based on the behaviour of seismic waves, the mantle is sub-divided into two major parts the upper mantle and the lower mantle. The upper mantle, extending from the crust to a depth of about 650 km, includes the asthenosphere, which occupies the upper 300 to 400 km. Rocks in the asthenosphere behave as both a plastic solid and an elastic solid. The matter possessing these remarkable properties is an elastic-viscous substance it can be elastic and plastic at the same time, depending on whether the forces that tend to deform it are applied and released suddenly or steadily. The presence of the soft layer or plastic layer in the upper part of mantle was suspected as far back as 1926 by distinguished seismologist Beno Gutenburg. He noticed that earthquake wave velocities are slowed down below 150 km, after first increasing rapidly from the surface to that depth. This region is referred to as the lowvelocity zone. THE EARTHS CRUST The crust is distinguished from the mantle by the presence of abrupt change in the velocity of seismic waves. This corresponds to the abrupt change in rigidity of the rock from crust to mantle. The change in rigidity in turn is due to change in mineral composition or in physical state of the rocks. The P waves near the surface travel at about 6 km per second and this velocity increases gradually or abruptly to the base of the crust, where it is 7 km per second. The surface of sudden increase in wave velocity, which separates the crust above from the mantle below, is the Mohorovicic discontinuity , also called Moho discontinuity or M discontinuity . It is named after the Yugoslav seismologist, Mohorovicic, who first recognised the discontinuity in 1909.
Fig.3.3 : The Earths Interior A. Increase in pressure with depth; B. Increase in temperature with depth; C. Increase in density with depth; and D. Velocity of P and S Waves.
Temperature (K)
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EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Name the three layers of the earth. (ii) What is a seismogram? (iii) Name two types of surface waves. (iv) How do the rocks of the earths mantle behave when subjected to the earthquake waves? (v) What is asthenosphere? (vi) What is the radius of the earths core? 2. Distinguish between: (i) Body waves and surface waves; (ii) Rayleigh waves and Love waves; (iii) Gutenberg discontinuity and Mohorovicic discontinuity. 3. Write short notes on: (i) Shadow zone; and (ii) The earths crust. 4. Discuss how do seismic waves suggest layering of the earths interior. 5. Describe the earths mantle.
21
"
T
CHAPTER
EARTHQUAKE
AND
VOLCANO
he earth is constantly undergoing change. Some changes are fast and some are slow. Earthquakes and volcanoes are endogenic forces which cause sudden changes on the earth. Weathering and agents of sculpture are exogenic forces which bring about slow changes. In the following pages a description has been given about the earthquakes and volcanoes. EARTHQUAKE Earthquake is the trembling of the earth initiated by sudden shock. Sometimes it is so violent that it damages or destroys strong buildings. The devastation caused on 26 January 2001 in Bhuj, Gujarat speaks of the violent nature of earthquakes. Most of the shocks that cause the earth to tremble are associated with diastrophic movements. The sudden slippage of rocks along the faults and also in some cases faults reaching the ground surface, displace the objects on the ground. In other cases, crustal rocks bend elastically and set waves in motion. The place where the earthquake originates inside the earth is called its focus. The point on the earths surface vertically above the focus is called the epicentre. The waves travel away through rocks in all the directions. Shaking is the strongest near the epicentre. Great accumulation of elastic strain is built up constantly along active lithospheric plate boundaries, particularly along converging (where two plates meet) boundaries. Slippage of opposed plates in these converging zones release enormous quantities of energy in the form of great earthquakes. The relationship between earthquake activity or seismicity and
lithospheric plate boundaries is remarkably strong. TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES We have already discussed earthquake waves in Chapter 3. In this section, we propose to examine them in greater details. There are three types of seismic waves generated by earthquake called Primary, Secondary and Long waves designated as P, S, and L respectively. P waves are fast travelling waves; they arrive first. S waves are slower; they take almost twice as long to travel. In fast travelling P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of wave propagation whereas in S waves the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of propagation (Fig. 4.1). The P waves travel through the body of the earth at an average rate of 6 km/sec. They are faster at depth (about 8 km/sec to 11 km/sec) than near the surface. They travel through
Fig.4.1 : Earthquake Waves Particle Motions in P Waves and S Waves
22
both solid and liquid medium. The S waves also go through the body of the earth but at a slower rate of 3.5 km/sec. L waves follow the circumference of the earth and travel at more or less constant rate. They are also known as surface waves. Thus, P and S waves travel by a direct path through the earth (Fig. 4.2) while L waves follow its circumference.
somewhat larger in height than the P waves. Following it, smooth waves that increase greatly in amplitude to a maximum and then die slowly are recorded. These are the surface waves. Two measurements are made directly from the seismograph: (a) amplitude in mm of the largest (highest) wave recorded; and (b) time in seconds elapsed between arrivals of the P and S waves. Earthquake Prediction Two approaches have been adopted in earthquake prediction. One approach is the measurement of several kinds of significant physical changes that take place immediately prior to an earthquake. The second approach is historical i.e. long-term seismic history of the affected region. The physical changes are: P Wave Velocity Numerous small earthquakes are expected to cause change in the velocity of P waves that return to normal immediately before the large earthquake. This change is monitored on seismograph. Ground Uplift
Fig.4.2 : Cross-Section of the Earth Paths of P Waves; S Waves; and Surface Waves
The Seismograph The seismograph is a sensitive instrument that records earthquakes thousands of kilometres distant and so weak that their vibrations could not possibly be recognised by the human senses. The seismograph design is based on the principle of inertia the tendency of any mass to resist a change in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line is greater, the greater the mass of the object. The first indication that a severe earthquake has occurred at a distant point is the sudden beginning of the Primary waves (P waves). These waves then die down somewhat for a few minutes; then a second burst of activity sets in with the arrival of Secondary waves (S waves) which are
Slow movement of crustal masses before the earthquake causes a large volume of rock to become riddled with countless minute cracks or microcracks. The ground water moves into the newly created microcracks. The presence of water acts like hydraulic jack; the rock mass swells and the ground surfaces experience doming or uplift before major earthquakes. This change is referred to as dilatancy. Radon Emission Emission of radon gas increases just before a major earthquake takes place. Monitoring of the emission of radon gas can serve as forewarn to the major destruction. Animal Behaviour It has been observed that prior to the major earthquake, animals especially burrowing animals, behave unusually. The ants, termites
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO
23
and other burrowing animals shift their hiding places. The birds chirp loudly and animals such as dogs howl and bark very regularly. Induced Earthquake In a number of cases human activities have set off earthquake. The pumping of fluids into the oil fields to raise the hydrostatic pressure and to increase oil recovery is responsible for setting off minor earthquakes. Human beings are responsible for setting off earthquakes by building large dams on major rivers. The load of water from new lakes impounded behind the large dams is responsible for triggering earthquakes. DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE ZONES Abundance of large earthquakes in a ring surrounding the Pacific Ocean, known as Circum-Pacific Belt is a line of intense volcanic activity as well as seismic activity. The second belt of intense seismicity stretches from Mediterranean Sea to the Indonesian region, corresponding to tectonically active boundary between Eurasian Plate and the African and Australian Plates. A third belt of high seismicity runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean basin through the Indian Ocean and across the southern Pacific Ocean. VOLCANO The molten material coming out from inside the earth through a pipe or vent and accumulating around the pipe in the form of a mound, is called a volcano. All volcanoes result from magma, molten material below the earths surface, which is brought to the surface as lava or volcanic fragments. Volcanoes show considerable variation in size, shape and the kind of material ejected. Most volcanoes produce lava. Lava is at very high temperatures, between 800 0 and 1,200 0 celsius and it contains steam and many other gases. Let us find out how does magma, originating inside the earth comes to the surface as lava.
Towards the base of the earths crust, hot rock maintains its solid state because of the pressure from rock above it. When pressure is reduced by a crack in the earth or rock that lies above, the hot rock can change to a liquid in small chambers known as magma chambers. Zones of weakness, regions of lessened pressure or already existing fissures are perfect paths for the passage of magma. Gas pressure in pockets in the earth forces the magma to move. Sometimes as magma moves, it melts overlying rocks or forces them aside. Volcanic Features Extrusion of lava takes place from an opening called volcanic vent . A saucer shaped depression is created around the vent, which is known as crater. On occasion, the explosive eruption of a volcano blows out an enormous mass of magma and previously solidified lava from a considerable depth. Such explosion is associated with the collapse or subsidence of the central part of the crater. A steep sided crater is formed by the destruction of the crater formed by the gradual construction of volcanic matter (Fig. 4.3). This steep-sided crater is known as caldera. Besides the lava that flows out from a volcano, rock and mineral fragments are also blown out from a volcano known as pyroclastic material. The pyroclastic material range in size from solid blocks to fine dust. Spindle or spherical shaped masses are known as volcanic bombs. Sometimes fluid or plastic lava falls close to the vent after being thrown in the air to form spatter cone. Smaller particles of lava, ranging from 4 to 25 mm, are called volcanic lapilli whereas particles under 4 mm constitute volcanic dust or ash . Volcanic ash, when thrown up in air, remains in suspension for a long period of time. It is either drifted away by wind or falls down with rainfall and is transported by running water to be deposited as sedimentary layers called tuff. Eruptive Styles Magma may cool enough to solidify before it reaches the surface of the earth, or it may cool
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fissures and does not build cones. Deccan Plateau in India is an example of the fissure lava eruption that took place about 60-62 million years ago. Central Eruption The central eruptions are much like point source eruptions, unlike the linear sources of fissure eruption. The lava or pyroclastic material erupts from a central vent or pipe and gives rise to a cone. Viscous lava can barely flow and produce volcanic domes. Types of Volcanoes On the basis of frequency of eruption, there are three types of volcanoes: active, dormant and extinct volcanoes. The volcanoes that erupt frequently as compared to others are called active volcanoes . The Barren Island of Andamans in India is an example of active volcano. The volcanoes that erupt inter mittently are known as dor mant or sleeping volcanoes. The volcanoes that have not erupted for a very long time and have no record of eruption in historic times are known as extinct or dead volcanoes . The dormant volcanoes may get activated suddenly and are therefore dangerous. Krakatao in Indonesia erupted in 1883 (the worlds greatest recorded explosion). Global Pattern of Volcanism Chains of volcanoes are always associated with places where the crust of the earth is actively changing. The longest chain surrounds the Pacific Ocean and is called the Ring of Fire. Another group exists in the area of the Mediterranean and in the Rift Valley in eastern Africa. Whole groups and chains of islands are sometimes formed in the ocean by volcanoes that erupt time and again. This is how the Hawaiian and Aleutian Islands were created. The effects of volcanic activity are not all bad. The ejected material that comes from inside the volcano is unbelievably fertile. Another important product of volcanic activity is geothermal heat, a source of alternate power.
Fig.4.3 : Formation of Caldera by Collapse of Volcano A. Magma fills the reservoir and stands high up in volcanic pipe as the final eruption begins; B. Violent eruption of gas and pumice occurs as the magma from reservoir drains downwards; and C. Collapse of the cone fills the vacated space with a mass of broken blocks.
after it flows down the side of a volcano. If eruption is violent, lava is hurled high into the air, with solid rocks. Volcanoes may remain dormant for thousands of years and then suddenly erupt when the pressure has built up beneath the ground. Eruption takes place in two ways fissure eruption and central eruption. Fissure Eruption The lava or pyroclastic material emanates from long, narrow fissures or a group of such fissures. The fluid lava flows away from the
EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO
25
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What is an earthquake? (ii) What is focus? (iii) Which of the earthquake waves travels fastest? (iv) Name the wave that follows the circumference of the earth. (v) Which two measurements are taken directly from the seismograph? (vi) How do human activities induce earthquakes? (vii) What is a volcano? (viii) How does hot rock at the base of the earths crust maintain its solid state? (ix) Name the two ways in which volcanic eruption takes place. (x) What is the Ring of Fire? (xi) Name the three types of volcanoes. 2. Give one word for the following: (i) The point on the earths surface vertically above the focus. (ii) The earthquake waves, larger in height than P waves but having a slower rate of movement. (iii) Spindle or spherical shaped masses thrown out from a volcano. 3. Distinguish between : (i) P waves and S waves; (ii) Magma and lava; (iii) Vent and crater; (iv) Dormant and extinct volcanoes. 4. Discuss main characteristics of various seismic waves. 5. Describe the two approaches followed for the prediction of the earthquakes. 6. Describe the distribution of earthquake prone regions in the world. 7. What are the probable causes of the volcanic eruptions? Describe the volcanic activity and the major features associated with them. Finding out Collect information about the earthquake prone regions of India and the major earthquakes of the country during past ten years. Prepare a report supported with a map of India showing the location of these occurrences and the areas affected by the earthquakes.
26
CHAPTER
ORIGIN
OF
CONTINENTS
AND
OCEANS
lfred Wegener, in 1912, proposed that all land masses of the world had formed from one supercontinent, called Pangaea (Fig. 5.1). The super -continent,
Pangaea had evolved some 280 million years ago, at the end of the Carboniferous Period and by mid-Jurassic, 150 million years ago, Pangaea had split into a northern continent called Laurasia, and a southern continent called Gondwanaland. About 65 million years ago, i.e. at the end of Cretaceous, Gondwanaland further broke up to give rise to several other continents such as South America, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica (Fig. 5.2). India broke apart and followed an independent route moving towards northeast. EVIDENCE OF MOVEMENT OF CONTINENTS There are evidences that suggest the existence of Pangaea. The ancient mountain belt, 470 to 350 million years old, were created by a continuous belt of geological activity. These mountains are now separated by the Atlantic Ocean. Some fossils also tell us that the continents were once joined. For example, fossils of the plant Glossopteris and the animals Mesosurus and Lystrosaurus have all been found on all continents of Gondwanaland that are now widely separated. Geological Matching Significant observation is the occurrence of gold deposits within river alluvium in the Ghana coast (Africa) and the absolute absence of source rocks in that region. However, across 5,000 km wide ocean, there are gold-bearing veins in Belen Sau in Brazil (South America) but no gold deposits within alluvium in the adjacent coastal belt. Placing Africa and South America together, the solution emerges with stunning effectiveness. The gold bearing sediments were transported down the slope in
Fig.5.1 : Wegeners Map of Continental Drift Fitting of the Continents Bordering the Atlantic Ocean
ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS
27
60N 30N
0 60N 30S 30N

60 S
30S
60S
60N
30N
30S
60S
Fig.5.2 : Formation of Present Day Continents from Pangaea Five Stages of the Break-Up Arrows indicate the direction of the movement of the lithospheric plates.
Brazil and deposited in the belt which is today the Ghana coast. Palaeoclimatic Unity Thick glacial deposits of Permo-Carboniferous age are exposed at Uruguay and Brazil in
South America, Africa, south India, south Australia and Tasmania. The uniformity in the nature of sediment indicates that these continents/countries were together in the geological past and experienced similar climatic conditions. Today, these countries are
28
situated in various types of climatic zones, from temperate to tropical and are widely separated from each other by large oceans. Similarly, corals thrive in warm waters between the latitudes 300N and 300S. However, remnants of some corals found on the continents away from the region strengthen the view that these continents were nearer to the equator in the geological past. The continents have moved northwards and are experiencing cold and frigid climatic conditions today. Polar Wandering One of the strongest line of evidence that the continents were formerly united in Pangaea came from palaeomagnetism. The magneti-cally susceptible minerals such as magnetite, haematite, ilmenite, pyrrhotite in lava/magma and unconsolidated sediments have the tendency to align themselves parallel to the magnetic field prevailing at that time. This property is retained in the rocks as permanent magnetism. There has been periodic change in the position of magnetic pole that is recorded in rocks by way of permanent magnetism. Unraveling the signatures of such changes in the geologically old rocks by scientific methods provides the changing position of poles in geological time scale. This is known as polar wandering . The polar wandering clearly demonstrates that the continents have frequently moved and changed directions of their motion from time to time. SEA FLOOR SPREADING The present distribution of the continents has taken place in the last 65 million years. The drift of continents still continues. The ridges down the middle of ocean floors have been emitting lava actively (Fig. 5.3). These midoceanic ridges, are cracks on the floor of ocean where molten rocks push up to form new crust. The crust spreads away from the ridge and the ocean basin widens. This phenomena is known as Sea Floor Spreading. The Atlantic Ocean is getting wider by several centimetres a year, the Pacific Ocean is getting smaller, and the Red Sea is part of a crack in the crust that
Fig.5.3 : Stages in Continental Rupture and the Opening-Up of a New Ocean Basin The vertical scale is exaggerated to emphasise surface features. A. The crust is uplifted and stretched apart causing it to break into blocks that become tilted on faults; B. A narrow ocean is formed between the faults; and C. The ocean basin widens.
will widen to produce a new ocean millions of years in future. The widening South Atlantic Ocean has separated Africa and South America. PLATE THEORY According to the global plate tectonic theory, the lithosphere is broken into a number of moderately rigid plates (Fig.5.4). The plates move continuously and have relative direction
Fig.5.4 : The Mid-Oceanic Ridge System and Related Fracture Zones

