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    Buddhism in South India

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    sonaliforex1
    1. Buddhism was introduced to South India before the 3rd century CE, as evidenced by references in early Tamil literature like the Purananuru and mentions of Buddhist missions in King Ashoka's edicts from the 3rd century BCE. 2. Buddhism flourished in South India for some time, with famous Buddhist cities, monuments, and literary works produced. However, it eventually declined as Hinduism gained more prominence in the region. 3. Many eminent Buddhist teachers and scholars lived in South India and contributed to the spread and study of Buddhism, including monks from Sri Lanka sent by King Ashoka as well as local Tamil Buddhist authors.

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    Buddhism