29
30
of motion. Based on the relative motion of plates, three kinds of plate boundaries or marginal zones are recognised (i) zones or margins of divergence or spreading; (ii) zones or margins of convergence; and (iii) fracture zones or transform faults. Zones of divergence are boundaries along which plates separate and in this process of separation molten material upwells. This is commonly observed along linear ocean ridges where new lithosphere is created in the form of new ocean floors. Active volcanism and shallow focus earthquakes mark such boundaries. Zones of convergence are boundaries along which the edge of one plate overrides the other. The overridden plate slips down into the mantle and is absorbed. This process is known as subduction. Besides volcanism and shallow to deep focus earthquakes, these boundaries also produce deep trenches/ basins and folded mountain chains. There is neither creation nor destruction along the transfor m fault (Fig. 5.5). The lithospheric plates slide past each other. Causes of Plate Movement Arthur Holmes, in 1928, proposed that subcrustal convection currents invoke the mechanism of thermal convection that acts as driving force for the movement of plates. Hot current rise, then cool as they reach the surface. At the same time, cooler currents sink down. This convectional movement moves the crustal plates. Owing to current movements, the rigid plates of the lithosphere, which float on more mobile asthenopshere, are in constant motion. There are no direct evidences to prove the existence of such mechanism below the crust. However, small centres of past volcanic activity and often located far from any active plate boundary suggest the effect of convection currents on the lithosphere. These centres of volcanic activity are called the hot spot . W. Jason Morgan proposed the hypothesis of hot spot in 1971. According to him, the source of magma in the mantle remains fixed in position while the lithospheric plate above it moves steadily. In this way,
volcanoes are formed over a hot spot but then move away from the magma source and become extinct. These extinct volcanoes form a chain that is record of the plate motion. Plate Boundaries Plate boundaries are the most significant structural features of the earth. To understand plate tectonics, it is necessary to learn the geography of plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are not dif ficult to identify; they are marked by major topographic features. As given in Fig. 5.5 the outer rigid layer of the earth the lithosphere is divided into a mosaic of seven major plates and a number of smaller sub-plates. The major plates are outlined by young mountain systems, oceanic ridges and trenches. These include: Pacific Plate; Eurasian Plate; Indo-Australian Plate; African Plate; North American Plate; South American Plate; Antarctic Plate. The largest among them is the Pacific Plate which is composed of oceanic crust almost entirely and covers about 20 per cent of the earths surface. The other plates have both continental and oceanic crust. No plate consists of only continental crust. Plates range in thickness from about 70 km beneath oceanic areas to 150 km beneath continents. Plates are not permanent features. They change in size and shape and the ones which do not contain continental crust can become victims of subduction. A plate can split or weld with another adjoining plate. Each tectonic plate is rigid and moves as a single unit. Nearly all major tectonic activity occurs along the plate boundaries and that is why geologists and geographers focus their attention on the plate boundaries. Indian Plate Indian Ocean floor presents striking topography, consisting of a number of elevated
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N North
IndoAustralian Plate
North
South American Plate
IndoAustralian Plate
E
Plate boundaries Transform fault Divergent boundary
W
Convergent boundary
Fig.5.5 : Lithospheric Plates of the World Note the movement of the Indian plate marked by arrows with respect to other plates.
32
ridges and plateaus. Two of the ocean ridges, namely the Ninety-east ridge and the Mascarene Plateau, Chagos-Maldweep-Lakshadweep island ridge are said to be volcanic tracts of two hot spots. The northward extension of Ninetyeast ridge ended in the trench which consumed the sea floor to the north of the Indian continental mass. The Chagos-Lakshadweep ridge linked the ancient Carlsberg ridge with southeast Indian ridge during Eocene period (50 million years ago). The mid Indian Ocean ridge has been spreading faster, estimated at a speed of about 14-20 cm/year. Consequent to the Carlsberg-southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, the collision between Indian Plate and Eurasia Plate took place north of the Indian Plate giving rise to the Himalaya. The suture between Indian and Eurasian Plates in the Himalaya region has
been along the Indus and Brahmaputra rivers.
Geological Facts Australia has nearly turned completely round from its original position and is now moving northward. In 50 million years time it will be touching the landmass of Eurasia. About every 40,000-500,000 years, the earths magnetic poles reverse. It has taken about 200 million years to separate South America from Africa and create the Atlantic Ocean, and about 40 million years for Australia and the Antarctic to move apart to their present position.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What is a Pangaea? (ii) Who first propounded the theory of continental drift? (iii) What is meant by sea floor spreading? (iv) How do lithospheric plates behave along the transform fault? (v) What acts as the driving force for the movement of plates? (vi) Name the major plates of the earth. (vii) Which plate is composed of mainly oceanic crust? (viii) How did the Himalaya rise? 2. Give one term for the following: (i) Name of the southern continent, which broke from Pangaea. (ii) Centres of volcanic activity. (iii) Periodical change in the position of magnetic pole. (iv) The process in which one plate overrides the other and the overriden plate slips down into the mantle and is absorbed. 3. Discuss the evidences that support the continental drift. 4. Explain the plate tectonic theory and its mechanism. 5. Describe the main features of the Indian plate. Finding Out Collect more information about the continental drift especially the movement of the Indian plate.
33
CHAPTER
ROCKS
AND
MINERALS
he earths solid layer, called lithosphere, is about 100 km in thickness. The word lithosphere literally means a sphere of rocks. Down to a depth of 16 km from the earths surface, 95 per cent of the earth materials consist of rocks. The rocks are made of individual solid substances called minerals. Each mineral usually contains two or more elements, of which the whole earth is made of. ROCKS Petrologists (scientists who study rocks) define a rock as any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earths crust. All rocks are not hard. Clay, for example, is a type of rock that is soft. Chalk is still softer. Rock Types There are three main groups of rocks: Igneous; Sedimentary; and Metamorphic Rocks. Igneous Rocks These are formed from lava hurled out of a volcano or from the cooling of hot magma below the crust. Granite is coarse-grained igneous rock that is formed by the slow cooling of magma. Basalt is fine-grained igneous rock, almost black, that is formed by quick cooling of lava. Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of chemical composition and texture. Chemical differentiation of magma gives rise to mafic and felsic types of igneous rocks. Texture relates to the sizes and patterns of the mineral crystals present in the rock. The size of mineral crystals in an igneous rock depends largely upon the rate of cooling of magma. As a general rule, rapid cooling results in small
crystals and slow cooling in large crystals. Extremely sudden cooling will result in the formation of a natural glass which is noncrystalline. Large bodies of magma, trapped beneath the surface, cool very slowly because the surrounding rock conduct the heat slowly. Rapid cooling occurs in lava that loses heat rapidly to the atmosphere or to the overlying ocean water. The crystals large enough to be seen with naked eyes or with the help of a hand lens are called phaneritic textured crystals whereas those too small to be distinguished without the aid of a microscope are called aphanitic textured crystals of the igneous rocks. Where crystals in the rock are all within the same size range, the texture is described as equigranular . Where a few large crystals, called as phenocrysts , are embedded in a martix or groundmass of smaller crystals, the texture is porphyritic. Sedimentary Rocks These are made from sediments formed by the erosion and weathering of other rock types. Wind, water and snow erode rocks and carry the sediments to low lying areas. When deposited in the sea they are compressed and hardened to form layers of rocks. Sediment is fragmented mineral and organic matter derived directly or indirectly from pre-existing rocks and from life processes, transported and deposited by air, water or snow/ice. Sandstone is made from grains of sand, which have been naturally cemented together. Chalk is made up of millions of tiny calcium carbonate (lime) skeletons of microorganisms.
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Throughout the geologic past, layers of sediment have accumulated to great thickness in certain favourable areas on the continents and on the ocean floor. As new layers are added, the underlying layers experience progressively deeper burial. Under increasing pressures imposed by the overlying load, water is excluded from the sediment. They become denser and strongly coherent. Ultimately, hard rock layers are produced, a process ter med lithification . In some instances, chemical changes also occur in the sediments following deposition. All processes of physical and chemical change affecting sediments during its conversion into solid rock are called diagenesis. The first level of classification of sedimentary rocks is into clastic and non-clastic divisions. The adjective clastic comes from the Greek word klastos, meaning broken and describes clastic sediments consisting of particles removed individually from a parent rock source. The naming of clastic rocks depends in part on the size of component mineral grains. A system of grading of mineral grains has been established by geologists, which is known as Wentworth Scale. The non-clastic sedimentary rocks are made of sediments of two basic types, chemical precipitates and organically derived sediments. Chemical precipitates are solid mineral matters precipitated from an aqueous solution in which the component ions have been transported. The rock salt and gypsum are its examples. The organically derived sediments consist of remains of plants or animals as well as mineral matters produced by the activities of plants and animals. Coal and limestone are very good examples of this kind. Important non-clastic sediments are the carbonate minerals, compounds of calcium or magnesium ion or both. Sulphate compounds are also minerals of the chemical sediments, anhydrite (calcium sulphate) and gypsum (hydrous calcium sulphate) are important minerals. Metamorphic Rocks These types of rocks are formed when a rock is subjected to heat and/or pressure (Fig. 6.1).
The heat and/or pressure alter the characteristics of the original rock by forming new minerals. Clay when subjected to heat and/ or pressure gets metamorphosed to slate. Similarly, limestones give rise to marble. The metamorphic rocks can be broadly grouped into two major classes: cataclastic rocks and recrystallised rocks. Cataclastic rocks are formed by mechanical disruption (breaking and crushing) of the original minerals without appreciable chemical change. The process is described as dynamic metamorphism. The recrystallised rocks are formed by the recrystallisation of the original minerals. Minerals with different chemical formulae and crystal lattices are produced due to recrystallisation. The recrystallised rocks are further divided into two subclasses: contact and regional metamorphic rocks. The contact metamorphic rocks are formed by recrystallisation under high temperature caused by the intruding magma. The rocks are not subjected to bending and breaking but new mineral/s, emanating from magma are added to metamorphosed rocks. The regional metamorphic rocks undergo recrystallisation during the process of being deformed by shearing, often under conditions of high pressure or high temperature or both. As metamorphism continues a large percentage of the minerals assume plate-like shape and are assembled in parallel orientation in the rock, a structure known as foliation. Strongly developed foliation is known as schists . In schists, crystals of certain minerals grow in size. These large crystals are referred to as porphyroblasts . Another structure found in metamorphic rocks is lineation. In this, mineral grains are drawn out into long, thin, pencil-like objects, all in parallel alignment. In another for m of structure, known as banding , minerals of different varieties or groups are segregated into alternate layers. These layers are usually of light or dark shades, making the banding conspicuous. Gneiss and schist have well marked banded structure.
ROCKS AND MINERALS
35
Fig.6.1 : Rock Cycle
MINERALS The mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid that is an inorganic substance, having an orderly atomic structure and a definite chemical composition. The basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in the interior of the earth. When magma cools, crystals of minerals appear. These first crystals may sink in the magma so that the composition of the magma changes with depth. Thus, a sequence of minerals is formed in the rocks as the magma cools. Besides, certain minerals such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are organic substances found in solid, liquid and gaseous forms respectively. Physical Properties of Minerals Minerals can be identified by their hardness, colour, the way they reflect light (lustre), the way they break (cleavage and fracture), and their density.
Crystal Structure Mineral crystals fall into six crystal systems (Fig.6.2), each of which is defined in terms of its crystallographic axes. (i) Isometric System : Three axes of crystal are of equal length and lie at right angle to each other, e.g. Halite mineral. (ii) Tetragonal System : Three axes make right angles with each other. The two horizontal axes, a and b, are of equal length but the third, c axis, is of different length, e.g Zircon mineral. (iii) Hexagonal System : Four axes are present. Three of the axes are horizontal and of equal length, intersecting in angles of 600 and 1200. The fourth axes is perpendicular to other axes and is of different length, e.g. Beryl mineral. (iv) Orthorhombic System : Three axes intersect at right angles to each other, but they are of unequal lengths, e.g. Staurolite mineral.
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(v) Monoclinic System : The three axes are of unequal length. Two axes intersect at right angles whereas the third axis intersects obliquely forming an acute angle, e.g. Gypsum mineral. (vi) Triclinic System : The three axes are of unequal length and intersect at oblique angles, e.g. Albite mineral. Cleavage and Fracture The smooth planar surfaces of weakness along which a mineral has pronounced tendency to split is known as cleavage planes. It bears a close relationship to internal atomic structure and external crystal form of mineral. Minerals
lacking cleavage break along various types of fracture surfaces. For example, the curved fracture surfaces of a glass constitute conchoidal fracture, that is seen in mineral quartz. Specific Gravity Each mineral has a certain specific gravity which is the ratio of its density to the density of water at 40 Celsius. Specific gravity of minerals is a property of great importance because it determines the density of a given rock and rock density in turn determines the gross layered structure of the earth.
Fig.6.2 : Mineral Crystals Various Forms
ROCKS AND MINERALS
37
Hardness The degree to which a mineral surface resists being scratched is known as its mineral hardness. Hardness is geologically important because it determines how easily a mineral is worn away by the abrasive action of streams, waves, wind and glaciers in the processes of erosion and transportation. Ten standard minerals constitute the Mohs Scale of hardness ranging from the softest to the hardest (Appendix II). Lustre The appearance of a mineral surface under reflected light is referred to as its mineral lustre. It is described by several descriptive adjectives, such as metallic (metal like), adamantine (diamond like), vitreous (glass like), resinous (oil like), pearly or silky (pearl or silk like). Colour Certain minerals possess a distinctive mineral colour that facilitates recognition. The impurities present in the mineral provides shades of colour to a mineral. Streak When a mineral is rubbed across the white porceline plate, known as streak plate, it may leave a streak of mineral powder of distinctive colour. The colour of powder of mineral may sometimes be different than the colour of the mineral. Besides physical properties, minerals are also identified on the basis of their optical properties. These optical properties are evaluated by means of a microscope using polarised light rays and are of great value in mineral identification. Economic Importance of Minerals Mineral resources can be divided into four main groups: essential resources, energy resources, metal resources, and industrial
resources. The most basic group, essential resources, comprises soil and water. Energy resources can be divided into the fossil fuels (crude oil, natural gas, coal, oil shale and tar sand) and the nuclear fuels (including uranium, thorium and geothermal power). Metal resources range from structural metals such as iron, aluminum and titanium to ornamental and industrial metals such as gold, platinum and gallium. Industrial minerals include more than 30 minerals, such as salt, asbestos and sand (Appendix III). Mineral deposits have two geological characteristics that make them a real challenge to modern civilisation. First, almost all of them are non-renewable resources. The geological processes that form them are much slower than the rate at which we exploit them. There is no likelihood of our ability to grow mineral deposits at a rate equal to our consumption. Second, mineral deposits have a place value. We cannot decide where to extract them; nature made that decision for us when the deposits were formed.
Facts About Minerals There are at least 2,000 minerals that have been named and identified. However, most rocks are made up of not more than 12 different classes of minerals. The most common element in the earths crust is oxygen. The second most common element is silicon. Mineral Quartz is silicon dioxide and is very common mineral. The largest diamond ever found was the Cullinan diamond, discovered in a mine in South Africa in 1905. It was 3,106 carats, which means it weighed more than 600 g. Diamond and Graphite are both forms of carbon but their atoms are arranged differently. Diamond is the hardest mineral whereas Graphite is soft, black and feels greasy. Under the sea, minerals dissolved in water crystallise around the vents of faults or fissures.
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EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Define a rock. (ii) Name the types of rocks. (iii) Which are the two main types of igneous rocks? (iv) What is meant by texture of the rocks? (v) What is lithification? (vi) Name the scale that grades the size of mineral grains. 2. Distinguish between: (i) Rocks and minerals; (ii) Chemical precipitates and organically derived sediments; (iii) Cataclastic rocks and recrystallised rocks; (iv) Foliation and lineation. 3. Give a word for the following: (i) Few large crystals embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals. (ii) The processes of physical and chemical changes affecting sediments during their conversion into solid rocks. (iii) Structure of a metamorphic rock in which mineral grains are drawn out into long, thin pencil like objects, all in parallel alignment. (iv) The smooth planar surfaces of weakness along which a mineral has pronounced tendency to split. 4. Classify the following rocks into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic: (i) Granite; (ii) Slate; (iii) Marble; (iv) Limestone; (v) Clay; (vi) Basalt; (vii) Sandstones; (viii) Coal; (ix) Chalk; (x) Gypsum; (xi) Gneiss; and (xii) Schist. 5. Write short notes on: (i) Sedimentary rocks; (ii) Types of metamorphism; (iii) Economic importance of minerals. 6. Describe the formation of igneous rocks giving suitable examples of various types. 7. Discuss physical properties of minerals. Finding Out Collect rock samples of different kinds and write their main features as seen through naked eyes.
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CHAPTER
SOILS
Parent Material Soils from weakly cemented sandstone will be sandy and soils from shales will be shallow and fine-textured. Similarly clay formation is favoured more by a high percentage of decomposable dark minerals and less by quartz. The parent material, thus, influences the soil formation by their different rates of weathering. Climate Acidic soils are formed in humid areas due to intense weathering and leaching. Alkaline soils are formed in areas of low rainfall due to the accumulation or retention of lime. The climate is an increasingly dominant factor in forming varied type of soils especially because of the effects of temperature and precipitation. It also plays an indirect role in the formation of soil by way of its influence on vegetation. Biota The decomposition of organic wastes and residues and the activities of living plants and animals have marked influence on the soil development. Burrowing animals, such as moles, prairie dogs, earthworms, ants and termites help soil development slowly by decomposing organic matters and forming weak acids that dissolve mineral faster. The roots of living plants and decomposed plant material releases weak organic acids that help in weathering and soil development. Topography Steep hillsides have thin soil cover because of
oils are products of a complex mixture of weathered and eroded rock materials on the one hand and organic residues on the other. Weathering changes consolidated mass (rock) to an unconsolidated (loose) material. The decomposition of plants and microorganisms releases organic chemicals (humus) that interact with the loose material, giving rise to various kinds of soils. These changes involve addition, loss, transformation and translocation. Additions are made by water (rainfall, irrigation), nitrogen from bacterial fixation, energy as sunlight, sediment from wind and water, salts and organic residues. Losses result from chemicals soluble in soil water, eroded small-sized fractions, nutrients removed in grazed and harvested plants, water losses, carbon losses as carbon dioxide and denitrification loss of N 2 . Transformations happen because of many chemical and biological reactions that decompose organic matter. Water and organisms move within the soil causing translocation of substances at dif ferent depths. Organic soils develop from an accumulation of plant residues that are preserved by the low oxygen environment of shallow and stagnant waters. Non-soils are surface material that do not support plant life, such as the salt flats of Great Salt Lake and rock barrens. SOIL FORMING FACTORS All soil forming processes involve weathering, There are, however, several other factors that influence the end product of weathering. Five of them are primary factors. They singly or jointly are responsible for the development of various types of soils. These factors are:
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surface runoff that results in the erosion of surface. On the other hand, gentle hillsides preserve appreciable soil cover due to the luxuriant vegetation and sufficient water passing in vertically to deeper levels. The landlocked depressions receive high amount of runoff water that favours appreciable vegetation cover but slower decomposition because of oxidation deficiency. This results in the formation of soil that is rich in organic matter. The topography influences the soil formation through its relationship with water and temperature. Time Under ideal conditions, a recognisable soil profile may develop in 200 years and under less favourable circumstances, it may extend to several thousand years. The rate of soil development is determined by the effects of time and other distinct factors climate, parent material, topography and biota. Soil Forming Processes Several processes are involved in soil formation and may, to some extent, affect the soil profile. These processes are: Eluviation It is the mechanical translocation of clay or other fine particles down the profile. Illuviation It is the accumulation of the washed down (eluviated) material in the lower horizons of the soil profile. Cheluviation It is the downward movement of material, similar to leaching but under the influence of organic complex compounds. Leaching It is the removal and downward movement of material from a horizon in solution.
SOIL HORIZONS Horizons are soil layer that are approximately parallel to the soils surface. Each horizon is different from other. Boundaries between horizons range from indistinct to abrupt and clear. Horizons are for med because of differences in the degree of depth, amounts of humus accumulated, translocation of colloids by water and loss of colloids. Capital letters, A,B,C,E,O and R are used to designate master horizons. Lowercase letters are used as suffixes to indicate specific characteristics of the master horizon. SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION Plant nutrition is the process of absorption and utilisation of essential elements by plants for growth and reproduction. Most plants need at least 16 essential elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulphur, calcium, iron, magnesium, boron, manganese, copper, zinc, molybdenum and chlorine. Plants utilise hydrogen, oxygen and carbon from air and water. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are absorbed from soil and fertilisers. Chlorine, copper, boron, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc are micronutrients that are absorbed in lesser quantity. Nitrogen is most often the limiting element in plant growth. It is utilised by plants as ammonium or nitrate. The fertility of soil depends upon the presence of essential elements as well as the organic matter in sufficient amount. SOIL TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION Soil taxonomy or classification of soils, is the grouping of soils on the basis of their morphology (texture and structure), appearance, for m and fertility. The first complete US taxonomic classification was published in 1938 and modified in 1949. Although the US system has application worldwide, many countries France, Canada, China, India, Brazil and Russia use their own systems. The present US classification organises all soils into 11 orders,
SOILS
41
54 sub-orders, 238 great groups, 1,922 subgroups and then families and series. In traditional classification, the major divisions of soil are Zonal, Intrazonal and Azonal. Zonal Soils These soils reflect climate and vegetation to a large degree, hence, their name. They are formed on well drained sites on non-extreme parent material. Polar desert soils, Podzols, Brown earths, Prairie soils, Chernozem, Chestnut soils, Brown and gray semi-arid soils, Grumusols, Red earths, and Lateritic soils fall under zonal category. Intrazonal Soils These are well developed soils formed where some local soil forming factor is dominant. Soils in this category belong to four main groups, namely saline, hydromorphic, calcareous and organic. Each group consists of a variety of soil types. Azonal Soils These have poorly developed profiles because some factor of soil formation has inhibited soil formation. Lithosols, alluvial soils and dry sands fall in this category. SOILS OF INDIA The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) classified Indian soils into eight groups alluvium, black, red and yellow, laterite, arid, saline, peaty and organic, and forest soils. This classification is based on genesis, colour, composition and location. Alluvial Soil Alluvial soil is the most productive one in India though, low in nitrogen content. It is fertile enough to support crops for good yield. It is a depositional soil transported by streams and winds. Its colour varies from light gray to ash gray. It is found in the Great Indian Plain, river valleys, coastal plains and deltas.
Black Soil It is popularly known as black cotton soil and is developed on basaltic rocks of Deccan Plateau. Cotton being the major crop of the soil, hence, it is called black cotton soil. The colour of soil ranges from deep black to gray. It swells when wetted and shrinks when dried. Because of this characteristic the soil develops wide cracks. Black soils are well developed in Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Red and Yellow Soil This soil is relatively sandy and reddish in colour. Red colour is essentially due to the presence of iron oxides. It is derived from the old crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Wheat, millet, cotton, potatoes and coarse grains are widely grown in this soil. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa have large extent of land with red sandy soils. Yellow and red soils are found in parts of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh and southern part of the Gangetic Plain. Laterite Soil The warm climate with seasonal rainfall helps remove fast the humus content from the soil. This makes the soil more acidic and rich in aluminium and iron oxide. This soil is known as laterite. Laterites are not naturally fertile enough for growing food crop. Application of fertilisers and manures are required to make it crop worthy. Laterite soil can be cut into blocks that are used as bricks for house construction. It is well developed in coastal margins and plains of southern peninsula from West Bengal to southern Maharashtra. Arid Soil Arid soil ranges from red to brown in colour. It is well developed in western Rajasthan. It is generally, sandy and alkaline. High temperature and accelerated evaporation decreases the moisture and humus content in it. Because of the concentration of calcium
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downward, its lower layers become impermeable. Irrigation increases the soil moisture and makes the soil crop worthy. Saline Soil Because of dry climate and poor drainage conditions, this soil acquires more salt. It is widespread in wester n Gujarat (Rann of Kuchch), deltas of East Coast and Sunderban areas of West Bengal. Gypsum diminishes the salinity of soil and makes it useful for crops. Peaty and Organic Soils Area of high rainfall are marked with good growth of vegetation. As the organic matter accumulates and decomposes, it gives rise to humus rich soil. The high content (40-50 per cent) of organic matter gives the name to soil. The soil is normally black in colour and alkaline. It occurs widely in northern part of Bihar, Almora area of Uttaranchal, coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
Forest Soil Forest soils are formed in forested areas where sufficient rainfall is available. In this soil too organic matter is high and pH value is low. It is mostly for med in the forest areas of mountains.
Some Facts About Soil The branch of science that deals with the study of soil is called as pedology. Based on the study of palaeosols in India, Pakistan and Nepal, onset of Indian Monsoon in Asia has been established at about 8 million years ago. Enrichment of water with nutrients, primarily phosphorus, causing abundant aquatic plant growth is called eutrophication. A vertical section of the soil through all its horizons and extending into the parent material is called soil profile.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What are soils? (ii) How is soil different from a rock? (iii) What is humus? (iv) How do organic soils develop? (v) Name the primary factors responsible for the development of soils. (vi) What is leaching? (vii) How many essential elements are required by plants? 2. Distinguish between: (i) Eluviation and illuviation; (ii) Cheluviation and leaching; (iii) Intrazonal and azonal soils; (iv) Arid soil and saline soil. 3. Discuss the factors responsible for soil formation and also the processes involved. 4. What are the bases of classifying soils of India, as used by the ICAR? Describe the distribution of major soil types in our country. Finding out Collect soil samples from different areas. Find out their main characteristics and write a brief note.
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Unit III
LANDFORMS
CHAPTER
&
EVOLUTION
OF
LANDFORMS
he surface of the earth constitutes a great assemblage of physical features, each having a form, dynamics, and uniqueness. It is called landform. No landform is permanent, each is changing some slowly while others fast. Landforms vary in size from continents to minor rivulets. A host of internal and external forces are involved in the creation of landforms. Tectonic forces crumple rocks and push up continents and mountain ranges. Moving water, air and ice erode rocks and transport the eroded debris to depositional sites and thus, change the appearance of the landscapes with the passage of time. The intensity of these agencies varies from one region to another depending on climate, vegetation and altitude. Geomorphology is the genetic study of landfor ms. T raditionally, the study was essentially confined to origin and evolution of landforms. According to some, the study and interpretation of records left by erosion constitute the major part of the science of geomorphology. While others view geomorphology not merely as a study of landforms but also interaction, at the contact surface, between the lithosphere and the atmosphere. Two great geomorphologists, S.W. Wooldridge and W.M. Davis considered that landforms were the best indicators of the earths history. The view of the earths history proposed by the catastrophists of the early nineteenth century was of a succession of abrupt upheavals culminating in a great flood. These paroxysms were interpreted as the result of Divine intervention. In contrast, C. Lyell and J.Hutton hypothesised slow changes involving a number of natural processes. J. Hutton in
the book Theory of the Earth with Proof and Illustrations (1785) recognised the cyclical nature of geological changes. He postulated that ordinary processes, operating over long time intervals could effect great changes. He reasoned from observation that rocks slowly decayed and disintegrated under the action of water and air. Hutton observed mountains being eroded, rivers carrying debris to the sea, ocean waves pounding rocks, sands and mud settling to the bottom and then being buried on the sea floor. Nature behaves in a uniform fashion all the time. Charles L yell called it Principle of Uniformitarianism. Actually what remains uniform are the physical and chemical laws that govern geological activities. LANDFORM TYPES Landforms that result from crustal movements are of tectonic type. No sub-aerial relief can occur until tectonic uplift has raised land above sea level or they are constructed by depositional (volcanic or sedimentational) processes. Terrestrial land forms can be classified into the following hierarchy: first order land forms, second order land forms, and third order land forms. The first order landforms include the continents and ocean basins that comprise the largest units of the earths relief. In the light of Plate Tectonic Theory (discussed in Chapter 5 of this book), the continents are large masses that are rafted and rooted in the mantle. As a consequence of this process new oceans are formed. The second order landform includes the tectonic mountain belts, plateaus and plains. Under the second order relief, the landscapes
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are characterised primarily by their tectonic or structural unity. The second order relief is generally, created by internal or endogenic earth processes driven by the energy source in the form of volcanism and/or tectonic activity from deep inside the earth. The Himalaya mountains and the Deccan Plateau are examples of the second order landforms. The third order landform includes the features produced by erosion such as carved mountains, hills and valleys. Atmospheric weathering and erosion are largely responsible in giving rise to the landforms by destructional or erosional processes. Complex series of reactions take place when rocks are exposed to water and air in the planets gravitational field. The third order landforms are shaped by the external or exogenic earth processes. External processes, driven by solar energy, act through the atmosphere and oceans where air and water come in contact with the lithoshpere. WEATHERING The worlds different landscapes have been made mainly by the action of weather on rocks. The term rock weathering is used to describe chemical decomposition and physical disintegration of rocks. L ying above the bedrock may be a layer of loose material, the regolith (rego blanket, lith rock). Regolith is a term that can be used broadly to refer to any layer of relatively loose or soft material lying on the bedrock. When regolith is formed by decomposition and disintegration of the bedrock that lies directly beneath it, it is called residual regolith. The regolith transported by streams, ice, wind and deposited elsewhere is called transported regolith. Weathering takes place in three ways: by physical or mechanical action, by chemical action and by biochemical or biological action. Mechanical Weathering In middle and high latitude climates and at high altitudes alternate freezing and melting of water called frost action provides powerful mechanism for breaking up of rocks. Water
that has penetrated joint planes and other natural openings in the rock expands when transformed into ice crystals. The pressure of growing mass of such crystals cause joint blocks to be heaved up and pried free of the parent mass. In the dry climates of low and middle latitudes, an important agent of rock disintegration is salt. The dry climates have long droughts in which evaporation can occur continuously causing water deep in the rock to be drawn surfaceward by capillary force. Near the rock surface, this moisture steadily evaporates permitting dissolved salts to be deposited in openings of the rock. Although minute in size and appearing fragile, the growing salt crystals are capable of exerting powerful stresses. Temperature changes are also a factor in the disintegration of rocks. Daily temperature changes may not cause rock disintegration, but repeated expansion and contraction assist in breaking up of rocks already affected by other stresses and by chemical decay. The action of the roots of growing plant, exerting pressure upon the confining walls of regolith or rock is yet another kind of mechanical weathering. This process is especially important in the breakup of rock already weakened by other physical and chemical means. Rocks break in different ways. Rocks composed of coarse grain fall apart grain by grain. Some rocks disintegrate like skins of onions, called exfoliation. Others break along joints as in block separaton or along new surfaces producing angular pieces as in shattering (Fig. 8.1). Chemical Weathering Chemical weathering consists of several chemical reactions, which may occur more or less simultaneously. Oxidation is one of the most typical exothermic, volume increasing reactions. Especially common is the reaction of iron bearing minerals with oxygen dissolved in water. Other typical weathering reaction is carbonation. It is reaction of minerals with dissolved carbon dioxide in water. Hydrolysis , yet another chemical reaction, is the decompo-sition of mineral with water. Some minerals get dissolved in a chemical reaction called solution.
EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS
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erosion. Larger plants affect weathering in a number of ways. Cracks may be widened by root pressure. The accumulation of elements by plants and their return to the surface of the soil affect the nature of the soil and weathering profiles and the course of weathering. Vegetation litter and decaying vegetation are important in conserving moisture which in turn enhances weathering. MASS WASTING The force of gravity acts constantly upon all soil, regolith and bedrock. In most places the internal strength of these materials is sufficient to keep them in place. Wherever the ground surface is sloping, a proportion of the force of gravity is directed downslope parallel with the surface. Every particle has at least some tendency to roll or slide downhill and will do so whenever the downslope force exceeds the resisting forces of friction and cohesion that tend to bind the particle to the rest of the mass. The forms of mass wasting range from the catastrophic slides to the small flows of water saturated soil. But extremely slow movement of soil, imperceptible from one year to the next year, also acts on almost every hillside (Table 8.1). Careful inspection of hillside often discloses evidence that the soil has been very slowly moving downslope rather steadily over a long period of time. This phenomenon is called soil creep (Fig. 8.2). It is the result of shear distributed along countless joint fractures and bedding or cleavage surfaces in the rock. In hilly and mountainous regions of humid climate, water-saturated soil and regolith rich in clay minerals take the form of an earthflow. Earthflow is a form of mass wasting in which behaviour of the earth material is that of a plastic solid (Fig. 8.3). Solifluction is an arctic variety of earthflow in the treeless tundra.
Fig.8.1 : Mechanical Weathering Note four geometrical forms into which rocks may break.
Biological Weathering The breakdown of rocks and minerals is very largely controlled by plants, animals and bacteria as well. The main contribution of animals to weathering seems to be repeated mixing of soil material, thus bringing fresh material into exposure to weathering agents. Snails are common in lime-rich areas and can wear deep holes in limestone. Bird droppings may provide organic matter for the start of soil formation and weathering. Grazing by large animals loosens the soil, thus, increasing surface runoff and soil
Type of Movement Falls Topples Slides Flows Bedrock Rock Rock Rock Rock Rock fall topple slump slide flow
Table 8.1 : Types of Mass Movements Type of Material (Soils) Predominantly Coarse Predominantly Fine Debris Debris Debris Debris Debris fall topple slump slide flow Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth fall topple slump slide flow
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Fig.8.2 : Soil Creep Common place evidence of imperceptible down slope creep of soil.
where melting winter snow picks up weathered rocks rich in clay. Along vertical rock cliff, the process of physical weathering loosens the rocks. When the force of gravity brings them down they are described as rockfalls. The falling rock masses break into smaller fragments to form a slope of loose materials called talus. Sliding of a single block of rock on its lower surface is called rock slide (Fig.8.4). When a block slips on a curved fracture plane rotating backward upon a horizontal axis, it is known as slump (Fig. 8.4). The processes of erosion, transportation and deposition are carried out by several agents, such as running water, glacial ice, sea waves, and winds. RUNNING WATER Running water is undoubtedly the most important agent of denudation. It is most conspicuous as a stream or river that transports enormous volumes of surplus precipitation from the land to the ocean. Stream action, in combination with weathering, mass wasting and overland flow is responsible for total process called fluvial denudation. Running water as a geomorphic agent acts in two basic forms. First is overland flow, the movement of runoff downhill on the ground surface in a more or less broadly distributed sheet or film. Second is channel flow or stream flow, in which water moves to lower levels in a long, narrow, troughlike feature called a stream channel bounded on both sides by rising slopes called banks that contains the flow. Stream channels are organised into branching channel networks. Together with the land surface slopes that contribute runoff by overland flow, the channel network forms a drainage system or drainage basin which is a line following a chain of continuous ridge crests. The line includes all of the surface or watershed that slopes toward the channels of the system. Rivers perform three closely interrelated geomorphic work : Erosion; Transportation; and Deposition.
Mass wasting takes the form of mudflow if proportion of water to mineral matter is large. It travels fast down the channels of streams. Mudflows also originate high in mountains
Fig.8.3 : Earth Flow Slump features are well developed in the upper part of a slope.
Fig.8.4 : Landslide Two basic forms of landslide rockslide and slump may be noted.
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River erosion is the progressive removal of mineral matter from the surfaces of stream channel which itself may consist of bedrock or regolith. River transportation is the movement of eroded particles in chemical solution, in turbulent suspension or by rolling and dragging along the bed. River deposition consists of accumulation of any transported particles on the streambed, on the adjoining floodplain or on the floor of a body of standing water into which the river empties. While the river performs all three functions simultaneously, one may dominate over the other in different parts of the river courses. River Erosion The nature of river erosion depends upon the materials of which the channel is composed and the means of erosion available to the river. One simple means of erosion is hydraulic action, the pressure and drag of flowing water exerted upon grains projecting from the bed and banks. Weak bedrock and various forms of regolith are easily carved out by hydraulic action alone. Mechanical wear, termed abrasion, occurs when rock particles carried in the current strike against the exposed bedrocks of the channel. Small particles are further reduced by crushing and grinding when caught between larger cobbles and boulders. Chemical reactions between ions carried in solution in river water and exposed mineral surfaces result in a form of erosion called solution. Gentle rain falling on bare surface loosens the soil and muddies the water. The muddy water flows as thin, slow moving surface layer of water called sheet flow. As the slope increases, the water scours additional sediments and erodes small channels called rills. Headward erosion of rills and their subsequent widening lead to gully formation. Gullies dissect the land into a number of isolated little hills, giving rise to badland topography. The valley of the Chambal in Madhya Pradesh is an example of badland topography. Entering the plains, the running water deposits the transported material laterally called as lateral accretion. Point bars formed by meandering rivers on their concave bends are
a good example of lateral accretion (Fig. 8.5). Sometimes, when a segment of the meandering river channel is abandoned to straighten its course, the abandoned channel is known as oxbow lake (Fig. 8.6).
Fig.8.5 : Formation of Meanders Meanders develop with a slight change in the channel of the stream in initial stage.
When the velocity of running water as it comes out from hills and meets the plain decreases, it dumps the transported material at the foot hills forming alluvial fans. By the time a river enters the sea or a large lake, it loses its
Fig.8.6 : River-Born Features in a Plain Note river meander and associated landforms.
velocity. The fine material carried down the distance is deposited at this point to form a triangular fan called delta.
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River Transportation It takes three different forms. First, dissolved solids such as salts travel downstream indefinitely and reach the ocean. They do not affect the mechanical behaviour of the river. Second, particles of clay, silt and sometimes, fine sand are carried in suspension. In this form of transport, the upward currents in eddies of flow are capable of holding the particles indefinitely in the body of the river. Clay particles, once lifted into suspension, are so readily carried that they travel long distances. As a result, suspension provides a means of separating solid particles of various sizes and carrying each size category to a different location, a process known a sorting. Third, rolling or sliding of grains along the stream bed. These dragging motions can be conveniently included in the term traction . Fragments moved in traction are bed load of the river. The erosion and transportation depends upon the energy of a stream. The volume of water and speed of its movement provide energy to it. A swift mountain stream by vertical erosion for ms V-shaped valleys, gorges, rapids and waterfalls. Where side rocks
are very resistant the valley becomes very narrow and the sides steep to form gorges. The Satluj, the Indus and the Brahmaputra have formed deep gorges in the Himalayas. Irregular bed of a river caused by occurrence of rocks of varying resistance leads to the formation of rapids where water jumps up and down while flowing. When the break in the river courses is great, waterfalls are formed. River Deposition The fine clays continue in transportation almost indefinitely, but the coarser silts settle down when river velocity drops to moderate values. In this way clay is carried to the sea, where it contacts salt water and undergoes clotting into larger particles, or flocculation. Particles of medium to coarse sand and larger particles travel as bed load in a river. River meanders, flood plains, braided channels, oxbows lakes and deltas develop in plains as a result of lateral and bed deposits. GLACIERS Glaciers are defined quite broadly as large natural accumulations of land ice affected by
Fig.8.7 : Conditions for Formation of a Glacier Accumulated ice moves downwards.
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motion. Matter, in the form of snow, is received upon the upper surface in the zone of highest elevation where the rate of loss of snow by ablation in summer is, on an average, less than the rate at which the snow is received. This region of net gain is called the zone of accumulation (Fig. 8.7). In the lower part of the glacier, loss by ablation, exceeds the rate at which snow accumulates and the imbalance is greater as we follow the glacier to lower, warmer elevations. This region of net loss is the exit boundary of the system and is known as the zone of ablation. Beneath the glacier, ice moves plastically removing and picking loose materials. This activity is called glacial plucking. Blocks of rock being carried within the glacier or ice are scraped and dragged along the rock floor, grooving the bedrock and chipping out fragments of rock in an abrasive process called grinding. As the ice moves it carries the rocks along, and grinds them into smaller grains. The scratches or striations so formed are the relic of that action. Striations are clues to the direction the ice moved. Ice erodes and transports material from the sides of its valley with a special efficiency. Not only does it scrap the sides below the ice level, but the ice acts as a conveyor belt for any debris that happens to fall or slide from higher up on the valley walls onto the surface of the glacier. The crushing strength applied to the bed by overriding glacier or ice is exceedingly high. Large quantity of eroded material accompanies glacier. Strip of dirt and rock that flow with the ice and deposit along the sides of valley is known lateral moraine (Fig. 8.8). When the lateral moraines of two glaciers merge, they form a single medial moraine in the middle. Plucking of bedrocks by the overriding glacier leads to the formation of glacial trough, a channel of the valley glacier. The glacial trough, if filled up by water gives rise to trough lake. The glacial troughs formed near the sea get filled in by the sea water giving rise to fiords. At the head of each trough a steep headed, semi-circular basin is formed called cirque. Where three or more cirques intersect, a highly pyramidal peak may rise above the level, called horn. The rate of movement of glaciers varies from an average of 4 centimetres to about 18 metres a day. Its velocity increases with the steepness of
Fig.8.8 : A Glaciated Topography The upper sketch shows valleys covered with glaciers. The lower one shows the features formed by a glacial erosion.
slope and decreases with the friction and debris at the bottom floor. Unequal movement leads to splitting of ice and development of cracks on the glacial body which are called crevasses. U-shaped valleys, cirques and sheep-back shaped rocks are common features of the topography which experienced glaciations. Below the snowlines the glacier melts and the materials carried by it is deposited. Eskers, drumlins, out wash plain and many other features are noticeable in this area (Fig.8.9).
Fig.8.9 : Features Formed by Glacial Deposition Examine various forms with reference to direction of movement of ice.
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WINDS Winds are highly variable in direction and force. The distribution and intensity of winds in combination with climate has much to do with the location of wind erosion and windblown deposits on the earth. One form of wind erosion is deflation, the lifting and transporting of loose particles of clay and silt, collectively referred to as dust. The particles are suspended in turbulent eddies in the wind structure. The process is much like that of suspension of fine sediments in river flow. The dust is diffused upward into the atmosphere to heights ranging from a few metres to several kilometres. The height depends upon intensity of wind turbulence, duration of the wind and fineness of the particles. The result may be dense cloud called dust storm. Deflation occurs where clays and silts in a thoroughly dried state are exposed on barren land surfaces. The sand moves in a layer only a few centimetre above the ground at most. The grains make long leaps downward. The process of leaping by rebound is termed saltation. In this way, the wind transfers kinetic energy to the grain, which on impact with the sand surface dislodges other grains and may project them into the air. Excavation of shallow depressions by wind erosion is called deflation hollows or blowouts. Deflation removes the finer materials leaving behind bigger pebbles. Such residual sheets of pebble or gravel is called desert pavement. S andblast action is another form of wind erosion. It results from mineral grains of sand blasting against exposed rock surfaces. We often observe it in desert areas and in the coastal areas. Notches, honeycombed surfaces and mushroom rocks (Fig. 8.10) are some of the features formed by sandblast actions. When dust is transported by wind to long distances and deposited in large area, it produces a landform called loess. By far the most prominent landforms of deserts are sand dunes. They are created by winds transporting sand and depositing it to form round hillocks of sand. An isolated dune of crescent shape is
Fig.8.10 : Mushroom Rock Observe the shape. What could be the reason for its formation?
called barchan (Fig. 8.11). Dunes separated by troughs are called transverse dunes. Dunes
Fig.8.11 : Barchans Note its formation with reference to wind direction.
having long, narrow ridges parallel to the prevailing wind direction are called longitudinal dunes. WAVES The coast, the broad region that is the meeting place of land and sea, can be carved into many kinds of shapes steep rocky cliffs, broad low beaches, crescents of small beaches or wide, sweeping, sandy tidal flats. The forces that shape coasts are essentially the destructive processes of erosion operating in conjunction
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with sea waves that transport and deposit material. At the shoreline, the line along which the water meets the land, the major erosive agent is wave action. Ocean waves produced by wind are of two types: progressive, in which the wave forms move rapidly through the water and oscillatory, which moves up and down only. When a train of waves arrives at the coast of a continent or island, it encounters shallow water. Wave orbits in shallow water are modified into ellipses which become progressively flatter as the bottom is approached. In this way, not by separate segments but in a continuous transition along the wave crest, the line of the wave bends as it slows, in a process called wave refraction. This process is so called because of its similarity to the bending of light rays in optical refraction. Wave refraction produces special effects on an irregular shoreline with indented bays and projecting headlands. Erosion by waves is thus, concentrated at headlands and tends to wear them away more quickly than along straight sections of shoreline. Along a coast of hard rock, a gently inclined rock surface is carved out to accommodate the swash and backswash. It is called abrasion platform. A shoreline rising abruptly from the abrasion platform is called marine cliff. The stormy waves thrust rock fragments with great violence, against the cliff base to develop wave cut notches and sea caves (Fig. 8.12). Relatively thick and gently sloping accumulation of sand, gravel or cobbles in the zone of breakers and surf is called beach . During summer when waves are weaker sand from deeper water is moved to the beach. A reverse of situation occurs in winter.
Fig.8.12 : Erosional Features Produced by Wave Action
The erosive work of sea depends largely upon the size and strength of waves, seaward slope, height of the shore between low and high tides, the composition of rocks and the depth of water. Breaking of waves along the shore develops a considerable force on rocks. Erosion, however, is also affected by the solvent and chemical actions of sea waves.
Mass movements are environmental hazards in terms of property damage to highways, railroads and structures of all kinds. Clays that spontaneously change from a solid condition to a near liquid condition is called quick clay. A sudden shock or disturbance may often cause a layer of quick clay to begin to liquefy, called liquefaction, that once begun cannot be stopped.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What is geomorphology? (ii) Name the geomorphologists who considered that landforms were the best indicators of the earths history.
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(iii) What is relief? (iv) Name various types of weathering. (v) Arrange the following, from smaller to bigger form: stream, gully, river, rill. (vi) What is a fiord? 2. Distinguish between: (i) Mechanical and chemical weathering; (ii) Earth flow and mud flow; (iii) Alluvial fans and deltas; (iv) V-shaped valley and U-shaped valley. 3. Write short notes on the following: (i) Moraines; (ii) Wind erosion; (iii) Disintegration. 4. Explain various forms of mass wasting. Project Work Prepare a list of erosional and depositional features formed by a river and draw sketches to show each of them.
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Unit IV
CLIMATE
CHAPTER
'
ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

Compounds of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen were generated under the influence of energy sources such as lightening, solar radiation or radioactive discharges. Subsequently, the heaviest rains started, but falling of rain drops evaporated before reaching the earth sur face, which was extremely hot at that time. The cyclic process of evaporation and precipitation expedited further cooling of the earth. When the earths crust finally cooled sufficiently, torrential rain lasting for considerable time filled ocean basins. The carbon dioxide reacted with the silicate of the earths crust to form carbonate. Therefore, carbon dioxide was gradually removed from the atmosphere. The process of life thus, began about 3 billion years ago in the form of anaerobic biochemical organism that were dependent upon ambient organic molecules for nourishment. About 2 billion years ago, biological evolution took another revolutionary step. A few organism succeeded in changing their mode of existence from fermentation and biochemical synthesis to more efficient mode of photosynthesis and respiration. This set a stage for release of oxygen, and fixation of nitrogen. As organisms that could not tolerate free oxygen were partially replaced by more efficient respiring forms. Carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere was reduced; ozone formed a screen against incoming ultraviolet radiation; and organic deposits began to accumulate forming coal and oilfields. All this fundamentally changed the previous geochemistry of the earth. The cycle of majority of chemical elements were reoriented. And thus, the composition of the terrestrial atmosphere took the present shape.
tmosphere is a gaseous envelope extending thousands of kilometres above the earths surface. Much of the life on the earth exists at the bottom of the atmosphere where it meets the lithosphere and the hydrosphere. Very survival of life processes are associated with it. The influence of the atmosphere on humans is not only direct but also indirect through natural vegetation, soil and topography. Among the four major elements of environment, the atmosphere is the most dynamic as changes in it take place not only from one season to another but also within a short period of few hours. Of the total mass of the atmosphere, 99 per cent is within the height of 32 km from the earths surface and is held to it by the force of gravity. The atmosphere is energised by the sun. ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE Todays atmosphere is the result of very gradual change starting about 5 billion years ago by accretion of cold particles chiefly of iron and magnesium silicate, iron and graphite. Then, the earth was too small to retain the primordial atmosphere of light gasses. Gravitational collapse and radioactive decay caused the earth to heat up and material differentiated giving central solid nickel-iron core, liquid iron silicate shell, a mantle and lithosphere. In this process, degassing took place, for ming a new atmosphere and hydrosphere. This atmosphere was devoid of free oxygen but contained methane, ammonia (10-68 per cent), carbon dioxide (10-15 per cent) and water vapour (60-70 per cent).
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COMPOSITION The composition of the atmosphere is shown in Table 9.1. Upto an altitude of about 90 km, it is uniform in terms of three major gases nitrogen, oxygen and argon. There are in addition rare gases like neon, krypton, and xenon, also called noble gases. This layer is generally, called homosphere. Above 90 km, the composition begins to change with progressive increase in the lighter gases. This layer is known as heterosphere. The oxygen and nitrogen, make up about 99 per cent of the clean dry air of the homosphere. In addition, it contains small amount of carbon dioxide, water vapour, ozone, inert gases like xenon, krypton, neon and argon (which dont take part in chemical reaction) and huge amount of solid and liquid particles, collectively called aerosols.
Table 9.1 : Composition of the Atmosphere Component Nitrogen (N2) Oxygen (O2) Argon (Ar) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Neon (Ne) Helium (He) Ozone (O3) Hydrogen (H) Methane (CH4) Krypton (Kr) Xenon (Xe) Per Cent by Volume 78.08 20.94 0.93 0.03 0.0018 0.0005 0.00006 0.00005 Trace Trace Trace
thus, allows the lower atmosphere to be warmed up by heat radiation coming from the sun and from the earths surface. Green plants in the process of photosynthesis utilise carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. There has been a pronounced increase (10 times) in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 1890 to 1970. Ozone is found in very small fraction in the stratosphere between 20 and 25 km from the earths surface. It is, however, very useful as it absorbs ultra-violet rays and thus, protects life from these harmful rays. The water vapour and dust particles are the important variables of weather and climate. They are the sources of all forms of condensation and principal absorbers of heat received from the sun or radiated from the earth. Besides, they affect the stability of the atmosphere. Water vapour may not exceed 3 per cent to 4 per cent of total volume of air. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere decreases from the equator towards the poles. Nearly 90 per cent of it lies upto 6 km of the atmosphere from the earths surface. It is in this layer of the atmosphere where solid particles of dust, salt, pollens etc. are held in suspension. They act as hygroscopic nucleus with positive charge and entrap the negatively charged water particles to produce clouds. In the upper layer of the atmosphere microscopic dust particles scatter incoming solar rays and absorb all colours except blue, giving blue colour to the sky. The larger size particles on the other hand, are responsible for red and orange colours at sunrise and sunset. STRUCTURE
Even though nitrogen and oxygen comprise 99 per cent of the total volume of the atmosphere, they are climatically of little consequence. Nitrogen does not easily enter into chemical union with other substances, but gets fixed into the soil. It serves mainly as diluent or dissolver. It regulates combustion. Oxygen on the other hand combines with all the elements and is most combustible. Carbon dioxide although constitutes a small percentage, is an important gas in the atmospheric process. It can absorb heat and
On the basis of the chemical composition, the atmosphere is divided into two broad layers: homosphere and heterosphere . The homosphere extends upto the height of 90 km. It is characterised by uniformity in chemical composition. It consists of three thermal layers troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere. Each sub-layer is separated from the adjoining layer by a shallow transitional zone identified by terms ending with pause (Table 9.2). The heterosphere has heterogeneous chemcial composition with layered structure of
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nitrogen, oxygen, helium and hydrogen, respectively (Fig. 9.1). Homosphere The lowermost layer of the homosphere is called troposphere. It is 16 km thick at the equator and 10 km thick at the poles. The
temperature decreases with altitude because the atmosphere is heated more by the heat radiated from the earths surface. In this layer, the temperature decreases vertically at a rate of 0.65 O C per 100 metres. It is called normal lapse rate. A minimum of 60 O C is reached at the
Fig.9.1 : Structure of the Atmosphere
Homosphere
Heterosphere
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tropopause. Most of the atmospheric processes responsible for the weather and climate conditions take place in this layer. Above the tropopause is calm and clear air of the stratosphere. Jet aircraft often fly through the lower stratosphere because it provides easiest flying conditions. The total absence of water vapour in this layer prevents the formation of clouds, thus, providing finest visibility. Ozone layer lies within the stratosphere. It is more abundant in the altitude zone of 20 and 22 km. The ultraviolet radiation is more plentiful in the vicinity of 40 to 50 km. Ozone layer shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation. But for the Ozone layer, life would have been impossible on the surface of the earth. Temperature rises from 600C at the base of the stratosphere to 00C, at its upper boundary, called stratopause. Above the stratopause, is the mesosphere. The mesosphere extends from 50 to 90 km altitude. Temperature decreases again with height in this layer. It reaches a minimum of 110 0 C at an altitude of 80-90 km in the mesopause. Mesosphere displays high wispy clouds in high latitudes during summer due to reflected sunlight from meteriotic dust particles.
Heterosphere Heterosphere is a layered ther mosphere extending above the mesopause and continues to the edge of space. Temperature rises spectacularly in this layer and reaches 9000 C at 350 km. In the lower part of the thermosphere between 100 to 400 km, ionisation of atmospheric gases takes place. There is a peak, concentration of ionized particles at 250 km. This layer, known as ionosphere, reflects radio waves. Ionized particles intermittently create a sheet like display of light called Aurora Borealis in the northern hemisphere and Aurora Australis in the southern hemisphere. In the upper thermosphere there is further concentration of ions that comprise Van Allen Radiation belt. Outer most layer is called exosphere or at times magnetosphere . The thermosphere has distinct layers of nitrogen, oxygen, helium and hydrogen at an average altitude of 200km, 1,100km, 2,600 and 9,600km respectively from the earths surface. WEATHER AND CLIMATE Weather is the physical condition or state of the atmosphere at any given time. As these
Table 9.2 : Structure of the Atmosphere Broad Layers HOMOSPHERE Name of Sub-Layers Troposphere Tropopause Stratosphere Stratopause Mesosphere Mesopause Thermosphere Ionosphere Altitude (km) 0-16 (at the equator) 0-10 (at the poles). 10 (at poles) to 16 (at equator) 10-16 to 50 50 50-85 85-90 90+ 200 1,100 1,700 2,600 9,600
HETEROSPHERE
Nitrogen layer Oxygen layer Helium layer Hydrogen layer
Exosphere Magnetosphere
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conditions change, so also the weather. Thus, weather of any place is the sum total of its temperature, pressure, winds, moisture and precipitation conditions for a short period of a day or a week. Climate on the other hand is the composite weather conditions over a considerable period of time. It is not just average weather. The deviations from the averages are equally important. It is not the averages, but extremes that kill. If we wish to gain an accurate picture of weather and climate of any station we should look beyond the annual averages and monthly averages. We should know the day-to-day extremes too. The principal elements of weather and climate are : Temperature; Pressure and wind; Moisture and precipitation. These are called elements because they are the ingredients out of which various weather and climatic types are compounded. The temperature and precipitation are the main basic elements to which pressure, winds and other elements are related. Temperature expresses intensity of heat. Practically, all of the heat energy on the earth is the result of insolation or the incoming solar radiation. Unequal distribution of temperature over the earths sur face causes dif ferences in atmospheric pressure, which causes winds. Air
moves from regions of high to low pressure areas. Horizontal motion of the air is known as wind. Moisture is present in the atmosphere as water vapour, often condensed into clouds. It may be precipitated in the form of rain, hail, sleet or snow. The capacity of air to gather and retain water vapour is largely dependent on its temperature. Higher the temperature, the greater the capacity of air to hold moisture. On cooling, the air is not able to retain all the moisture it gathers while warm. This leads to condensation and precipitation. From the above statements it is clear that temperature is the basic element on which other elements of climate depend. Further, the operation of elements of weather and climate are closely interrelated and interdependent. The climatic elements vary from place to place due to climatic controls. The climatic controls are : Latitude or insolation; Distribution of land and water; The great semi permanent high and low pressure belts; Winds; Altitude; Mountain barriers; Ocean currents; Storms of various kinds, etc. These controls acting with various intensities and in different combinations, produce changes in temperature and precipitation, which in turn give rise to a variety of weather and climates.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What holds the atmosphere to the earth? (ii) What is heterosphere? (iii) Which are the major constituents of clean dry air of atmosphere? (iv) Which gas of the atmosphere does not take part in chemical reaction? (v) What are aerosols ? (vi) Which gas despite its small percentage is crucial in atmospheric processes? (vii) Why are the water vapour and dust particles important variables of weather and climate? (viii) What is meant by normal lapse rate?
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2. Give a single term for each of the following: (i) The zone which separates the troposphere from the stratosphere. (ii) Lower most layer of the atmosphere. (iii) A useful gas found in small amount in the atmosphere that shields the earth from ultraviolet rays. (iv) Sheet like display of light in the northern hemisphere caused by ionized particles in the atmosphere. (v) The physical condition or state of the atmosphere at any given time. 3. Write short notes on: (i) Origin of the atmosphere; (ii) Homosphere; (iii) Ionisation of atmospheric gases. 4. Discuss the composition of the atmosphere and the importance of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. 5. Describe the structure of the atmosphere and the main characteristics of each layer. 6. Discuss principal elements of weather and climate and the major climatic controls.
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CHAPTER
INSOLATION
AND
TEMPERATURE
he source of all the energy on the earth including its atmosphere is the sun. The energy radiated from the sun comes from nuclear reactions in its core, where the temperature is about 15,000,0000 C. Only of the billionth fraction of the energy radiated from the sun is intercepted by the earth. We commonly, call this radiant energy of the sun heat and light. It is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves, which are commonly known as short waves. They travel at the speed of light (about 2,98,000 km per second). They drive the engine of the earth that operates the winds and ocean currents, generates weather conditions and makes the earth a livable place for human beings. INSOLATION The word insolation connotes incoming solar radiation. It is absorbed in the lower layer of the atmosphere as bright light. Light is the
visible portion of the spectrum lying between infra-red and ultra-violet. The ultra-violet has dimension of shortest wavelength. It forms only 6 per cent of insolation and is consumed in photochemical reaction. While the infrared rays, though invisible, form 43 per cent of insolation. They are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere. Insolation is greatest at the equator. It decreases polewards (Fig. 10.1). The total amount of insolation received at the equator is roughly about 4 times of that received at the poles. In tropical regions, the amount of insolation is not only large but there is also little seasonal variation. It is because all places between Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn experience overhead sun twice during the course of a year. In the temperate region, the amount of insolation is less than the tropical region and the seasonal variation is high.
(.30m) (.30m)
Fig.10.1 : Incidence of the Suns Rays at the Earths Surface Note how the high angle and low angle solar radiation spreads over the surface.
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Effects of Atmosphere on Insolation The energy from the sun passes through different layers of the atmosphere before it reaches the ground. Atmospheric gases are essentially transparent to visible light, but suspended particles of liquid or solid material can absorb or reflect light. A thick cloud may allow less than 10 per cent of sunlight passing through it to reach the earths surface. Clouds generally behave like mirrors; they reflect sunlight in different directions rather than absorbing it. Reflected sunlight is permanently lost to the earth. The blue colour of daytime sky is due to scattering of sunlight. But for scattering effect, the sky would be black starry even when the sun is high up in the sky. Terrestrial Absorption and Radiation The earth functions like a transformer in electric circuit, receiving energy in one state and transmitting it to another. The sun heats the earth and the earth heats the atmosphere. Nearly 51 per cent of the solar energy reaches the earth directly or indirectly. The absorbed insolation causes the surface temperature to rise and in turn land becomes energy radiator. The sun emits short-wave radiation to space. The earth, on the other hand, radiates longwave, which is known as terrestrial radiation. Impact of Land and Water The land and water surface react differently to the incoming solar radiation. The heat capacity or specific heat of water is five times that of land surface. This means that same amount of heat applied to same mass of water and land result in temperature increase that is five times greater for the land than water. If heat is withdrawn from land and water, the temperature decrease will be five times greater for the land than for water. This arises from the fact that water tends to store the heat it receives, land quickly retur ns it to the atmosphere. Water is essentially transparent, it allows some amount of heat to penetrate to a depth of several metres. Land, on the contrary, is opaque, so there is great concentration of insolation in its upper layer.
The general law may be stated as follows. Land surfaces are rapidly and intensely heated under the suns rays, whereas water surfaces are only slowly and moderately heated. On the other hand, land surfaces cool off more rapidly than water surface when solar radiation is cut off. Temperature contrasts are, therefore, more over land areas but only moderate over water areas. Heat Budget Insolation is subjected to several processes of absorption, reflection and scattering. They decide the heat budget of the earth and the atmosphere. The amount of solar energy passing through the atmosphere depends upon the angle of the sunrays and transparency of the atmosphere. It varies according to time and place. The solar energy absorbed by the earth gets translated into heat day after day, year after year. All of our weather records reveal, certainly in general fashion, a strong continuity of temperature characteristics with little to indicate the warming trend that would be mandatory if energy receipt exceeded loss, so the counter flow must exist. The gains and losses in heat by incoming and outgoing radiation is known as heat budget. The term budget implies balance in the gains and losses of the solar energy on the earth. The sun emits the short wave radiation to space, while the earth radiates long-wave or infra-red radiation to space. The solar energy strikes the upper limits of the atmosphere and it gradually reaches the earths sur face directly and indirectly (scattered) and is absorbed. It is estimated that out of 100 units of incoming solar energy, only 22 units travel directly to the earths surface. This energy flow is called direct radiation. The 35 units received at the upper limit of the troposphere is reflected and scattered back into space by clouds (24 units), dust particles (7 units) and by surface of the earth (4 units) in its original short-wave. Some of the scattered rays (25 units in all) eventually, find their way down to the earths surface and are absorbed by it. They are collectively called diffuse radiation. Another 18 units of incoming solar radiation is absorbed
INSOLATION AND TEMPERATURE
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Fig.10.2 : Terrestrial Heat Budget
by ozone (3 units), water, dust and other components of the atmosphere (13 units) and by clouds (2 units). In all, 47 units of solar energy reach the earths surfae as direct or diffuse radiation, while 18 units are absorbed by the atmosphere. As such 65 units in all (47 units of the earths surface +18 units of the atmosphere) take part in heating the earth and its atmosphere. To balance the budget, 65 units are lost to space in the form of long waves by the earths surface directly (5 units) and reradiated from the earth to the atmosphere (60 units). Latitudinal Heat Balance The mean annual temperature of the earth as a whole remains same. But balance between
incoming and outgoing radiation is not uniform and varies from latitude to latitude. Yet in spite of this imbalance, no latitude appears to be getting progressively warmer or colder. In the low latitudes (between 40 0 North and 40 0 South) heat gained by short wave radiation is far more than the heat loss by long waves through the earths radiation. While in the higher latitudes more heat is lost by outgoing long wave than it is received in short waves. In view of the imbalances at high and low latitudes, there is a large scale transfer of heat from tropics to high latitudes by atmospheric and oceanic circulation. The transfer of heat takes place in middle latitudes between 30o and 50o. In short,
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nature provides mechanism of heat transfer from tropics towards poles mainly through atmospheric circulation (75 per cent) and through oceanic current (25 per cent) to maintain the heat balance for the earth as a whole. Convection and Advection The transfer of heat in the atmosphere takes place in many ways. Transfer of heat through horizontal movement of the air is called advection . Vertical mixing of the air or turbulence is also frequent. It is called convection. The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere. Air in the lower layer of the atmosphere gets heated either by the earths radiation, called terrestrial radiation or by conduction. When two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with one another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until both the bodies attain the same temperature or the contact is broken. Metals are good conductors, air is not. Hence, conduction is important in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere. The heating of air leads to expansion. As its density decreases, it becomes lighter and moves upwards. The
continuous ascent of heated air creates vacuum in lower layer. The cooler air above, being denser and heavier, slips down to fill the vacuum, leading to constant heating of warm air on one side and slipping cold air on the other side (Fig.10.3). Hence, the cyclic movement of air is associated with the heat transfer from lower layer to upper layer. Horizontal air movement is relatively more important than vertical movement. In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night) variation in daily weather are caused by advection alone. The scorching winds blowing during summer, locally called loo in northern India, are an outcome of advection process. Similarly, in temperate regions the advection of warm tropical air in colder months makes the weather pleasant. Cold polar air carries cold air towards warm regions of the world. Large scale reversal in temperature of the atmosphere near the earth surface is thus brought about by the process of advection. TEMPERATURE AND ITS CONTROL The temperature is the measurement of available or sensible heat energy in a system. It is a measure of hotness or coldness of the body. Such property determines whether heat
Fig.10.3 : Tranfer of Heat Convective Motions in Liquid and Gases
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will flow out or into an object when it comes in contact with other objects. Latitude The earth revolves round the sun once in a year, in an elliptical path called the plane of ecliptic. At the same time, the earth rotates on its own axis in 24 hours. The earths axis is tilted making an angle of 660 30 with the plane. Due to the inclination of the earths axis, the angle of the suns rays falling on the earths surface varies from vertical on the equator to more and more slanting as one moves towards the poles. When the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, it receives maximum amount of insolation. On 21June the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer and it is the longest day of the year for the northern hemisphere. All this time, the southern hemisphere is away from the sun and 21 June is the shortest day of the year for the southern hemisphere. On 21 March and 23 September the sun is overhead at the equator and the length of the day and night is same everywhere throughout the world. This position of the earth is called equinox. On 22 December the sun is overhead at the T ropic of Capricor n and the souther n hemisphere receives the maximum daylight. It is, however, the shortest day for the northern hemisphere. Thus, areas between the tropics receive the maximum insolation. As one moves away from the equator towards the poles, the intensity of insolation decreases causing fall in temperature. Altitude The temperature decreases with increasing altitude from the earths sur face. This vertical decrease in the temperature is at the rate 0.65 o C per 100 metre or 165 m/1 0C. These variations are normal throughout the troposphere and are termed as normal lapse rate. The direct source of atmospheric heat lies at the surface of the earth. The atmosphere near the surface is denser and contains large amount of water vapour and dust particles. Being closer to land surface, it absorbs more
terrestrial heat than that of upper air. Hence, temperature is higher in the lower part of the atmosphere than the upper part, where the air is cleaner and less dense. That is why higher we go cooler it is. Udagamandalam, Mount Abu, Panchmarhi are cooler in summer than plains. Land and Water Land and water surface react differently to incoming solar radiation. That is why land, water and ice get heated and cooled at different rates. Hence, the temperature of air resting over land differs markedly from the one over water on the same latitude. The temperature contrast between continents and oceans is greater during winter than summer. Lands heat and cool rapidly because solar radiation cannot penetrate solid surface to a great depth. As against this, it can penetrate water to a greater depth. There is also considerable vertical mixing in water. Moreover, the energy required to raise the lands temperature by given number of degrees would have to be tripled in order to increase the sur face temperature of water by equal amount. As a consequence of this heating differential, air above the oceans remain cooler in summer and warmer in winter than does the air on land surface. Prevailing Winds Prevailing winds also affect the temperature conditions of the areas. The moderating effects of oceans are brought to the adjacent lands through on shore winds. On the contrary, off shore winds take the effects of warm or cold currents away from land. Ocean Currents Ocean currents are large movements of ocean water from places of warm temperature to colder temperatures or vice-versa. Their movement affects the temperature of the adjacent areas. The warm currents raise the temperature of adjoining colder landmasses. The climate of north wester n Europe is modified to a large extent by ocean currents of the North Atlantic Ocean. The cold currents of
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the western coast of South Africa or South America lowers temperature of adjacent warmer lands. HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE The temperature distribution over the earths surface could be analysed from the isothermal maps of winter and summer. Isotherms are imaginary lines connecting places of equal temperature reduced to sea level. Isotherms, in general, follow the parallels of latitudes because it is the cause of temperature contrast. In general, January and July months represent the seasonal extremes of temperature (Figs.10.4(a) and 10.4(b)). A comparison of maps, shows that there is a marked latitudinal shifting of isotherms between January and July, following apparent movement of the sun and the latitudinal migration of the thermal belt. It is noted that where horizontal temperature changes are large, isotherms are closely spaced. On the contrary, where horizontal temperature differences are less, isotherms are widely spaced. The rate of change of temperature is called temperature gradient. We can draw the following inferences from isothermal maps: The highest temperatures are found in tropics and sub-tropics. They receive the largest amount of insolation throughout the year. On the other hand, lowest temperatures are recorded in polar regions, where the amount of solar energy received is very small. Isotherms within tropics are widely spaced as temperature gradient is very gentle and insignificant. The temperature gradient is very steep in higher latitudes as well as on the eastern margins of the continents. January isotherms bend sharply on the continents towards the equator indicating that winter in the interior of the continent is more severe in the northern hemisphere. On the other hand, isotherms on the oceans exhibit poleward bend showing
thereby that the oceans are relatively warmer. January-Isotherms You will notice that in the norther n hemisphere, it is winter. The 00C isotherm passes through the North Pacific. It is fairly straight through Aleutian striking the west coast of North America at Alaska. In the middle latitude region, the western coasts of continents are warmer than their counterparts on the eastern side, because warm ocean currents raise the winter temperature condition of the onshore areas. The close spacing of the January isotherms over the continents in the northern hemisphere indicates steep temperature gradient. It is very steep on the eastern sides of North America and Asia. It indicates that in January north eastern Siberia, Greenland, and parts of Asia, are the coldest places on the earth. In the southern hemisphere, it is summer. 300C isotherm passes through north western Argentina, eastern part of Africa, Borneo and Australia in the southern hemisphere. July-Isotherms The July isotherms in the northern hemisphere are irregular, zigzag and widely spaced. This shows warm season and summer conditions. The 350 C isotherm passes over north Africa, south west Asia and north western part of India and south western part of America. In the southern hemisphere, isotherms bend towards poles on continents and towards equator on oceans. The continents are much warmer than oceans. The isotherms in the southern hemisphere are more regular, straight and closely spaced. This shows wintry conditions. Inversion of Temperature Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At times, the situation is reversed and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called Inversion of temperature. Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless. A long winter night with clear
69
Fig.10.4(a) : World January Isotherms ( Temperature in C)
70
W E
Fig.10.4(b) : World July Isotherms ( Temperature in C)
71
skies and still air is ideal situation for inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off during the night, and by early morning hours, the earth is cooler than the air above. Over polar areas, temperature inversion is normal throughout the year. Surface inversion promotes stability in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and dust particles get collected beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs in mor nings are common occurrences especially during winter season. This inversion commonly lasts for few hours until the sun comes up and begins to warm the earth. The inversion takes place in hills and
mountains due to air drainage. Cold air at the hills and mountains, produced during night, flows under the influence of gravity. Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and moves down the slope to pile up deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above. This is called air drainage. It protects plants from frost damages.
Planks law states that hotter a body, the more energy it will radiate and shorter the wavelength of that radiation. Specific heat is the energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of substance by one Celsius.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What is insolation? (ii) How much energy radiated by the sun is intercepted by the earth? (iii) Why do different parallels receive different amount of insolation? (iv) How does the angle of the suns rays falling on the ground affect the amount of insolation? (v) What are isotherms? (vi) What is air drainage? 2. Distinguish between : (i) Insolation and terrestrial radiation; (ii) Advection and convection; (iii) Normal lapse rate and inversion of temperature. 3. Write short notes on: (i) Differential heating of land and water; (ii) Heat budget; (iii) Latitudinal heat balance. 4. How is the atmosphere heated? Discuss the role of terrestrial radiation in the process. 5. What are the basic mechanisms of heat transfer? Discuss the importance of these mechanisms with reference to the atmosphere. 6. Discuss the factors controlling the horizontal distribution of temperature especially with reference to July and January conditions. Map Reading By referring to the map showing world distribution of temperature give reasons why Isotherms generally trend east-west. Isotherms shift north and south from season to season. Isotherms bend while crossing over land to water and vice versa. Isotherms are more regular in the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere.
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CHAPTER
PRESSURE
AND
WINDS
ir pressure and winds are the invisible elements of weather that influence other elements in a significant way. They influence temperature and precipitation. Even a minor change in pressure, changes the velocity and direction of winds and this in turn brings about changes in temperature and precipitation. Air pressure is not readily sensed by human body, but wind is. Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air on the surface of the earth at sea level. It is about 1 kilogram per cm2. PRESSURE Air is a mixture of several gases. Gas molecules are in constant state of collusion and move about freely. Pressure of air at a given place is defined as a force exerted against surface by continuous collision of gas molecules. Therefore, it is the consequence of weight of all air above it. The amount of pressure exerted by air at a particular point is determined by temperature and density. It follows that a change in either temperature or density will cause corresponding change in pressure. The air pressure is measured as a force per unit area. The units used by meteorologist for this purpose are called millibars (mb). One millibar is equal to the force of one thousand dynes on a cm 2. The instrument used for measuring air pressure is called a barometer. The normal pressure at sea level is 1,013.25 mb (about 76 cm). The distribution of atmospheric pressure is shown on a map by isobars. An isobar is an imaginary line drawn through places having equal atmospheric pressure at sea level. The spacing of isobars expresses the rate and direction of the pressure changes and is referred to as pressure gradients.
There are two types of pressure systems; high pressure and low pressure. Temperature is the most common cause of pressure differentiation. Air that is cooled at the bottom will sink and increase pressure, whereas warming will cause air to rise and thus, lower the pressure. The change in temperature is caused either by solar radiation or, induced by some external dynamic agencies like friction caused by rubbing or by force produced through rotation of the earth. Thus, pressure change takes place either by thermal or dynamic processes. Distribution of atmospheric pressure is not uniform over the earths surface. It varies vertically as well as horizontally. Vertical Distribution Air pressure varies according to temperature and altitude. In the first few thousand metres above the sea level, the pressure decreases at the rate of 1millibar for every 10 metres. It drops to half its surface value (from 1,013.2mb to 540.4mb) at about 5 km. The rate of fall of pressure with height is determined partly by the rate of fall in temperature. Horizontal Distribution of Pressure Global Pattern The horizontal distribution of pressure across the latitudes in general, presents an alternate belt of low and high pressure areas (Fig. 11.1). You will notice that there is a inverse relationship between pressure and temperature. The equatorial region having high temperature has low pressure. While the polar regions with low temperature have high pressure. These pressure belts are thermally induced. Logically, there should have been a gradual increase in pressure from the equator towards the poles. This is, however, not so.
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Fig.11.1 : Pressure Belts of the World
There are two intermediate zones of subtropical highs in the vicinity of 300 N and S and two sub-polar lows in the vicinity of 600 N and S. Formation of these pressure belts may be explained by dynamic controls: pressure
gradient force and rotation of the earth. The pressure gradient is defined as the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the direction in which the pressure decreases most rapidly. The warm air of the equatorial low pressure belt gradually gets cool in its ascent. Upon reaching upper layers, it starts moving towards the pole. It further cools and begins to subside in a zone between 20 and 35 degrees latitudes. Two factors are responsible for the general, subsidence of air in this belt. First, cooling of the air results in increased density, which accounts for its subsidence. Second, owing to the rotation of the earth from west to east, poleward directed winds are deflected eastwards. On the rotating earth, a point on the equator moves fastest. As we go towards the poles, the speed decreases, reaching almost zero at the poles. It is because of this difference in speed that any moving body such as winds and ocean currents get deflected when they move towards the equator or away from the equator (Fig. 11.2). The force of deflection was first discovered by Coriolis, a French mathematician, and hence, called Coriolis force. It was later elaborated by
Fig.11.2 : Impact of the Rotating Earth on Pressure Distribution
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Ferrel and is known as Ferrels law. It states that all moving bodies like wind and ocean currents get deflected from their normal paths towards right in the northern hemisphere and towards left in the southern hemisphere. The rate of deflection increases with the distance from the equator. As a result, by the time the poleward-directed winds reach 25 degrees latitude, they are deflected into a nearly west to east flow. It produces a blocking effect and the air piles up aloft. This causes a general subsidence in the areas between the tropics and 350 N and S. They develop into highpressure belts. The winds coming from the subtropics and polar areas converge and rise in a zone between 450 N and S and the Arctic and the Antarctic circles, respectively. These are the areas of sub-polar lows. This is well explained in (Figs. 11.2 and 11.3) Thus, there are seven pressure belts in all as shown in Fig.11.1. They are: Equatorial trough of low pressure;
Subtropical high pressure belt (northern hemisphere); Subtropical high pressure belt (southern hemisphere); Subpolar low pressure belt (northern hemisphere); Subpolar low pressure belt (southern hemisphere); Polar high (northern hemisphere); and Polar high (southern hemisphere).
Equatorial Trough of Low Pressure This belt is located on either side of the equator extending between 0 0 and 10 0 N and S. Its outer margins shift north and south of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn respectively, due to apparent movement of the sun. it is thermally produced low pressure belt. Here, the pressure is more uniform than that in other parts of the world. Surface winds are generally absent since winds approaching this region begin to rise vertically near its margin. It is, therefore, a region of extremely calm air and is called the doldrums. Subtropical High Pressure (Horse Latitude) The subtropical high pressure is located between the tropics (25 0 N and S) and 35 0 north and south latitudes. This belt is broken into a number of high pressure cells. The high pressure is caused due to the subsidence and piling of the air. A calm condition with variable and feeble winds is created in this region. These regions are often referred to as horse latitudes because in the early days, the sailing vessels with the cargo of horse found it difficult to sail under such calm conditions. The sailors used to throw the horses in the sea to make the vessels lighter for smooth sailing and hence, the name. Subpolar Low Pressure Belt The subpolar low pressure belt is located between 450 north and south latitudes and the Arctic and the Antarctic circles respectively. These low pressure cells are well developed in the north Atlantic and north Pacific regions. The low pressure is caused by converging and rising air. Due to a great contrast between the temperature of the winds from subtropical and
Fig.11.3 : Pressure Belts and Arrangement of Cells
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polar source regions, cyclonic storms are produced. Polar Highs At the poles, there are well developed high pressure zones. These zones are the result of persistent low temperature that makes the air cold and heavy. This gives rise to a cap of high pressure in polar region. The prevailing polar easterly winds blow out of these caps of high pressure to subpolar low pressure areas. Seasonal Distribution of Pressure Despite a broad, generalised patter n of pressure distribution on the earth, pressure conditions vary considerably on the basis of prevailing weather conditions in different parts of the world. The horizontal distribution of pressure on the earth surface is shown by
means of isobars. Just as there is a daily range of temperature on the surface of the earth, so is there diurnal rhythm of pressure. The direction and rate of change in pressure is called pressure gradient. It is at right angles to isobars, just as the slope of land surface is at right angles to contour lines. The rate of change or steepness of gradient is shown by spacing of isobars. Closely spaced isobars show steep pressure gradient; and widely spaced isobars show gentle gradient. The zonal distribution of pressure is modified by continents and oceans. In summer, the relatively hot continents intensify the low pressure cells and weaken or destroy high pressure cells. In similar manner, the corresponding cooler oceans weaken the low pressure cells and intensify the high pressure cells. In winter, the situation is reversed (Fig.11.4).
Fig.11.4 : Horizontal Distribution of Pressure and Winds (July and January)
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Change in the pressure distribution over the earths surface could be analysed from isobar maps of winter and summer (Fig.11.5 A and B). These distributions reflect the influence of landmass in the northern hemisphere and predominant control of ocean surface in the southern hemisphere. The winter chill of northern landmasses enhances high pressure. The impact of high pressure cells of subtropical belt is subdued. In summer, great heating of the interior of northern continents produces low pressure, which causes weakening of subtropical high pressure cells. The extensive ocean surface of the southern hemisphere has fairly uniform pressure throughout the year. But continental areas in this hemisphere do experience some variation in pressure during July. Following inferences may be drawn from isobaric maps. January Isobars Northern Hemisphere (Winter) The polar high is in the form of ridges extending from northeastern Eurasia to Yukan area of North America. The isobars have developed very deep and extensive high pressure cells. Subpolar low pressure belt is represented by individual oceanic cells developed in north Atlantic and north Pacific ocean. These are known as Aleutian low and Icelandic low respectively. The subtropical high is well developed over the cold continents as a continuous belt. The high pressure cells are well developed over Northeast Asia, Siberia and Canadian highlands. The highest pressure is centred on central Asia where large mountain basins are located. The high pressure cells are fairly weak over the oceans.
is broken into three cells over Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans. The subpolar low pressure cell over Antarctica is weak.
July Isobars Northern Hemisphere (Summer) The polar high pressure gets weakened substantially and it separates Asiatic low. The subpolar low pressure is also weakened and only subdued Icelandic low exists. The Aleutian low has disappeared and there is continuous low pressure over Asia almost extending to the equator. The subtropical high pressure belt in summer is well developed over the oceans. The Pacific high, Azore high and Indian high are well developed in July than in January. The equatorial low pressure lies north of the equator in July. The centre of low pressure is well developed over the ocean between 10 0 and 15 0 North Latitudes over Asia, north Africa and southwest United States.
Southern Hemisphere (Winter) The subtropical high pressure is strongly developed over oceans than over cold continents. The subpolar low is a continuous belt over 650 to 750 south latitudes. The polar high is weak and extends to smaller degree over oceans.
WINDS Air moving parallel to the ground is called wind; while vertical air movements is called current. Air movement is caused by differences in air pressure. Wind moves from high pressure to low pressure region, following barometric slope or pressure gradient. The steeper the pressure gradient, the greater is the velocity of wind. Air flowing down the pressure gradient follows the law of gravitation in the same manner as water does flowing down the hill. The wind once set in, flows from high pressure to low pressure. But it follows
Southern Hemisphere (Summer) The equatorial low pressure is mainly south of the equator. It extends over considerable distance over warm continents of the southern hemisphere. The subtropical high over southern oceans
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Fig.11.5 (A); and (B) : Seasonal Distribution of Pressure (in Millibars) (A) January; (B) July
78
somewhat a devious course due to the Coriolis force. It is deflected to right in the northern hemisphere and to left in the southern hemisphere. It was Ferrel, who stated that all moving bodies like winds and ocean currents get deflected from their normal path towards right in the northern hemisphere and towards left in the southern hemisphere. That is why the wind takes a curved course. The wind is known by the direction from which it blows: a wind blowing from west to east is westerly and the one blowing from east to west is called an easterly. The direction of wind is known by an instrument known as wind vane. The wind velocity is measured by an instrument called as anemometer. The speed of the wind is expressed in kilometres per hour on the land and per hour on the sea. Types of Winds As noted earlier, the general circulation of winds is governed by pressure systems, which differs spatially as well as periodically. We have already learnt about the global pressure belts in summer and winter seasons. Pressure varies from place to place in response to local temperature and wind conditions, and distribution of land and sea. In fact, it is from a global and permanent pressure pattern that local and semi permanent pressure cells are evolved. Three different air circulation systems are : primary; secondary; and tertiary. The primary circulation pattern, prepares the broad framework for other circulatory patterns. The primary winds are also known as planetary winds. They include trade winds, westerlies and polar winds. The secondary winds include monsoon, cyclones and anticyclones. Tertiary winds include local winds. They affect only local weather and climate. Primary Winds or Planetary Winds These winds constitute large scale motion of atmosphere under the influence of pressure gradients, Coriolis effect, and frictional force. It is related to general circulatory pattern of
Fig.11.6 : Generalised System of Primary Winds (Planetary Winds)
winds on an rotating earths surface. It ignores seasonal heating and land water contrast on the earths surface. The primary winds comprise trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies. Doldrum is a Zone of calmness in the vicinity of equator on its both sides. Here winds are feeble and have least surface movement. (Fig. 11.6) Trade Winds The trade winds blow between 5 0 and 30 0 latitudes in both the hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere the prevailing winds are
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northeasterly and are called northeast trades. In the southern hemisphere the prevailing winds are southeasterly and are called southeast trades. The two wind belts converge near the equator, which is called Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Westerlies Westerlies blow in the middle latitudes between 350 and 600 north and south latitudes. The westerlies, unlike trades, are variable in direction and are violent in speed. At times specially in winter, they acquire gale force. They can also take the form of mild breeze. In the southern hemisphere, beyond 40 0 latitude stormy westerlies are observed both in summer as well as in winter. Hence, they were given names by early mariners as roaring forties, furious fifties and shrieking sixties. Polar Easterlies At poles there are well developed high pressure zones. The cooling effects of Antarctica and permanently frozen Arctic sea induce thermal highs. Air chilled at base sinks and flows towards the equator, veering rapidly to the west from east. These are called polar easterlies. Secondary or Periodic Winds The winds that change their direction periodically with the change in season, are called secondary or periodic winds. Monsoon, air masses and fronts, cyclones and anticyclones, land and sea breezes and mountain and valley breezes are the wind system that periodically change their courses diurnally or seasonally. Monsoons Monsoon (derived from Arabic word, mausim for season) is a regional wind that reverses its direction on seasonal basis (Fig.11.7 (a); and 11.7 (b)). The monsoon over south and south east Asia is typical. These wind systems override the expected pattern of primary atmospheric circulation.
In January strong Siberian high over interior of Asia produces northeasterly surface winds for most of south Asia. This cold continental air contains very little moisture, so precipitation during winter is at a minimum. But during summer the Siberian high disappears and the Inter Tropical Conver -gence Zone (equatorial low) shifts northward to a position over the Tibetan plateau. As a result the air flows from the southeast, crosses the equator and is curved into a southwesterly flow. This air passes over most of the warm tropical Indian Ocean and therefore, is highly saturated. The arrival of this
Fig.11.7 (a); and (b) : Monsoon Winds and Upper Air Circulation (a) Winter; and (b) Summer
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saturated air over the Indian subcontinent marks the onset of wet summer monsoon. The precipitation is frequently high and heavy (Mawsynram 11,873 mm and Cherrapunji 11,314 mm rainfall). The southwest monsoon consists of two main branches. One branch penetrates the Bay of Bengal and Northeastern India. It is pushed westward along the IndusGanga plains. The other branch arrives from the Arabian Sea arm of the Indian Ocean and enters the country from western side. The rains from both the branches gradually spread across the sub continent and bring heavy showers over India. During the winter months monsoon causes very little precipitation (2 to 4cm). Tertiary or Local Winds Tertiary winds are generated by immediate influence of the surrounding terrain. They are of environmental importance in various ways and exert powerful stress on animals and plants when winds are dry and extremely hot. The land and sea breezes, as well as mountain and valley breezes are also one class of local winds. These winds respond to local pressure gradients set up by heating or cooling of the lower atmosphere. Land and Sea Breezes Daily temperature contrasts between land and water produce small diurnal monsoon called land and sea breezes. Along the coast there is often drift of cool, heavy air from land to water at night and early morning when land has cooled to lower temperature than water. During the heat of the day, when the land becomes warmer than the adjacent water, the wind direction is reversed and a breeze comes in from the sea. These daily land and sea breezes are shallow winds and penetrate only a few kilometres in land or sea. Along tropical coasts and also in middle latitudes in summer the cool sea breeze is very important in making coastal location more pleasant than the interiors.
Mountain and Valley Breezes Diurnal winds similar to land and sea breezes occur in mountainous regions. During day time the slope of the mountain facing the sun is heated more than the valley floor. The hot air rises and the cool air in the valley floor flows up the slope. This is known as the valley breeze. After sunset the pattern is reversed. Rapid loss of heat through terrestrial radiation along the mountain slopes results in sliding of cold dense air from higher elevation to valley. This is known as mountain breeze. Another group of local winds are known as air drainage winds in which cold dense air in winter flows under the influence of gravity from higher to lower region, and accumulates over high interior valleys. Snow winds are locally named as bora in northern Adriatic coast and mistral in southern France. The other types of local winds are loo, foehn and chinook. They are warm and dry winds. Loo In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from the west in the months of May and June, usually in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Its temperature invariably ranges between 450C and 500C. It may cause sunstroke to people. Foehn and Chinook Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in the Alps. It is a strong, gusty, dry and warm wind. It develops on the leeward side of a mountain range. Due to regional pressure gradient, stable air is forced to ascend the windward side causing precipitation on the mountains. As it descends the leeward side, it is warmed and becomes dry. Its temperature varies from 15 0 to 20 0C. A similar wind moves down the Rockies and is known as chinook. The word chinook literary means snow eater. It keeps the grasslands clear from snow during much of the winter.
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Mistral During winter, areas adjacent to highlands may experience a local cold wind, which originates over the snowcapped mountains or highlands and blows down the valley. These winds have been given local names. The most famous is the mistral that blows from the Alps over France towards the Mediterranean Sea. It is channeled through the Rhone Valley. It is a very cold and dry wind with high velocity. Even though the skies are clear, the mistral brings down the temperature below freezing point. Its speed is so
great that orchards and gardens have to be protected from it by thick hedges of cypress trees. Many small houses have their doors and windows only on the southeastern side. AIR MASSES AND FRONTS The air masses and fronts are migratory atmospheric disturbances, which generate secondary type of winds all over the world. They are associated with stormy weather conditions. As indicated earlier, most precipitation results from the condensation of moisture contained
Fig.11.8 (a) : Distribution of Tropical and Polar Air Masses and Fronts
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in rising and expanding masses of warm and moist air. Storms provide effective mechanisms for raising large quantities of air aloft. Air Masses Air mass is a large body of air with fairly uniform properties of temperature and humidity. It acquires its properties by remaining stationary over a given area for long period, enough to come to equilibrium with the surface below. The properties of air masses (temperature, humidity, stability and abundance of minor components) are determined by nature of underlying surface.
The air masses extend through many latitudes and cover thousands of square kilometres. The complete horizontal homogeneity of air mass is, therefore, rarely achieved. Small differences in the physical properties, such as temperature and humidity exist from one part to another at the same level. The air mass derives its characteristics mainly from its source region. As it moves away from the source region, it is modified by weather conditions prevailing along the route. As such the classification of air mass is based upon the nature of the source region and subsequent modifications to which it is subjected.
Typology of Air Masses

P
cP cPk
t t t
mP m Pw
t
cPks
cPku cPw
t t
mPws m Pk
t t
mPwu
cPws
cPwu
mPks
mPku
T
cT cTk
t t t
mT m Tw
t
cTks
cTku cTw
t t
mTws m Tk
t t
mTwu
cTws
cTwu
mTks
mTku
P-polar T-tropical c-continental
Fig.11.8 (b) : Typology of Air Masses m-maritime s-stable k-heated from below u-unstable w-cooled from below
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There are two basic air masses-Polar (P) and Tropical (T) (Fig.11.8(a) and (b)) with strong differentiation of temperature. They are in turn sub-divided into continental (c) and maritime (m) in terms of humidity. A continental air mass is relatively less humid. The conveniently used symbols are as follows: cP Polar continental mP Polar maritime cT Tropical continental mT Tropical maritime. The properties of above air masses are modified by transfer of heat from the bases of air mass and the surface over which, it flows. Heating from below expands the air mass thus, leading to rapid cooling. The mechanical changes in air mass also cause changes in physical properties of air masses substantially, producing unstability in the system. In all, there are sixteen types of air masses (Fig. 11.8 b). The principal types are as under : Polar continental (cP) : The air is confined in broad high latitudinal stretches of Siberia and Canada. Typically frozen and dusted with snow throughout winter season, the air masses located over this region are chilly, cold, and slightly modified in summer. Polar maritime (mP) : These air masses are located over warmer high latitude oceans of North Pacific (Bering sea), North Atlantic (Norwegian Sea) and entire sweep of southern hemisphere oceans fringing Antarctica. The air, overlying these unfrozen seas with frequent probing warmer currents, is a highly efficient evaporator of readily available moisture. So mP air is less cold and more moist than cP air. North America and Northern Europe experience these types of air masses during winter season. The west coast is normally protected from invasion by generally, prevailing westerly circulations and cascade barrier. Tropical continental (cT): This air mass is basically hot and dry. Heat may vary a bit in the season but dryness remains immutable. These air masses develop over greater Sahara area. Hot dry winds invade Mediterranean Europe, Norther n Mexico and Souther n California in the form of scorching Sirocco. Tropical maritime (mT): It is considerably
wider than cT because of greater size. Pacific ocean, North and South Atlantic and Indian Ocean are extensive source areas for mT air. These air masses overlying the tropical seas are moist and saturated universally. They are pushed beyond the source areas and cause heavy precipitation and high temperature condition. Fronts The contact line between air masses of different properties is called a front. A cold front develops where the cold air mass moves under warm air mass and lifts it up. On the other hand, the trailing edge of a cold air mass that is followed by warm air is called a warm front. In each case precipitation is likely to occur, because warm air is rising over cold air. The duration and intensity of the precipitation along the two fronts are quite different. The cold front is steep and produces showery, and sometimes violent precipitation for a longer period of time. If the cold front moves faster than the warm front in such a trap, part or all of the pocket of warm air may be lifted from the surface, thus, producing an occluded front. After occlusion, the air masses loose earlier characters and form new fronts. Cyclones Cyclones constitute the most fundamental and climatically the most significant atmospheric disturbances af fecting the weather (Fig. 11.9 and 11.10). On the basis of the areas of their origin, cyclones are classified broadly into two types: temperate and tropical. Temperate Cyclones Temperate Cyclones are concentrated in the middle latitudes between 350 and 650 in both hemispheres (Fig.11.11). They are generally, extensive having a vertical thickness ranging from 9 to 11 km and a diameter of about 1,000 km. It is just like a spearhead, having the shape of an upturned V. The approaching temperate cyclones are noticed by the appearance of dark clouds in the background of white clouds.
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Fig.11.9 : Anticyclones and Cyclones
The most accepted hypothesis for the origin of mid latitude cyclone is Polar front theory, advanced by Bijerknes, a Norwegian meteorologist. According to him the highs and lows of the westerly wind belts result from the
interactions and alternations of two contrasting types of air masses, one originating in the polar regions and the other in the subtropics. Cold air from polar highs moves equatorwards and is deflected westward, forming the northeast
Fig.11.10 : Distribution of Cyclones and Fronts in the Northern Hemisphere
PRESSURE AND WINDS
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PR EC IPI TA TIO N
Fig.11.11 : Formation of Temperate Cyclones and Polar Fronts
and southeast polar winds. Warmer air from the subtropical highs moves poleward and, by eastward deflection, forms the westerly winds. The contact between these contrasting air masses is the polar front. Eddies, or waves, develop along this contact and the front becomes highly irregular, consisting of interlocking tongues of the two types of air masses. As soon as the cyclone approaches, there is drizzle, followed by heavy rainfall. The velocity of the wind increases. On the approach of warm front, the fall in the pressure stops; and the sky becomes clear. This gives the clue that the centre of the cyclone is reached. Immediately after this, temperature begins to fall and the sky becomes cloudy and rainy again. This indicates the approach of cold front. Sky is clear once again.
Tropical Cyclones Tropical Cyclones are notorious for their violence and for causing wide spread destruction. These develop over oceans, particularly in tropical regions. Hence, their major climatic significance is in causing widespread rainfall. Most of the tropical cyclones develop in a belt of 80 to 150 north and south latitudes. Tropical Cyclones are characterised by circular and asymmetrical isobars. They have very low pressure at the centre, and the pressure gradient is very steep and winds are very strong; their velocity ranges between 120-200 km per hour. Rainfall is torrential and is evenly distributed around the centre. Area covered is relatively small in the range of 150-500 km diameter. They move from east to west with the trades. They are most prominent in the Pacific ocean, (eastern coast of China, Taiwan, southern part of Japan). In India,
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intensity is felt more in the Bay of Bengal along the eastern coast. In Africa, they are recorded in Ethiopia and Kenya. In North America, they are prominent in Texas, coastal parts of Mexico and Florida and West Indies where they are known as Hurricanes. In Australia, they occur as WillyWillies and in China and Japan as Typhoons. Cyclones are symbolic of atmospheric dynamism and are of crucial importance in
determining the well being of man and his society. Much is being studied about them but still we lack precision in forecast and in assessing their intensity. Availability of satellite imageries in coordinating data and information for analysis at the regional and global levels has helped in better understanding of the mechanism of weather.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) How do air pressure and winds influence the weather? (ii) What is a millibar? (iii) What are the two types of pressure systems? (iv) What is Coriolis force and who discovered it first? (v) What is pressure gradient? (vi) Name the seven pressure belts of the earth. (vii) What are isobars? (viii) Why does pressure decrease with altitude? (ix) What are tertiary winds? (x) What is an air mass? 2. Distinguish between: (i) Wind and air current; (ii) Planetary and periodic winds; (iii) Land and sea breezes; (iv) Mistral and foehn; (v) Tropical and polar airmasses; (vi) Temperate and tropical cyclones. 3. Describe the global pattern of the horizontal distribution of pressure. 4. Discuss the seasonal variation in the pressure distribution over the earths surface. 5. Describe the major types of winds. 6. The monsoons override the expected pattern of primary wind system. Explain. 7. Discuss the major types of air masses and how do they influence the area over which they move? 8. Give one term for the following: (i) A large body of air with uniform properties of temperature and humidity. (ii) The contact line between air masses of different properties. (iii) A zone of calmness in the vicinity of equator on both the sides. (iv) Winds blowing over south and south east Asia that are characterised by the reversal in wind direction with change in season. (v) A hot wind of local importance in the Alps. (vi) A warm and dry wind moving down the Rockies and commonly called snow eater. (vii) A very cold and dry wind with high velocity blowing from the Alps towards the Mediterranean sea. (viii) An airmass originating over tropical oceans. Finding Out Collect information about some other local winds.
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CHAPTER
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
vapour in the atmosphere is highly variable from place to place and from time to time, ranging almost upto 5 per cent in any one place. It decreases rapidly with altitude. EVAPORATION Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water or ice changes into water vapour. It occurs whenever heat energy is transported to a surface containing water and the temperature rises. The molecules become more mobile and overcome the forces binding them to water surface and break away resulting in evaporation. The heat removed from the immediate surrounding is trapped in water vapour as latent heat. In this way evaporation decreases the temperature of remaining liquid by an amount proportional to latent heat of vapour. The rate of evaporation is related to the dif ference between saturation vapour pressure at surface temperature and the vapour pressure at the air above. Potential Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration is the amount of moisture transferred to the atmosphere by evaporation of liquid and solid water plus transpiration from living tissues principally from plants. The term potential evapotranspiration refers to idealised conditions in which there would be enough rainfall to provide sufficient moisture for all possible evapotranspiration in an area. In order to deter mine the potential evapotranspiration for any place or area, several factors like temperature, latitude, vegetation, permeability and water retention capacity of the soil are taken into
ater vapour is one of the most important atmospheric gases. It is odourless and invisible. Human body can sense it only in conjunction with air temperature so called sensible temperature. The atmosphere gathers moisture by process of evaporation and looses it through condensation and precipitation. Precipitation and cloud potential of any given airmass, contains within it latent heat to be released on condensation. It is an effective absorber of radiated heat. Water has a number of unique properties like high specific heat and the highest surface tension. The specific heat is the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of a substance. Water needs large amount of heat to change it into water vapour. The heat stored in the water vapour is called latent heat. Due to high surface tension, the water molecules are able to attract adjoining water molecules to form droplets, dew, fog and mist. SOURCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER VAPOUR
Water exists in three forms or states: solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour). All the three states interchange. Ice on melting becomes liquid or sometimes even to water vapour through the process of sublimation. The surface of the ocean is the greatest source of atmospheric moisture. Lesser bodies of water, vegetation and damp land surfaces also contribute in significant amounts. Much of the water vapour evaporated from the oceans is carried by winds to the land where it is precipitated and delivered back to the oceans by glaciers and streams. The amount of water
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consideration. Places having surplus of precipitation over evapotranspiration are marked by surplus of underground water storage. The amount of water changing for m through evaporation varies widely from place to place. Since temperature is the major control, tropical seas and forests are by far the greatest contributors. The polar ice caps with their permanent low temperature and tropical deserts, despite their high temperatures, display a consistent lack of substantial precipitation and are largely without evaporation. The amount of water vapour ranges from almost zero above deserts of world and above ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica to 2.5 per cent in humid equatorial areas. HUMIDITY Humidity refers to the condition of the air with regard to water vapour. Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of water vapour present per unit volume of air and is usually expressed in grams per cubic metre. It is usually, greater near the equator than the polar region, and greater in summer than in winter. Distance from the source of moisture exercises important control over the amount of water vapour in the air. Absolute humidity is commonly greater over oceans than over the interior of continents. Relative humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air compared with the amount that would be present if the air were saturated at that temperature. It is expressed in percentage determined by dividing the absolute humidity by water holding capacity of air. If the air is saturated, its relative humidity is 100 per cent; if only half saturated, 50 per cent. Since the capacity of air for absorbing and retaining moisture varies with temperature, the relative humidity of air mass can be altered by merely lowering its temperature, without changing the actual amount of moisture present in it. The cooling continues to decrease the moisture holding ability of the air and the air is eventually filled to capacity. This is saturation; the air is holding all the water vapour that it is capable
of holding, and the relative humidity is 100 per cent (Fig. 12.1). This is also dew point because any further cooling will result in condensation. The dew point is where condensation begins as cooling continues. If this point is above freezing point, condensation will be in the form of rain; if below freezing, it will be in the form of snow. Consequently, cooling will result in continued condensation. Condensation Condensation is the process of water vapour changing to liquid state. If the air is cooled below its dew point, some of the airs water vapour becomes liquid. Thus, any amount of cooling of the saturated air starts the process of condensation. Whenever, the dew point temperature falls below the freezing point, water vapour may convert directly into ice by the process of crystallisation. Condensation may start with the addition of any further water vapour to the saturated air, or with the reduction of its temperature. Condensation depends upon two factors: relative humidity of air and degree of cooling. Therefore, in arid lands a larger degree of cooling is necessary before the dew point is reached, while in humid climates a lesser degree of cooling will start the process of condensation. In the process of evaporation, heat is transformed into work energy, which results in cooling the evaporating surface. Condensation, on the other hand, is the reverse process. Here, an equal amount of energy is transformed into heat. There can be no condensation unless there is a surface on which the liquid can condense; thus, the significance of dust in the atmosphere. The abundant supply of microscopic particles of sea salt, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, volcanic dust and fine dust particles are capable of attracting or absorbing water. Dew and Frost On cool nights in early winters, when radiation from the ground is relatively rapid, the air in contact with the ground may be chilled to the
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Fig.12.1 : Relationship Between Moisture Holding Capacity and Relative Humidity
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dew point and moisture condenses on the leaves and grass in the form of dews. If the dew point is at or below the freezing point, the condensation takes the form of tiny ice crystals, or frost. Dew and frost form on grass quite readily, because grass is a good radiator and therefore, cools quickly. Furthermore, grass and other plants give off moisture which is not readily evaporated at night when the air cools. The formation of dew or frost is impeded by (i) dry air, which must be sufficiently cooled to reach the dew point; (ii) wind mixes the air and prevents its lower portion from reaching the dew point; and (iii) clouds, which slow down terrestrial radiation. Low ground moisture and also cold air from the uplands flow down the slope into valleys, causing the formation of dew and frost on low flat grounds rather than on slopes. Clouds and Fog Clouds are formed by the condensation of water vapour around nuclei of minute dust particles in the air. In most cases, clouds consist of tiny droplets of water, but they may also consist of ice particles if the temperature is below freezing point. Most clouds are formed by the rising war m and moist air. The ascending air expands and cools until the dew
point is reached and some of the moisture condenses into clouds. Other clouds result from mixing between two air masses of different temperatures (Fig. 12.2). Clouds at and near the earths surface are known as fog. The ten genera of clouds are combined into three groups based mainly on the average height of the cloud base. They are as follows: (i) High clouds (5 to14 km); (ii) Middle clouds (2 to 7 km); (iii) Low clouds (below 2 km). High Clouds Cirrus (Ci) : These are fibrous clouds with a delicate, silky appearance. When detached and arranged irregularly in the sky, they are harbingers of fair weather. On the other hand, when they are systematically arranged, as in bands, or connected with cirrostratus or altostratus, they usually foretell wet weather. Cirrostratus (Cs) : A thin, whitish sheet of cloud covering the whole sky and giving it a milky appearance is called cirrostratus. These clouds commonly produce a halo around the sun and the moon. They are usually signs of the approaching storm. Cirrocumulus (Cc) : These clouds appear as small white flakes or small globular
Fig.12.2 : Cloud Types and Their Location
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masses, usually without shadows. They are usually arranged in groups, lines or ripples resulting from undulation of the cloud sheet. Such an arrangement is called mackerel sky. Middle Clouds Altostratus (As) : A uniform sheet of cloud, gray or bluish in color, and usually having a fibrous structure belong to this group. It often merges gradually with cirrostratus. The sun and the moon shine wanely through these clouds. Sometimes it also presents a corona. Altostratus commonly is followed by widespread and relatively continuous precipitation. Altocumulus (Ac) : These are flattened globular masses of clouds , arranged in lines or waves. They dif fer from cirrocumulus as they have larger globules, often with shadows.
shaped top is its characteristic. It is often accompanied by heavy showers, squalls, thunderstorms, and sometimes hail. Clouds of Large Vertical Extent The high clouds are composed entirely of ice crystals, Clouds for med by vertical development have a water droplet composition in their lower part, but those with a very large vertical extent have tops that are composed entirely of ice crystals. Precipitation The word precipitation is derived from a latin word precipitatio meaning a headlong falling down. In the meterological language it means condensed or frozen water vapour that falls on the ground. It not only includes rain or snow but also hail, sleet and fog. These forms depend upon the following conditions: The temperature at which condensation takes place. The condition encountered as the particles pass through the air. The type of clouds and their height from the ground. The process generating phenomena. Forms of Precipitation Precipitation results from the continued condensation and growth of the moisture particles until they become too large to remain suspended in the air. If condensation takes place at a temperature above 00 C, the resulting precipitation is in the form of rain. If rain passes through a layer of colder air on the way down it may freeze and fall as sleet . In a strong turbulent currents of thunderstorms, water drops may be carried upward into freezing temperatures and eventually fall as hail. In fact, violent air currents may keep hailstones shuttling up and down until they grow to enormous sizes. Snow is not frozen rain, but forms when moisture crystallises directly from vapour at a temperature below freezing. If snowflakes grow without interference they form beautiful symmetrical, six-sided crystals. Ice
Low Clouds Stratocumulus (Sc) : Large globular masses or rolls of soft gray clouds with brighter interstices belong to this group. The masses are commonly arranged in a regular pattern. Stratus (St) These are low uniform layers of clouds resembling fog , but not resting on the ground. Thin stratus clouds produce a corona. Nimbostratus (Ns) : They are dense, shapeless, and often ragged layers of low clouds, which commonly cause continuous rainfall. Cumulus (Cu) : These are thick, dense clouds with vertical development. The upper sur face is dome shaped with a cauliflower structure, while the base is nearly horizontal. Most cumulus clouds are of fair weather type, although towering cumulus may develop into cumulonimbus or thunderheads. Cumulonimbus (Cs) : Heavy masses of cloud with great vertical development whose summits rise like mountains or towers is called cumulonimbus. An anvil
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storms result when rain, already near the freezing point, falls on the colder ground and vegetation and freezes upon contact. Types of Rainfall It is now apparent that rainfall is caused by the cooling of relatively warm, moist air. This could happen in three ways (Fig. 12.3): (i) Convectional rainfall occurs when moist air over the heated ground becomes warmer than the surrounding air and is forced to rise, expand, cool, and yield some of its moisture (Fig.12.3). Convectional rain is common in low latitudes and on summer days in middle latitudes, and usually comes in the form of short heavy showers just after the hottest part of the day. Thunder and lightning generally, accompany the showers and, if the convection
currents are especially strong and turbulent, hail is formed. (ii) Orographic rainfall occurs when moist wind is forced to rise over a mountain or other elevation in its path. Thus, the windward sides of many mountain ranges receive heavy rainfall, whereas the leeward sides, along which the air moves down receives less rainfall (Fig.12.4). Such situation occurs widely, along the western coasts of India, North America and South America. The moist air from the Arabian Sea is forced by Sahyadri hills of the Western Ghats to rise up resulting in expansion, cooling and rainfall. The amount of precipitation depends on slope, height of hill, temperature and moisture content of the air mass. On the other side of the mountain, the descending wind is devoid of moisture and hence, does not give rain. Hence, this region is dry and is known
Fig.12.3 : Types of Rainfall Orographic, Frontal and Convection
Fig.12.4 : Orographic Rainfall Ascending and descending of winds may be noted.
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94 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Fig.12.5 : Distribution of Precipitation in the World
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as rain shadow. The eastern slopes of Sahyadri falls in rain shadow. (iii) Cyclonic rainfall occurs in low-pressure areas, where cyclonic winds coming from various directions converge and force the large volumes of light air to rise and cause rain. Distribution of Precipitation Different places on the earths surface receive different amounts of precipitation in a year, and in different seasons. Nevertheless, the main features can be explained with the help of global pressure and wind systems, distribution of land and water, and the nature of the relief features. High latitudes generally, have high pressure associated with subsiding and diverging winds, and hence, inherit dry conditions. On the other hand, the equatorial belt with low pressure and its converging winds, and ascending air receives ample precipitation. Besides wind pressure systems, the inherent nature of the air involved, is also an important factor in determining the potential for precipitation. Since, cold air has low capacity to hold moisture than the warm air, a general decrease in precipitation is revealed with the increasing distance of latitude from the equator towards the poles. In addition to the latitudinal variation in precipitation, the distribution of land and water complicates the global precipitation pattern. Large land masses in the middle latitudes generally, experience a decrease in precipitation towards their interiors. Further, the mountain barriers alter the ideal precipitation pattern that one would expect from the global wind systems. Windward mountain slopes receive abundant precipitation, while leeward slopes and adjacent low lands fall in rain shadow. On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the world are as follows: The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in the cool
temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon lands, receive heavy precipitation of over 200 centimetres per annum. Areas adjacent to the high precipitation regime receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 to 200 centimetres per annum. The coastal areas in the warm temperate zone also receive moderate amount of rainfall. The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands receive inadequate precipitation varying between 50 to 100 centimetres per annum (Fig. 12.5). Areas lying in the rain shadows, the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive low precipitation of less than 50 centimetres per annum. The western margins of the continents in the tropical lands, and the arid deserts come under this category. Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an important aspect to judge the effectiveness of precipitation. In some regions, precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and the western parts of cool temperate regions. On contrary, some of the regions such as monsoon lands and the Mediterranean regions experience seasonal rainfall. For example, in our country, too much of rain in one season is often followed by long dry season. This leads to the wastage of rain-water in one season and an appalling scarcity in the other. Even if the precipitation is scanty but concentrates in a short growing season, as in high latitudes, its maximum utilisation is possible. Precipitation even in the form of fog, mist or dew in certain parts has an appreciable effect on vegetation. The dense fog nourishes vegetation in the Kalahari Desert, and dew and mist in winter nourishes wheat crops in parts of Central India.
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EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What is sublimation? (ii) What is the greatest source of atmospheric moisture? (iii) Why does the amount of water vapour decrease rapidly with altitude? (iv) What is meant by humidity? (v) What is condensation and how does it take place? (vi) What is the common basis of classifying the clouds into three main groups? (vii) What is precipitation? What conditions determine the form of precipitation? 2. Distinguish between: (i) Specific heat and latent heat; (ii) Absolute humidity and relative humidity; (iii) Evaporation and Evapotranspiration; (iv) Dew and frost; (v) Cloud and fog; (vi) Convectional and cyclonic rainfall. 3. Write short notes on: (i) Condensation; (ii) Orographic rainfall; (iii) High clouds; (iv) Rain shadow. 4. Describe the factors controlling the rate of evaporation and evapotranspiration. 5. How are clouds formed? Describe the three types of clouds based on their average height. 6. Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation and controlling factors.
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!
CHAPTER
WORLD CLIMATE
There are different schemes of classifying climates of the world. On the basis of grouping, climate types are: genetic and empirical. Genetic classification emphasises causes or origin of their formation based on weather processes. The empirical classification, on the other hand, is based on observations related to factors for climatic differentiation. Koeppens classification is strictly empirical as it is neither based on weather process (wind belts, air masses, fronts and storms) nor does it emphasise causes of formation of climatic type. The classification is based upon annual and monthly means of temperature and precipitation. Native vegetation is considered best expression of the totality of climate. Similarly, Thornwaite followed Koeppens principle that plant is a natures meteorological instrument capable of integrating climatic elements like precipitation effectiveness and potential evapotranspiration (evaporation from soil surface plus transpiration from plants). The climate classification system devised by Glen T. T rewartha represents a compromise between purely empirical and genetic methods. Besides being simple and explanatory, it combines the fundamentals of the empirical as well as genetic classification schemes. Trewartha, while proposing his climatic classification, was conscious of the fact that the classification systems of Koeppen and Thornwaite, being based on certain statistical parametres of a few weather elements, were cumbersome and complex. The empirical quantitative classification systems as devised by these authors produced such a large number of climatic types and subtypes that it was rather too difficult to
limate is a mean of daily weather conditions as expressed by temperature, precipitation, pressure, winds and humidity taken over a long time. Temperature is regarded as basic factor of climate as other elements are directly or indirectly related to it. On the basis of temperature, the world has been divided into Torrid, Frigid and Temperate Zones. Rainfall patterns are similarly fundamental in establishing climatic regimes. As such wet, humid, sub-humid, semiarid and arid are common climatic description. Variation in the amount, intensity, and seasonal distribution of the elements controlling climate give rise to a great variety of climatic regions on the earth. A climatic region is defined as an area on the earths surface, where an approximately homogeneous set of climatic conditions is produced by the combined effect of climatic controls. Different sets of climatic conditions are called climatic types. CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE A classification system consists of arbitrary rules, which help, in separating, or segregating various features and phenomena into easily remembered groups. Hence, the objective or purpose of grouping is the key in designating a classification and also in the choice of criteria. The ancient Greeks broadly divided the earth into winterless tropical region, the summer less polar regions and intermediate region having both winter and summer. This classification is too simple to be of much use, giving only a very generalised picture of temperature taking no account of precipitation.
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remember them. Keeping this aspect in view, Trewartha recognised only a limited number of climatic types, usually under 15. Trewarthas Classification The aims and objectives of T rewarthas climatic classification were very clear. He opined that, people such as geographers, biologists, or agriculturists, who need to understand and use the climatic environment for their own purposes, should have the facts of climate presented realistically, and that any preconceived genetic structure or scheme of type location should not be forced. At the same time he also recognised the merits of the genetic type of climatic classification. According to him, genesis not only increases interest and adds to the scientific quality of climatic analysis, but also gives an extradimension of insight to the students understanding of the description. Trewartha classified world climates in six great climatic groups, out of which, five (A, C, D, E, F) are based on temperature criteria, and the sixth (B) is the dry group based on precipitation (Table 12.1).
latitude in both the hemispheres. The temperature and rainfall are high throughout the year. In the coastal region the average temperature of the coldest month is above 180 C. The core of the A climatic region is constituted by wet sub type, the tropical wet climate (Ar). This climate extends approximately 50 to 100 on either side of the equator. Along eastern margins of continents, this type of climate is under the influence of inter-tropical convergence zone and the subtropical jetstream. It is also known as tropical rain forest. Closer inspection of tropical wet climate reveals that it widely extends (150 to 200 N and S) on the eastern margins of continents because trade winds blow on shore from northeast and southeast. The tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) exhibits winter dry season. It is dominated by dry trade winds. In this region average precipitation is less than the one in tropical wet climate. This type of climate is called savanna climate because tall grasses that grow between trees and thor ny bushes, dominate the vegetation cover.
Table 12.1 Simplified Version of Trewarthas Climatic Classification System Symbol A C D E F B Climatic Groups Tropical humid climate Sub-tropical Temperate Boreal Polar Dry Tundra (Ft) Ice cap (Fi) Arid/Desert type (BW) Semi-arid/steppe (BS) Climatic Types Tropical wet (Ar) Tropical wet and dry/Savana (Aw) Sub-tropical humid (Cfw) Sub-tropical dry summer (Cs) Temperate marine (Do) Temperate continental (Dc)
Climatic Groups Based on Temperature Criteria Tropical Humid (A) Climate The tropical humid (A) climate stretches along the equator, in the irregular belt of 200 to 400
Sub-Tropical (C) Climates Sub-tropical climates are found between tropical and temperate climatic zones. In this type of climate, the temperatures are generally, above 180 C for nearly 8 months. Winters are
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mild and short. The coastal areas have rainfall throughout the year while continental areas receive less rainfall. On the basis of seasonal distribution of precipitation, sub-tropical climates have two sub-types: sub-tropical humid (Cfw) and sub-tropical dry summer (Cs). The sub-tropical humid climate is found on the eastern sides of continents. In this type, the rainfall is throughout the year. During summer, it is under the influence of subtropical anticyclone and in winter under temperate cyclones. The summer months receive more rainfall than winter. Sub-tropical dry summer climate is characterised by moderate to scanty rainfall. Rainfall occurs in winter while summers are dry. This type of climate is found in the interior of C climate region along the tropical margin of mid latitudes. Temperate (D) Climates The micro ther mal (D) climates receive relatively small amount of heat. It is found in the vast landmasses of middle latitudes (400 and 650). This climatic band of severe winters is found between sub-tropical and boreal types of climate. The two sub types of temperate climates are temperate marine (Do) and temperate continental (Dc). They are primarily demarcated on the bases of summer temperatures. Temperate marine climate has mild winters and fairly war m summers. Throughout the year, the average temperature is above 0 o C. The rainfall is experienced throughout the year. This type of climate is found on the western sides of continents in temperate zone. Temperate continental climate is found in the interiors of the continents in middle latitudes. The impact of land is visible as it is characterised by harsh winters and cool summers. The extreme cooling of the ground is associated with anticyclone. Annual precipitation is low, though it takes place throughout the year. This type of climate is found in northeastern Asia, eastern Canada and Eurasia.
Boreal (E) Climates Boreal climate is found in the higher middle latitudes. In this climate, summers are short and cool, winters are long and cold with a very short frost-free season. Annual temperature ranges between 0 0 and 10 0 C. Annual precipitation is meager and most of it occurs during summers. This type of climate is noticed in the coniferous forest of the world. Polar (F) Climates Polar climates are found in the high latitudes and higher reaches of the Himalayas and the Alps. These climates are confined to the norther n hemisphere only. The average temperature does not exceed 10 0 C in any month. There is no summer season. On the basis of temperature the polar climates are classified into two types: (i) tundra (Ft); and (ii) ice cap (Fi). The tundra climate on land is found only in the northern hemisphere where it occupies the coastal fringes of the Arctic Ocean, the icefree shores of the northern Iceland, southern Greenland and higher reaches of the Himalayas and the Alps. This climate is characterised by extreme cold in which the average temperature of the warmest month does not normally rise above 00 C, but never above 100 C. It is associated with permanent frost formation leading to frozen sub-soil. During the summer, precipitation occurs in the form of snow and rain. Icecap climate has average temperature below freezing point. It is associated with the phenomena of permanent ice and snow. The winter and summer are windy and chilly and precipitation is very meagre. This type of climate is confined to icecaps of Greenland and Antarctica. Climatic Group Based on Precipitation Criteria Dry (B) Climates The dry climates are found on the poleward margins of A group climates on the western sides of the continents. The most important
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feature of a dry climate is the higher rate of moisture-loss through evaporation and evapotranspiration in relation to the annual receipt of water gain from precipitation. This climate is characterised by dry weather with a high range of temperature 250 to 300 C. Dry B1 climates are associated with subsiding air of sub-tropical high pressure zone which, results in intrusion of arid climate into continents of both north and south hemispheres. The extreme seasonal temperatures cause large annual range of temperature. The average annual precipitation is meagre (nearly 0 to 50 cm) and is highly variable. On the basis of annual average range of precipitation, dry climates are sub-divided into desert (BW) and semiarid (BS) type of climate. The capital letters S and W indicate the degree of aridity in dry (B) climates, with S and W designating semi arid and fully arid conditions respectively. The boundaries of these two sub-climates are set at one half of the annual rainfall separating dry (arid) from the semi arid type. Desert or arid type of climate has driest climatic variety in sub-tropical belt between 200 and 300 north and south latitudes. This type of climate is found in coastal deserts of Peru and Chile in South America, Kalahari deserts of coastal Angola, south west Africa, Great Australian desert, Sahara and Arabian deserts, Thar desert of Pakistan and India and deserts of northern Mexico. In these regions stability of air mass leads to extreme dryness with no rainy days. The influence of cold ocean currents is also there. These areas receive lowest annual rainfall in the world despite their location adjacent to the oceans. This type of climate is associated with xerophytic (thorny/spiny) type of vegetation. The semi arid or steppe type of climate borders A and C type of climate and has an annual rainfall range of 30 to 60 cm. These areas lie in the heart of the grasslands of western North America and Eurasia. That is why they are called steppe type of climate. The lands of this climatic type are away from the oceanic influence. It is found in both north and
south tropical deserts from Morocco to Tunisia and from Dakar in Senegal to Ethiopia, deserts of Afghanistan, large strip of land adjoining Thar Desert and rain shadow area of peninsular India. The arid and semi arid climates are further divided into tropical to sub-tropical hot desert (BWh), temperate-boreal cold desert (BWk), tropical sub-tropical steppes (BSh) and temperate-boreal-steppe (BSk). BWh and BWk are constantly dry and are under the influence of sub-tropical high and dry trades. BSh climate is characterised by short moist season both in summer and winter. The BSk type of climate receives most of the meagre precipitation during warmer season. GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGE Atmosphere is well structured and fairly dynamic in nature. The dynamism is more complex near the earths sur face where changes take place both spatially and temporally. These changes may be induced internally within the earths atmospheric system or externally by extra-terrestrial factors. Some of these changes are the results of human intervention and hence, may be slowed down by human ef forts. The global warming is one of the changes caused by mans continual and growing introduction of carbon dioxide as well as some other so called green house gases, like methane and chlorofluorocarbon into the atmosphere. It is a cause of concern for the humankind today. Global Warming The atoms and molecules of atmospheric gases cause absorption and back radiation of sun light, by the green house gases (discussed in later part of this chapter) especially water, carbon dioxide, and methane. The concentration of water in the atmosphere is controlled by evaporation from oceans. Carbon dioxide is introduced in the atmosphere by volcanism. Equivalent amount of carbon dioxide is removed by precipitation as calcium carbonate in oceans. Methane,
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which is twenty times more effective than carbon dioxide, is produced by metabolisation of bacteria in wood/grass eating animals. The methane rapidly gets oxidised into carbon dioxide. Human activities add methane, and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and by various agricultural activities. The carbon dioxide contents of atmosphere play a dominant role in causing world wide climatic change. The gas is transparent to incoming solar radiation, but absorbs outgoing long-wave terrestrial radiation. The absorbed terrestrial radiation is radiated back to the earths surface. Thus, it is clear that any appreciable change in carbon dioxide content would bring about changes in the temperature in lower layers of the atmosphere. Rapid industrialisation and technological changes, revolution in agriculture and transport sectors has resulted in large supplies of carbon dioxide gas, methane and chlorofluorocarbon gases to the atmosphere. Some of these gases are consumed by vegetation and part of it is dissolved in ocean. However, about 50 per cent is left over in the atmosphere. During past 100 years the concentration of methane has more than doubled (from 7.0 10-7 to 15.5 10-7) and carbon dioxide has increased by 20 per cent (from 2.90 10-4 to 3.49 10-4). In 1880-1890 the carbon dioxide content was about 290 parts per million (ppm). It rose to about 315 ppm in 1980, 340 ppm in 1990 and 400 ppm in 2000. This means that proportion of carbon dioxide had increased by 9 per cent by 1950 and nearly 17 per cent by 1990. The rate of increase has become still greater during last one decade. Of the many climatic parametres, temperature is the most affected one due to urbanisation and industrialisation. The thermal characteristics of urban areas are in marked contrast to those of surrounding countryside. The analysis of temperature data for last fifty years reveals that there is an increase of 0.7 o C in winter and 1.4 o C in summer in India.
Man is considered an engine of climatic change. In support of this, rice farmers, coal miners, dairy farmers and shifting agriculturists contribute their mite in global warming. According to some estimates, rice cultivation in the world is responsible for 20 per cent methane being added to atmosphere, and the coal mining accounts for 6 per cent of methane. The deforestation is responsible for 20 per cent of the carbon dioxide gas being added to the atmosphere. Similarly, industrialisation is adding 25 per cent of chlorofluorocarbon to the aerosol of the atmosphere. Consequently, global temperature increase is by about 1.5oC. Today, there is much concer n that continuing addition of carbon dioxide and methane gases to the atmosphere will increase atmospheric temperature to an extent that it will cause ice to melt in the Arctic Ocean and in Antarctica. As a result, sea level will rise causing drowning of coastal lowlands and islands, altering rainfall and evaporation patterns, creating new plant diseases and pest problems and enlarging the ozone hole. With a view to get a dependable picture of climatic changes in the past, ice-coring programmes have been undertaken in several countries particularly in Antarctica and Greenland Ice caps to analyse the trapped gases during the last 1,00,000 years. The results have been fascinating and of fer glimpses of the earths recent history going beyond the phenomena of global warming. During last 10,000 years of the earths history, climate regime has been exceptionally stable compared to earlier history. Study of oxygen isotope records in Greenland ice core suggests that cooling trend in the northern hemisphere started from 1725 to 1920. These were associated with emissions of volcanic dust at a regular interval of two to three decades but after 1945 there has been increase in temperature globally leading to warming without any major volcanic eruption and increase in level of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. Scientists predict that by 2020, temperature all over the world, would be higher than ever during the last 1,000 years. As such, it is evident that
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increasing carbon dioxide content would lead to rise in global temperature. Greenhouse Effect This concept of heating the atmosphere indirectly from the earths surface is called greenhouse effect or commonly known as atmospheric effect. Obviously the effect of atmosphere is analogous to that of a glass-pane, which lets through most of incoming short wave solar energy but greatly retards the outgoing long-wave earth radiation, thus maintaining sur face temperatures considerably higher than they otherwise would be (Fig.13.1). You can build
Fig.13.1 : Trapping of Heat in a Glasshouse
an instantaneous greenhouse. Park your car in the sun for two hours with the windows closed. Now, observe the interior temperature. It will be more than outside temperature. Growing tomatoes in winter can be accomplished by capitalising on transparency of glass roof in greenhouse to short wave. The Carbon Cycle and Greenhouse Effect Three of the principal greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and the chloroflorocarbon (CFC) contain carbon,
one of the most common elements in the environment, and one which plays a major role in the greenhouse effect. It is present in all organic substances, and is a constituent of a great variety of compounds, ranging from relatively simple gases to very complex derivatives of petroleum hydrocarbons. The carbon in the environment is mobile, readily changing its affiliation with other elements in response to biological, chemical and physical processes. This mobility is controlled through a natural bio-geochemical cycle, which works to maintain a balance between the release of carbon compounds from their sources and their absorption in sinks. The natural carbon cycle is normally, considered to be self regulated, but in a time scale of thousands of years. Over shorter periods, the cycle appears to be unbalanced, but that may be a reflection of an incomplete understanding of the processes involved or perhaps an indication of the presence of sinks or reservoirs still to be discovered. The carbon in the system moves between several major reservoirs. The atmosphere contains more than 750 billion tonnes of carbon at any given time, while 2,000 billion tonnes are stored on land, and close to 4,000 billion tonnes are contained in the oceans. Living terrestrial organic matter is estimated to contain between 450 and 600 billion tonnes, somewhat less than that stored in the atmosphere. World fossil fuel reserves also constitute an important carbon reservoir of some 5,000 billion tonnes. They contain carbon, which has not been active in the cycle for millions of years, but is now being reintroduced as a result of the growing demand for energy in modern society. The burning of fossil fuel adds more than 5 billion tonnes of CO 2 to the atmosphere every year, with more than 90 per cent originating in North and Central America, Asia, Europe and the Central Asian Republics. The use of fossil fuel remains the primary source of anthropogenic (human) CO 2. It is augmented by the destruction of natural vegetation, which reduces the amount recycled CO 2 during photosynthesis. Such processes are estimated to be responsible for
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5-20 per cent of current anthropogenic CO2 emissions. This is usually considered a modern phenomenon, particularly prevalent in the tropical rainforests of South America, Southeast Asia, North America, Australia and South
Africa. Between 1850 and 1950 some 120 billion tonnes of carbon were released into the atmosphere as a result of deforestation and the destruction of other vegetation by fire.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What is a climatic region? (ii) Into how many regions was the earth divided by the ancient Greeks? (iii) What criteria was followed by Koeppen to classify climates? (iv) Why did Trewartha use only a limited number of climatic types? (v) How human activities add methane and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere? (vi) What is ice-coring programme? How do they help us know about the climate of the earth in the past? (vii) What is greenhouses effect of the atmosphere? 2. Distinguish between: (i) Genetic and empirical classifications of climate; (ii) Ar and Aw climates; (iii) Boreal and polar climates. 3. Write short notes on: (i) Koeppens classification of climate; (ii) Sub-tropical (C) climate; (iii) Global climatic changes. 4. Describe the broad climatic groups framed by Trewartha. What are the bases of his classification? 5. Describe the advantages of Trewarthas climatic classification over the Keoppens classification. 6. Explain why the tropical humid climate is found in an irregular belt of 200 to 400 latitudes. 7. Describe the atmospheric distribution of carbon and the relationship between the carbon cycle and the Greenhouse effect. 8. What is global warning? Discuss its causes.
Unit V
WATER (OCEAN)
"
CHAPTER
OCEANS
the oceans, and most of the remainder is in glaciers. The largest reservoir of water is the ocean. Of the total expanse of water bodies, about 93 per cent is covered by four oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Arctic (Appendix V). HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE Water from oceans is evaporated and lifted into the atmosphere. It is eventually condensed and is returned back to the earths surface in the form of rain, hail, dew, snow or sleet. Some of the precipitation, after wetting the foliage and ground, runs off over the surface to the streams. It is the water that sometimes causes erosion and is the main contributor to
lanet Earth is often called water planet or blue planet, because of abundanceof water on its surface. The water bodies cover 71 per cent of the earths surface. 60.7 per cent of the total area of the northern hemisphere and 80.9 per cent of the southern hemisphere are covered with water. If we take into account only the water surface of the earth, then 43 per cent lies in the northern hemisphere and 57 per cent in the southern hemisphere. The earth receives essentially pure water in droplets condensing from the atmosphere. Different kinds of water are found in different geological environments. Over 97 per cent of all the water on the surface of the earth is in
Fig.14.1 : Hydrological Cycle Arrows indicate the flow of water.
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floods. Of the precipitation that soaks into the ground, some is available for growing plants and for evaporation. Some reaches the deeper zones and percolates through springs and seeps to maintain the streams during dry period. The streams, in turn, eventually, return the water back to the oceans where it originated. It is because of this never ending circulation that the process has come to be known as hydrological cycle. The hydrological cycle is sometimes expressed mathematically as: RF = RO + ET Where RF includes all types of precipitation, RO is runof f and ET is evapotranspiration. Runoff occurs when precipitation, that does not have an opportunity to infiltrate into soil, flows across the land surface. However, most of it enters the stream channel untimately, which carries it to the oceans. A part of the precipitation that infiltrates the soil percolates downward to the water table through springs. Broadly speaking, runoff is composed of water from both surface flow and seepage flow. It is an extremely important segment of hydrological cycle. Rainwater that reaches the soil surface is wholly or partly absorbed by the soil in the process of infiltration. The amount of rainfall entering the soil depends upon the rate of rainfall and the infiltration rate of the soil. About 4,23,000 cubic kilometres of water is evaporated each year from the oceans. About 73,000 cubic kilometres is evaporated from lakes and land surfaces of the continents. Most of the water precipitates back onto the ocean but excess falls on the land. Because, more snow and rain falls every year than can be evaporated, about 37,000 cubic kilometres of water drips, seeps and flows from the land to the sea annually. The water evaporated from the land is not only from exposed surfaces of lakes and streams but also from plants and animals. Some evaporation and absorption of water is carried by plant roots which is transpirated through leaves, termed as evapotranspiration. The total evaporation is equalled by total precipitation, of which
about1,10,000 cubic kilometres of precipitation falls on the land surface annually, which if distributed evenly on the entire earth is 117 cm thick (Table 14.1).
Table 14.1: Fluxes (Amount of Water Involved) in Hydrological Cycle Process Precipitation on land Evaporation from land Runoff from land (river runoff and direct ground water discharge to the ocean: 6 per cent of total precipitation on the earth) Precipitation on the oceans Evaporation from the oceans Total precipitaion on the earth Total evaporation on the earth Km3/Yr Cm/Yr 1,10,300 72,900 74 49
37,400 3,85,700 4,23,100 4,96,000 4,96,000
25 07 17 97 97
Source : Berner and Berner (1987).
RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR Continents and ocean basins are the first order relief features of the earth. A detailed relief map of the earth and its oceans shows immediately that the natural limits of the continents are much larger and more regular than a conventional map shows. Modern study of the topography of the ocean floors was greatly advanced through the work of Bruce C. Heezen of the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory at Columbia University. Heezen, in 1959, set up a system of submarine landform classification. According to him, the topographic features of the ocean basins fall into three major divisions : (i) the continental margins; (ii) the ocean-basin floors; and (iii) the mid-oceanic ridges. The Continental Margins The continental margins consist of two major submarine features, the continental shelf and the continental slope (Fig.14.2). The continental shelf fringes the continents in widths from a few kilometres to 300 kilometres. Major rivers after meeting the sea continue to maintain their flow in the
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Fig.14.2 : Features of the Coastal Ocean Floor Observe the location of delta and canyon formation.
continental shelf after mixing with the sea water. The flow of water excavates the shelf. This results in the formation of submarine canyons which can be compared to the deep gullies on the land surface. Sediments carried from the steeper slopes of the continental shelf in the vicinity of a river delta built up a submarine fan or cone. Along their seaward margins, the continental shelves give way to continental slopes. The slope is abruptly replaced by the continental rise, a surface of much gentler slope decreasing in steepness toward the ocean-basin floor. The continental rise generally, has a moderate to low relief. The continental shelf with depths upto 200 m occupies about 7.6 per cent of the oceans area. The continental slope spreads from 200 m to 2,500 m deep. With a complex relief, it comprises 15 per cent of the ocean area. Submarine canyons are striking features of the continental shelf and the continental slope. They are deep valleys with steep slopes that form long concave profiles. Some canyons are dendritic in appearance. The continental margins are characterised by some small marine features, namely banks, shoals and reefs. A bank is more or less a flat topped elevation. Because of relatively shallow depth, it is used for fishing. A reef is an organic deposit made by living or dead coral organisms. The Ocean-Basin Floor The ocean basin is an extensive region of the basin floor, generally, lying at a depth ranging
between 2,500 and 6,000 m. It covers about 76.2 per cent of the oceans area. The oceanbasin floor contains three types of features (i) abyssal plain and hills; (ii) oceanic rise; and (iii) seamounts. An abyssal plain is an area of the deep ocean floor having a flat bottom with a very faint slope. Characteristically, situated at the foot of the continental rise, the abyssal plain is present in all ocean basins. Abyssal plains are sur faces for med by long continued deposition of very fine sediments and, therefore, has a nearly per fect flatness. Abyssal hills are small hills rising to heights of a few tens of metres to a few hundred metres above the ocean-basin floor. The Oceanic rise is an area hundreds of kilometres in breadth over which the surface rises several hundred metres above the surrounding abyssal plains. Within the rise, the relief may range from subdued to very rugged. The Bermuda is a good example of oceanic rise. Seamounts are the isolated peaks that rise 1,000 m or more above the sea floor. Many of the seamounts are conspicuously flat topped and extremely steep sided, named as guyot. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge One of the most remarkable of the major discoveries coming out of oceanographic explorations of the mid-twentieth century was the charting of a great submarine mountain chain extending for a total length of some 64,000 km, known as the mid-oceanic ridge. The ridge runs down the middle of the North and the South Atlantic ocean basins, into the Indian ocean basin, then passes between Australia and Antarctica to enter the South Pacific basin. The ridge in its entirety is a belt, 2,000 to 2,400 km wide in which the surface rises through a series of steps from abyssal plains on each side. The parts of the ocean, deeper than 6,000 m, form trenches. They occur here and there, but most of them are confined to the margins of the Pacific Ocean. They occupy only 1.2 per cent area of the ocean.
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TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE OF OCEANS Temperature of water determines its density and also influences the availability of various species of marine organisms that could live suspended in the upper water layers. The study of surface and sub-surface water temperature is important both for plant and
500 m
1000 m
(1000 to 1500 m)
Fig.14.3 : Schematic Diagram of Vertical Changes in Sea Temperature and Salinity
animal lives in coastal areas as well as in oceans. The temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described as a three-layer system from surface to the bottom (Fig.14.3). The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water and it is about 500 m thick with temperature ranging between 20 o and 25o C. This layer within the tropics is present throughout the year but in mid latitudes it develops only during summer. The second layer called thermocline layer (Fig.14.4) lies below the first layer and is characterised by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500 to 1,000 m thick. In low latitudes, temperature declines gradually, from 5 C below the thermocline to about 1 C at depths of around 4,000 m. The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor. In the Arctic and Antarctic latitudes, the surface water temperatures are close to 0o C and so the temperature change with depth is very slight. Here, only one layer of cold water exists, which is present from surface to deep ocean floor. The major source of temperature of the oceanic water is the sun. The following factors affect the distribution of temperature of the ocean water: latitude, unequal distribution of land and water, prevailing wind, ocean currents, and minor factors like submarine ridges, local weather conditions, and shape and size of the sea. On an average, the temperature of the surface water of the oceans is 26.7 o C; it
Fig.14.4 : Typical Changes in Temperature and Salinity in Oceans in Low and Middle Latitudes
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decreases gradually from the equator to the poles. The oceans in the northern hemisphere record relatively high average temperature than in the southern hemisphere. The highest temperature is not recorded at the equator, but a little north of it (Fig. 14.5). The average annual temperature of all the oceans is 17.2o C. The average annual temperature for the northern hemisphere is 19.4o C and for the southern hemisphere is 16.1o C. The Pacific Ocean The Pacific is the largest ocean. It covers about one-third of area of the earth, which is more than the entire land area of the world. Though the average depth of the Pacific Ocean is 4,572 m only, it is the deepest of all the oceans. The Mariana trench is 11,034 m deep from sea level. It is dotted with over 20,000 islands, which are mostly of coral and volcanic origin. The floor of the Pacific Ocean is fairly uniform with broad rises and depressions (Fig.14.6). There is a significant difference in the extent and characteristics of the continental shelves on the easter n and western coasts of the Pacific. Along the eastern coast of Australia and Asia, the shelves are broad and extensive, from 160 to 1,600 km
in width. Several islands like Kuriles, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, New Zealand, etc are located on the continental shelves. The continental shelves on the western coasts of Americas are less extensive, about 80 km only on an average. The Pacific Ocean does not have a mid oceanic ridge, but there are a few scattered ridges of local importance. Some of them are the East Pacific Rise called the Albatross Plateau, the South East Pacific Plateau, the Pacific Antarctic Ridge, the Chile Rise, the Lord Howo Rise, the Hawaiian Ridge etc. Some important ocean basins of the Pacific are the Philippine basin, the Figi basin, the East Australian basin, the Peru basin, the Southwestern Pacific basin, the Central Pacific basin etc. Some of the trenches of this ocean are the Aleutian, the Kuril, the Japan, the Bonin, the Mindanao, the Mariana, the Tonga, the Kermadec, and the Atacama. The Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic is about half the size of the Pacific Ocean and covers about one-sixth of the earths area. Resembling S in shape, the ocean is bounded on the west by North America and South America, and on the east
Fig.14.5 : Distribution of Surface Temperature in Oceans
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Bering Sea Aieutian Trench
Kuril Trench
Japan Trench
Bonin Trench Mindanao Trench Mariana Trench
Mendocino Seascarp Hawaiian Ridge
South China Basin
Central Pacific Basin
East Pacific Basin
Albatross Plateau
Equator
Coral Sea
Austral Seamount Chain Tonga Trench Kermadec Trench South Western Pacific Basin South East Pacific Plateau Albatross Cordillera Pacfic Antarctic Ridge Atacama Trench
Lord Howe Rise Tasman Basin Below 3600m. Ocean deep
Chile Ridge
Fig.14.6 : Major Relief Features of the Pacific Ocean
by Europe and Africa (Fig. 14.7). To the south it extends upto Antarctica and in the north it is bounded by Greenland and Iceland. The continental shelf spreads all around the Atlantic Ocean, though its width varies greatly. Off the coast of Africa, it is 80-160 km wide but off the north east coast of North America and northwest Europe, it is 250-400 km in width. A number of marginal seas like the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the Norwegian, the Hudson Bay, the Baltic and the North Seas are located in the Atlantic Ocean. The mid-Atlantic ridge, running from north to south in S form is about 14,450 km long and about 4,000 metres high. The ridge has a broad fracture in the middle and slopes on both sides gently. The mid oceanic ridge in the North Atlantic is known as the Dolphin ridge, and that in the South Atlantic as the Challenger ridge. A number of islands are located on the ridge.
The mid-Atlantic ridge divides the ocean into two major basins, namely the East and the West Atlantic basins. Some other basins in the Atlantic are the North American basin, the Labrador basin, the Guiana basin, the Brazil basin, the Argentina basin, the Agulhas basin, the Angola basin, the West European basin etc. The important trenches of the Atlantic ocean are the Cayman, the Puerto Rico, and the South Sandwich. The Indian Ocean Smaller than the Pacific and the Atlantic, the Indian Ocean is bounded on the north by Asia, on the west by Africa, on the east by Asia and Australia and on the south by Antarctica (Fig.14.8). The average depth of the ocean is 4,000 m. The continental shelves of the Indian Ocean have a wide variation. It is extensive along the margins of the Arabian Sea
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Wyville Thomson Ridge
West European Basin
Telegraph Plateau
Grand Banks North American Basin Bermuda Cayman Trench Puerto Rico Trench Dolphin Ridge
Azores Is Madeiro Canary Is
Cape Verde Is Guiana Basin
Equator Romanche Deep Ascension Is Brazil Basin Angola St.Helena Basin Challenger Ridge
Tristan da Cunna Argentine Basin
Walvis Ridge Agulhas Basin
Below 3600m. Ocean deeps
Falk land Is
South Sandwich Trench
Fig.14.7 : Major Relief Features of the Atlantic Ocean
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Andaman-Nicobar Ridge Arabian Basin Socotra Chagos Ridge Carlsberg Ridge Zanzibar Seychelles Ridge Mauritius Madagascar Reunion Mascarene Basin West Australian Basin Lakshadweep Chagos Ridge Central Basin Sunda Trench
Sri Lanka
South Madagascar Ridge Prince Edward Crozet Ridge
South Australian Amstardam-St. Paul Basin Plateau
South Indian Basin
Below 3600m. Ocean deep
Fig.14.8 : Major Relief Features of the Indian Ocean
and the Bay of Bengal. It is also extensive along the eastern coast of Africa and around, Madagascar. Here it is about 640 km wide, but along the coast of Java and Sumatra it is comparatively narrow (160km). It is also narr ow along the norther n coast of Antarctica. In comparison to the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans the marginal seas in the Indian Ocean are less in number. Some significant marginal seas are the Mozambique Channel, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Andaman Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of
Bengal etc. The mid-Indian Oceanic ridge extends from the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula in the north to Antarctica in the south. It forms a continuous chain of highlands. The central ridge near the Indian Peninsula has a width of about 320 km and in the south between 30 o S and 50 o S, it is 1,600 km. The important ridges of the Indian Ocean are the Socotra-Chagos ridge, the Lakshadweep Chagos ridge, Seychelles ridge, Andaman Nicobar ridge and the Prince Edward Crozet ridge.
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The mid-Indian Oceanic and other ridges divide the Indian Ocean into a number of ocean basins. They are the Oman basin, the Arabian basin, the Somali basin, the AgulhasNatal basin, the AtlanticIndian Antar ctic basin, the Easter n IndianAntarctic basin, the west Australian basin etc. There are very few trenches in the Indian Ocean. The Java or Sunda trench (7,450 m) is the deepest. The important deep sea plains of the Indian Ocean are the Somali, the Sri Lankan and the Indian abyssal plains. Sixty per cent of the abyssal plains in this ocean range in height from 3,600 to 5,400 m. SALINITY OF SEA WATER The sea water is saline. The total weight of salt dissolved in the sea is 48,000 million million tones (mmt). Of these, sodium chloride, or common salt, accounts for 38,000mmt, sulphate for 3,000 mmt, magnesium for 1,600 mmt, potassium for 480 mmt and bromide for 83 mmt. The amazing thing about this solution is not the quantities of salts but the consistency of their ratio. The sea water may be less saline or more saline depending upon the extent of evaporation, river discharge and precipitation, but the salt composition remains invariable. Dittmar during his Challenger Expedition (1884) reported the existence of 47 types of salts in sea water, out of which seven are most important (Table 14.2). Chlorine, sulphate, carbonic acid, bromine and boric acid are among the volatile
substances that are thought to have entered the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Sodium, magnesium, calcium and potassium have been derived from igneous rocks. The average time that an element remains dissolved in the ocean before removal is known as residence time. Sodium has very low rate of chemical reaction in the marine environment and remains longer in the oceans than other elements. Thus, it is reflected in its predominant concentration. Calcium enters the oceans in the largest percentage but is relatively easily removed as calcium carbonate to become sedimentary deposit. Silicon, released in large amounts has an extremely short residence time. The silicon, therefore, is present in small amounts in sea water. The proportions in which various chemical elements are present in relation to one another in sea water are remarkably, constant throughout all oceans. The salinity of water which is the total weight of dissolved solids to weight of water, is a variable quantity, differing in value from place to place over the oceans and at various depths. The average salinity is 35 per thousand , i.e. 35 grams of salt per 1,000 grams of sea water. The relationship of salinity to depth is analogous with the three layer temperature system. A shallow surface layer of uniformly high salinity (35.0 to 36.5 per thousand) corresponds with the uniformly warm layer. Below this layer is a zone of rapid decrease in salinity, the halocline (Fig. 14.3) which corresponds with the thermocline. Below the halocline, differences in salinity are very small and salinity lies in the range of 34.6
Table 14.2 Significant Salt in Sea Water Salts 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) Magnesium Sulphate (MgSo4) Calcium Sulphate (CaSo4) Potassium Sulphate (K2So4) Calcuim carbonate (CaCo3) Magnesium Bromide (MgBr2) Total Amount (per thousand gm.) 27.213 3.807 1.658 1.260 0.863 0.123 0.076 35.000 Percentage 77.8 10.9 4.7 3.6 2.5 0.3 0.2 100.0
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to 34.9 per thousand for most of the ocean body. Thus, the salinity decreases with increasing depth. There is a wide range of variation in the spatial distribution of salinity in the oceans and seas. The factors that control distribution of salinity in oceans are the rate of evaporation, precipitation, discharge of rivers, atmospheric pressure, wind direction and circulation of oceanic water. Salinity in seawater varies from place to place and also temporally. At the equator, the salinity is somewhat lower due to abundant rains, greater cloudiness and low rate of evaporation. In latitudes about 20o in both the hemispheres, where evaporation is more intense and precipitation is lower, salinity is greater. In the temperate latitudes, where evaporation is less and rains are more abundant, salinity is lower (Fig. 14.9). In the Red Sea where no river flows, the salinity is from 40 to 41 per thousand. In the Black Sea in which numerous rivers discharge, the salinity is 17 to 18 per thousand. In the White Sea, it is between 25 and 26 per thousand,
while in the Baltic Sea it is 3 to 4 per thousand on an average. The salinity of inland seas and lakes is very high because of regular supply of salt by rivers flowing into them. Evaporation makes them more saline as it carries very little salt with it. Very high salinity is found in Lake Van, Turkey (330 per thousand), Dead Sea (240 per thousand) and Great Salt lake, USA (220 per thousand). ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF OCEANS The marine environment provides rich source of animal and plant life. The coastal inhabitants depend mostly on the marine animal life for trade and sustenance. The plant and animal life is also used in the preparation of medicines and cosmetics. Besides, the continental margins are being exploited for mineral production. The shallow continental shelves and inland seas are best known for placer deposits (economic minerals transported as sediment by river action) of platinum, gold and tin. The continental shelves are also exploited for petroleum
Fig.14.9 : Distribution of Surface Water Salinity in Oceans
OCEANS
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resources. Exploration of the deep ocean floor as a source of minerals is still in an early stage. The manganese nodules found on ocean floors are regarded as the major source of this mineral in future. The nodules will also be the source of nickel, copper and cobalt.
The deepest part of the ocean is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. It is 11,034 m deep below the sea level. The tallest sea mount is situated between Samoa and New Zealand which is 8,690 m high from the surrounding ocean floor.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Why is the earth called blue planet? (ii) Define continental shelf. (iii) What are oceanic deeps? (iv) How is hydrological cycle expressed mathematically? (v) What are seamounts? (vi) What is an abyssal plain? 2. Distinguish between: (i) Continental shelf and continental slope; (ii) Bank and reef; (iii) First and third layers of the oceanic water; (iv) Thermocline and halocline. 3. Write short notes on the following: (i) Continental rise; (ii) Mid oceanic ridge; (iii) Ocean basins; (iv) Submarine canyons. 4. Describe relief of the Indian Ocean floor. 5. Prepare a map of the Atlantic ocean floor, mentioning ocean basins and midAtlantic ridges. Project work On maps of different oceans show major relief features and colour them. Also prepare a list of different features under the following heads: Mid-oceanic ridges; Ocean basins; Seamounts; Trenches.
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#
CHAPTER
OCEAN CURRENTS, WAVES
AND
TIDES
he world of the oceans and seas has sometimes been called inner space. Humans have made use of the sea for thousands of years for food, transport or as a waste dump. The sea also has a considerable effect upon the land and the life forms found there. Water heats and cools quite slowly and the oceans moderate the worlds climate. OCEAN CURRENTS
The ocean current is the general movement of a mass of water in a fairly defined direction over great distances. Currents can range in scale from ocean wide flow systems to local currents of small extent and can be generated by several mechanisms. The most important mechanisms for the great ocean currents are (i) the drag of winds over the ocean surface; and (ii) unequal forces set up by differences in water density. Ocean currents are broadly of two types: warm and cold currents. The warm currents flow from the low latitudes in tropical zones towards the high latitudes in the temperate and sub-polar zones. The cold currents flow from high latitudes to low latitudes. The ocean currents flow like extensive rivers in the ocean. The rate of flow and the width of the currents, however, are not uniform. The Gulf Stream, for example, is 80 km wide and 1.6 km deep. The Florida Current has a velocity of 10 km per hour at the surface and 3.5 km at a depth of 200m. Wind flowing over the water surface exerts a dragging force upon that surface, setting the surface water layer in motion. Prevailing winds, such as the tropical easterlies (trade winds), blowing from east to west, and the
middle-latitude westerlies, blowing from west to east, exert a one-way drag on sea surface over vast expanse of oceans. This drag produces a system of drift currents. Because of the Coriolis effect the effect of the earths rotation the direction of water drift in the northern hemisphere is in a compass direction about 450 to the right of the direction of prevailing wind. Differences in water density can also set currents in motion and these are described as thermocline currents. A surface water layer in one place may be less dense because it is warmer or lower in density than the water layer in adjacent place that is either colder or has higher density. The water then moves gently from the region of less to the higher density. Due to Coriolis effect, the moving water turns and follows elliptical path, known as gyre. The water circulation in these gyres is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The westward drift of water in equatorial region is referred to as the North Equatorial Current and the South Equatorial Current. These are separated by the Equatorial Countercurrent that moves eastward and is caused by the return of lighter surface water, which has been piled up on the western side of the ocean basin by the Equatorial Currents. The souther n part of the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean, in the region of fiftieth and sixtieth parallel, for ms a continuous circular ribbon of ocean, scarcely interrupted by land. Here, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current flows eastward in an uninterrupted path following the parallel of latitudes.
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Besides the horizontal movement discussed above, vertical circulation of ocean water is also an important phenomenon. Ocean surface is marked with sinking (surges) and upwelling (swales) caused by wind action, evaporation of surface water, addition of surface water by rainfall and changes in density due to cooling or warming of the surface layer. Most important cause of sinking of ocean water on a large scale is cooling of surface layer by loss of heat to the overlying atmosphere in high latitudes. During long winters, much heat is lost to space than is gained by solar radiation, thereby relatively warm surface waters brought poleward by ocean currents are chilled and increase in density. This water may be close to the freezing point and therefore, sinks to the ocean floor. Thus, a surface called convergence zone, is created in both the Arctic and Antarctic latitudes. Currents of the Pacific Ocean The North Equatorial Current from the west coast of Central America reaches the Philippine Island, flowing across from east to west in the North Pacific Ocean (Fig.15.1). Turning northward, the North Equatorial Current flows along Taiwan and Japan to form Kuro Shio Current. The currents are influenced by the westerlies from south-east coast of Japan and tend to flow from west to east as the North Pacific Current. The current gets bifurcated into the northern and the southern branches, called the Alaska and the California Currents, respectively after reaching the west coast of North America. The Alaska Current flows anticlockwise along the coast of British Columbia and Alaska whereas the Californian Current flows along the coast of California. The cold current, the Oya Shio, flows in the north of the Pacific. Another cold current, named the Okhotsk Current, flows in the North Pacific and merges with the Oya Shio Current which finally, sinks beneath the warmer waters of the Kuro Shio. The South Equatorial Current flows in the South Pacific Ocean. It flows southward as the East Australian Current before meeting the cold South Pacific Current near Tasmania
which flows west to east. Near the south-western coast of South America it turns north as the Peru Current. It is a cold current that feeds the South Equatorial Current, thus completing the circle. The North and the South Equatorial Currents cause disturbance in the surface levels due to accumulation of waters in the western parts. This gives rise to the Counter Equatorial Currents that flow eastward. Currents of the Atlantic Ocean To the north and the south of the equator, steady trade winds give rise to two streams of surface water that flows westward. They are known as the North and the South Equatorial Currents (Fig. 15.2). In order to replace the removal of water from eastern side, return currents are generated that flows west to east as the Equatorial Counter Current . This current is known as the Guinea Current off the west African coast. The South Equatorial Current bifurcates into two branches near the coast of Brazil. The northern branch reinforces the North Equatorial Current. A part of this current enters the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico whereas the remainder passes along the eastern side of the West Indies as the Antilles Current. The currents bring in bulk of warm water in the Gulf of Mexico raising the water level in the Gulf. The current that moves along the southeastern coast of United States from the Cape of Florida to the Cape Hatteras is known as the Florida Current. Beyond the Cape Hatteras it is known as the Gulf Stream . From the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the Gulf Stream flows eastward across the Atlantic as the North Atlantic Drift. The main current of the drift after reaching the British Isles flows along the coast of Norway as the Norwegian Current and enters the Arctic Ocean. The southerly branch of the drift flows between Spain and Azores as the cold Canaries Current. The East Greenland and the Labrador Currents flow from the Arctic Ocean into the Atlantic Ocean. The Labrador Current flows along the east coast of Canada and meets the warm Gulf Stream. The confluence of warm and cold
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currents produce fogs around Newfoundland. The South Equatorial Current in the South Atlantic Ocean flows from east to west and bifurcates into two branches near Brazil. The northern branch joins the North Equatorial Current. The southern branch, known as the Brazil Current, flows along the South American coast and meets the South Atlantic Current. The Benguela Current branches out from the South Atlantic Current and flows along the west coast of South Africa before finally joining the South Equatorial Current and completing the circuit.
The Falkland Current, a cold current, flows along the south-eastern coast of South America from south to north. Currents of the Indian Ocean The circulation of currents in the Indian Ocean is characteristically, different from the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans because the Indian Ocean is land locked in the north. The circulation pattern in the northern portion of the Indian Ocean changes its direction in response to seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.
Fig.15.1 : Currents of the Pacific Ocean Note the location and direction of warm and cold ocean currents.
Alaska
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Ea
st
e Gr
en
la
nd
C.
w or eg i
an
C.
Fig.15.2 : Currents of the Atlantic Ocean Examine the effect of the North Atlantic Drift on Norways coastline.
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Fig.15.3 : Currents of the Indian Ocean (Winter) Observe the effect of North East Monsoon on the directions of the North East Monsoon Drift.
Fig.15.4 : Currents of the Indian Ocean (Summer) Compare this figure with Fig. 15.3.
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Fig.15.5 : Wave Parameters Compare the wave height and wave length.
There is clear reversal of currents between winter (Fig. 15.3), and summer (Fig. 15.4). The north-east monsoon drives water along the coast of the Bay of Bengal to circulate in anticlockwise direction. Similarly, along the coasts of the Arabian Sea, an anticlockwise circulation of currents develop. The circulation of water in the northern part of ocean is clockwise in summer. This is due to the effect of strong south-west monsoon and absence of northeast trades. The southern part of the Indian Ocean has the circulation pattern similar to that of other southern oceans, in anticlockwise direction and it is less marked by the seasonal changes. The circulation pattern is simple. The South Equatorial Current moves westward. Along the coast of Africa, it bifurcates. The major part turns to the south as the Mozambique and the Agulhas Currents, which turn to the east as the West Wind Drift. Along the west coast of Australia, it flows northwards as the West Australian Current and then joins the South Equatorial Current. In winter, the North East Monsoon Current flows south of the equator as the Counter Current in easterly direction. WAVES Waves are oscillatory movements in water, where its particles move in a vertical plane, up and down. The upper part of a wave is called the crest, and the lower part the trough. Each wave has a wave length, velocity, height and wave period. The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs is the wave length. The time taken by a wave length to pass a fixed point is known as the wave
period. The vertical distance between a trough and a crest is the wave height (Fig. 15.5). The velocity of a moving wave can be determined as follows: Velocity of Wave (V) = Wave Length (L) Wave Period (T)
The mechanism of the origin of sea waves is not precisely known but it is commonly believed that they are generated due to friction on water surface caused by winds. The height of sea waves depends on (i) the wind speed; (ii) the duration of wind from a particular direction; and (iii) the fetch or the expanse of water surface over which the wind blows. Where the water is deep, the winds are fast and blow over a long period of time, and the bottom does not interfere with the undulatory movement of water, the formation of waves is high. A wind speed of 160 km per hour, blowing for about 50 hours, over a fetch of 1,600 km has produced waves of 15 metres height. In high seas, a wave height of 1.5 metres to 4.5 metres is common which increases to 12 to 15 metres during strong storms. With such heights the wave length varies between 60 and 210 metres and the velocity from 30 to 100 metres per hour. It should be noted that in wave motion there is no shifting of the mass of water. Ocean waves produced by winds belong to a class described as progressive waves, because the wave form moves rapidly through the water. The progressive waves produced by the wind are of a type called oscillatory waves. In oscillatory waves each wave passes a fixed reference point,
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Fig.15.6 : Circular Orbit in a Low Sea Wave Note the direction of arrow in circular orbits on the crest and trough.
the water particles travel through a vertical cycle of motion and return approximately to their original position. On the wave crest, the water particles move forward in the direction the wave travels while in the trough they move backward, opposite to the direction the wave travels (Fig.15.6). When a train of ocean waves arrives at the coast of a continent or island, it encounters shallow water. The configuration of coast interferes the progress of the wave. Waves in shallow water are modified into ellipses that become progressively flatter as the coast is approached. As the steepening wave continues to travel shoreward, encountering still shallower water, the crest height increases sharply and the forward slope of the wave becomes greatly steepened. At a critical point, the wave form disintegrates into a mass of turbulent water called the breaker. Thereafter, it becomes a landward moving sheet of highly turbulent water known as the swash or uprush. The water then begins to pour seaward, down the slope in a reverse flow termed the backwash or backrush. TIDES Tides are the periodic rise and fall in the level of water in seas and oceans caused by differential attraction of the moon and the sun.
Twice a day, about every 12 hours and 26 minutes, the sea level rises and twice a day it falls. The rise of sea level is called the flood tide and the fall is called the ebb tide. These fluctuations are not easily noticeable on the high seas, and these do not exceed a few metres. In the region of the shelf and in the estuaries of big rivers, the fluctuations are considerably high, from six or seven metres to fifteen or twenty metres. The mechanism of the tides was explained by Issac Newton. He demonstrated that the phenomenon was caused by the attraction of the moon and the sun (Fig.15.7). According to the universal law of gravitation, the side of the earth facing the moon has a force of attraction and the side which is farthest from the moon has a centrifugal force, almost equal to the force of attraction. The force of attraction between physical particles is proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them. The sun,
Fig.15.7 : Effect of Tide Producing Forces on the Earth Compare the length of arrows in attractive and centrifugal force.
being bigger, has more attractive force than the moon, but the moon being nearer has more attractive force than the sun. As the sun is far away from the earth, its force of attraction is very small the reason, inversely proportional to square of distance from the earth (Fig. 15.8). The mass of the sun is 30 million times larger than that of the moon but the sun is 300 times farther from the earth than the moon. The tide producing force of the moon is thus, 2.17 times greater than that of the sun. On the earth (land)
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last quarters of the lunar month, the sun, the earth and the moon occupy a right angular position and hence, the attraction and centrifugal forces of the moon and the sun do not combine. This reduces the height of the tides to the minimum which is called the neap tide. The height of tidal waves vary from place to place because of the following : relative position of the moon and the sun with respect to the earth, distribution of land and ocean on the earths surface, and irregularities in the configuration of oceans. At Okha, in Gujarat, the tidal waves have a height of 2.5 metres only, but in the Bay of Fundy it is between 15 and 18 metres. The tidal waves follow the direction of the moon. In certain inland seas where tidal waves reach from different directions, one can find a number of high tides and low tides as it is in the North Sea between European mainland and the British Isles. When such waves enter the gulfs or river mouths, the tidal crests look like a vertical wall of water rushing upstream, which is known as the tidal bore. Tides and tidal bores serve human beings in several ways. The tides clear away the sediments brought down by rivers and thus, reduce the process of delta formation. The tidal waves increase water level in rivers to allow ships to enter the inland ports. Tides are used for fishing and generation of electricity. The energy of the tides is estimated to have a potential of 1,000 million kw, which is more than all the rivers of the world put together. However, its use at present is limited. France and Japan have power stations based on tidal energy.
The Sargasso in the wester n North Atlantic is surrounded by the Florida Current. It is often windless and is choked with seaweed. It is the birthplace of common eels. Sunlight penetrates water to about 900 m, but only in top 100 m is there enough light for plants to photosynthesise.
Fig.15.8 : Decrease in Gravitational Force with Distance Observe how the gravitational force decreases inversely proportionate to square of distance.
near Moscow, the tidal oscillation is 50 cm, in ocean waters it is one metre. Near the shore it is 10-18 metres high or more. Because of the earths rotation each meridian has a high and a low tide at an interval of 12 hours and 26 minutes, or two high tides and two low tides in 24 hours and 52 minutes, one caused by the attractive force and the other by the centrifugal force (in case of high tide). The sun affects tides to a much smaller extent. As the moon revolves round the earth in about 29 days, the moon on the earths surface does not appear every day at the same time. It is delayed by 52 minutes every day, that is in 24 hours (Fig. 15.9). Twice a month, when the earth, the moon and the sun are in a straight line, that happens on the new moon or the full moonday, the tides attain maximum height, and it is called the spring tide. On the first and
Fig.15.9 : Moons Revolution and the Interval of Tides
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EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) What are ocean currents? (ii) Name the factors that control the origin of ocean currents. (iii) How can velocity of a wave be determined? (iv) What are tides? (v) What is a tidal bore? 2. Distinguish between: (i) Cold and warm ocean currents; (ii) Spring tide and neap tide; (iii) Swash and back wash. 3. Write short notes on the following: (i) Ocean currents of the Indian Ocean; (ii) Origin of tides. 4. If there were no ocean currents, what would have happened to the world. Discuss. 5. How can velocity of the ocean currents be measured? Project Work Prepare a chart showing ocean currents of the Atlantic Ocean. Name cold and warm ocean currents. Mention the effect of these currents on the climate of the surrounding areas.
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Unit VI
LIFE
ON THE
EARTH
$
CHAPTER
DIVERSITY
OF
LIFE
rganically, biosphere is the most active sphere of the earth in comparison to the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. It is a shallow zone at the earth surface, both on land and in water. All living organisms together with the environment with which they interact for m the biosphere. Whether they belong to the plant or animal kingdom, they all interact with each other. The study of these interactions between life forms and the environment is called ecology. All the components which enter into interactions with a group of organisms is called ecosystem. The earth is full of diversities. There is diversity in soils and minerals, diversity in plants and animals, and diversity in cultures and civilisations. Charaka, the father of Ayurveda, who lived in the first century A.D., listed over 200 kinds of animals and about 340 kinds of plants in his book of Indian medicine titled Charaka Samhita. Carolus Linnaeus, the eighteenth century Swedish naturalist, identified about 5,900 species of plants and 4,200 species of animals. Since then some 1.7 million species have been given scientific names; of these, over a million are animal species and the rest plant species. According to an estimate, over 5 million species of living organisms exist in the world today, and over half of these are believed to be found in the unexplored tropical rain forests of the world. The rain forests constitute less than 8 per cent of the total land area of the world but support a very rich diversity of life. CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS Scientists can identify many kinds of organisms with scientific names because they
have been described and ordered by a system of classification which has been internationally accepted. The science of classification of organisms is called taxonomy. Earlier, all organisms used to be broadly grouped into two categories the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. Under each category there used to be several species. Whittaker, in 1969, divided dif ferent organisms into five kingdoms, namely: (i) Monera (single cell microscopic organisms); (ii) Protista (unicellular, primarily aquatic organisms); (iii) Plantae (multicellular photosynthetic plants); (iv) Fungi (multicellular decomposers) and; (v) Animalia (multicellular animal consumers). The above classification into five kingdoms is made on the following criteria: complexity of cell structure, complexity of organisms body, and mode of obtaining nutrition. Bacteria belong to the monera kingdom. Its cells are microscopic and do not contain a nucleus. It prepares its own food by reducing carbondioxide and using light energy or energy derived from chemical reactions. Protistan organisms are mostly unicellular. Many are photosynthetic autotrophs and chief producers in oceans and fresh water environments. They are collectively called phytoplankton, microscopic, floating photosynthetic organisms. Plantae includes all the coloured, multicellular, photosynthetic plants which we all see on land, on sea shores, in lakes and in streams. Main groups are the sea weeds consisting of algae, mosses, ferns, and seed plants with or without flowers.
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Fungi includes diverse kinds of multicellular heterotrophic organisms. There are over 100,000 species of fungi. Some are unicellular like yeasts, others complex like mushrooms. The fungi are the major decomposers and their activity is essential for the recycling of inorganic resources in the biosphere. Members of the animal kingdom are multicellular. This includes sponges, snails, insects, star fishes, amphibians, birds, mammals etc. Under each kingdom, there are several species. Human beings belong to one of the species of the animal kingdom. But because of their unique characteristics, they are called Homo sapiens (homo= man; sapiens = wise). At the biological level, the human beings are not unique for strength, ability, speed or endurance. They have a poorer sense of hearing, smell and vision than many other animals, but their brains are large and highly developed, and they have skilled hands. They can change themselves according to environment and need and hence, more powerful than other animals. ORGANISATION OF AN ECOSYSTEM The biotic community along with the physical environment forms an interacting system called the ecosystem. An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent. A large grassland or a forest, a small tract in a forest or a single log, an edge of pond, a village, an aquarium or a manned spaceship can all be regarded as ecosystems. Thus, any structural and functional unit of the environment that can be identified and studied is called ecosystem. The study of an ecosystem is not merely a description of the biotic community and its abiotic environment. It involves the understanding of a whole network of relationships comprising the various exchanges and interactions between the living and the non-living. Various structural components of an ecosystem are classified into two main groups: (i) biotic or living; and (ii) abiotic or non-living. The biotic component of an ecosytem comprises the kinds, numbers and
distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component consists of the kinds, quantity and distribution of physical and chemical factors such as light, temperature, water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and minerals. The study of the functional aspect of an ecosystem involves the volume and the rate at which various materials circulate and the rate at which energy flows through it. The study also includes the processes by which living organisms change the abiotic environment, the processes by which non-living environment affect living organisms and the events by which population levels of organisms are regulated. Biotic Components All organisms require energy for their life processes and materials for the formation and maintenance of body structures. Food supplies both energy and materials for the sustenance of life. Green plants produce carbohydrates by photosynthesis and also synthesise proteins and fats. The green plants, therefore, are called producers. The animals that consume this energy as food are called consumers. The non-green organisms like the fungi and some bacteria, which do not produce their own food, live on the dead and decaying plants or animals and are consumers of a special type, called decomposers (Fig. 16.1). The herbivores like cattle, deer and goat derive their food (or energy) directly from plants (the producers) and are called the first order consumers. The carnivorous organisms like the tiger and the lion are the second order consumers. The food relation in its simplest form grass-deer-tiger-microorganisms representing a producer, a primary consumer, a secondary consumer and a decomposer is called a food chain (Fig.16.2). Each step in the food chain represents a trophic level. Energy Flow in the Biosphere Energy from the sun enters the living world through photosynthetic organisms and passes on from one organism to another in the form
DIVERSITY OF LIFE
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Fig.16.1 : Cycle of Energy and Nutrient Flow in an Ecosystem Note the direction of flow of energy and that of the nutrients.
of food. The organisms which trap solar energy and act as producers also use some energy for
their own life processes. Only a portion of the energy trapped is taken up by the primary
Fig.16.2 : Food Chain Note how energy received from the sun is transferred to other organisms.
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consumers. Animals being more active than plants use much of the energy acquired before they are consumed by the next trophic level. At each stage of energy transfer, some amount of energy is lost from the food chain. The amount of energy transferred to the next higher level thus, gradually decreases. The decomposition of dead organisms also releases chemical energy. Eventually, all the solar energy that entered the living system through the producers goes back into the non-living world, not as light but as heat. In nature the food relationships cannot be explained only in terms of a single food chain. A herbivore consumes many types of plant or plant products. Many kinds of animals other than the tiger derive food from herbivorous animals. Ticks and mites, leeches and bloodsucking insects are dependent on herbivores and even on carnivores. Thus, food chains are not isolated linear chains of trophic levels. Depending upon the availability and choice of food, different organisms at each level have food relationship with more than one organism at the lower levels. A rat, for example, feeds on various kinds of stems, roots, fruits and grains. In turn, it is consumed by a snake which is eaten by a falcon. The snakes feed on both frogs and rats. Thus, a network of food
chains exists, which is called a food web. The food web becomes more complicated when taste and preference, availability and compulsion are involved. In the Sunderbans, tigers are forced to feed on fish or crabs. In a food chain the members at the successive higher levels become smaller in number. In a forest, the small herbivorous insects are more abundant than the insectivorous birds. The preying birds like hawks are fewer than insectivorous birds. Thus. the number of organisms in one trophic level is higher than that at the next higher level. When the number at successive levels are plotted, they assume the shape of a pyramid. (Fig.16.3). This is called a pyramid of numbers. The number of organisms at any trophic level depends upon the availability of organisms which serve as food at the lower level. Thus, the number of a particular herbivorous insect would increase if more plant food was available to them. Consequently, plenty of food would be available not only to its prey, but also to other animals like a bird which feeds on that insect even as a second choice leading to an increase in their number. As a result of this increased predation the number of herbivorous insects
Fig.16.3 : Food Pyramid (Pyramid of Numbers) Note the organism who is at the top level and why is it so.
DIVERSITY OF LIFE
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is decreased and this in turn would lead to a reduction in the number of their predators. Thus, availability of food is the main factor which maintains the grand balance of nature. This balance is dynamic and fluctuates within certain limits. No organism exists in isolation but in company with others of similar or differing type, and its actual or ecological range will depend on the suitability of the biotic environment. The biotic environment is a product of the interactions between organisms and their abiotic habitat vis--vis interactions between organisms of the same or different species living together. Competition is a negative interaction in which both competing species suffer. It is the struggle of two or more organisms to exploit the same resources. For example, green plants compete each other for sunlight. The creation of shade and the consequent reduction in light intensity is the most common way in which one type of plant may suppress or prevent the growth of other plants. The process of intra and inter-specific competition between animals is more complex than that between plants. Competition among animals is primarily for living space, food and breeding partners. In contrast to the preceding negative biotic interactions, mutualism and communalism are the two positive biotic interactions. Mutualism or symbiosis is the mutually beneficial association of two dissimilar organisms. Communalism occurs when one of the two species benefits from an association while the other is unaffected as in the case of plants or animals growing on shells of marine animals. Abiotic Components Among the abiotic factors the most important are climatic and edaphic factors. The climatic factors include temperature, humidity, rain and snowfall. The edaphic factors comprise the soil and substratum. The ability of organisms to utilise, tolerate or combat the various abotic factors are different and it may limit their distribution, behaviour and relationship with other organisms. Some of
the most important abiotic factors are described below : Temperature: Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of temperature which allows their metabolism. Wherever they live the organisms must develop physiological and behavioural adaptations to withstand extremes of temperature. The polar bear can live in very cold regions and hibernate during winter. Some birds and mammals migrate to warmer places in winter to avoid extreme cold. Some desert animals live inside burrows to avoid the intense heat of the desert. Water is an essential requirement of life. A large number of organisms live only in water. The requirement of water varies from organism to organism. The distribution of organisms depends upon the extent of the need and special adaptations for conserving water. Light is essential for photosynthetic organisms for the preparation of food, on which the rest of the living world depends. Plants show various adaptations for obtaining optimum light. Most animals are sensitive to light. Many animals have special photoreceptors. Humidity : The atmospheric humidity directly regulates the rate at which water evaporates from the earths surface, and the body of organisms by transpiration, perspiration and other means. Plants and animals have different levels of adaptations to withstand dry conditions. Wind determines the rate of transpiration where wind velocity is very high, the plants with strong root system and tough stems only survive. Most organisms thrive in an optimal pH range. Some plants and aquatic animals require acidic conditions, others need neutral or alkaline conditions. The pH of the soil and water has a strong influence on the distribution of organisms. Mineral elements: Availability and concentration of essential mineral elements control the distribution of microbes and plants and animals. Plants living in soil deficient in nitrogen have developed special adaptations for obtaining it, such as, harbouring nitrogenfixing bacteria and the carnivorous habit . Salinity in soil or in water greatly affects the distribution of organisms. Fresh water species
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usually, cannot survive in a marine habitat. Animals inhabiting an estuary have special physiological or behavioural adaptations to withstand fluctuations in salinity caused by tidal rhythms. Topography or sur face configuration of an area influences distribution of organisms as much as wide geographic separation. Topographical effect may be direct as well as indirect. Indirectly, it affects other
factors like wind, water current, light or wave action. The background of the habitat also determines the distribution of animals by enabling them to camouflage against the colour, general texture and pattern. Desert animals like the lion and the camel are sand-coloured. Most of the jelly fishes, sea cucumbers are glassy. The chameleon changes its colour according to its background.
EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer the following questions: (i) Define biosphere. (ii) How does humidity affect plant life? (iii) Mention five kingdoms into which different organisms are divided. (iv) What are the functions of fungi? (v) What is an ecosystem? (vi) What is a food chain? 2. Distinguish between: (i) First order consumers and second order consumers; (ii) Biotic and abiotic factors; (iii) Food chain and food web; (iv) Mutualism and competition. 3. Write short notes on the following: (i) Taxonomy of organism; (ii) Pyramid of numbers; (iii) Balance of nature; (iv) Energy flow in biosphere. 4. Describe the importance of abiotic factors in biosphere. 5. Mention various kinds of diversities which you observe in the world today. Project Work Divide organisms into five kingdoms. Write about their characteristics, types and functions. Also draw their sketches.

Physical Geography

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143

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Distance From Sun 58 million km

2 satellites Phobos and Deimos

Hardness (Based on Mohs Scale) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

PRINCIPAL ECONOMIC MINERALS

(SURFACE + ATMOSPHERE ENERGY BALANCE)

Area (sq. km.)

Volume (cu. km)

82,441,500 73,442,700 1,65,246,200 14,090,100 3,35,220,500

22.83 20.34 45.77 3.91 92.85

323,613,300 291,030,000 707,555,000 16,980,000 1,339,178,000

23.61 21.23 51.63 1.23 97.70

8,143,100 4,319,500 2,965,900 15,428,500

2.26 1.21 0.82 4.29

9,873,000 9,573,000 4,238,000 23,684,000

0.72 0.70 0.30 1.72

422,300 1,232,300 437,900 238,800 2,331,300

0.12 0.34 0.12 0.06 0.64

23,000 1,58,000 2,15,000 6,000 4,02,000 0.05

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY

Physical Human/ Cultural Methods and Techniques of Geography

Zoo Field Survey Cartography Quantitative

Urban Rural Economic

Geography of Trade and Transport

Fig1.1 : Geography Branches and Sub-Fields

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

NATURE AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig.3.2 : Dimensions of the Earths Mantle and Core

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig.4.1 : Earthquake Waves Particle Motions in P Waves and S Waves

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS

0 60N 30S 30N

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS

Fig.5.4 : The Mid-Oceanic Ridge System and Related Fracture Zones

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS

South American Plate

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

been along the Indus and Brahmaputra rivers.

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

ROCKS AND MINERALS

Fig.6.1 : Rock Cycle

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY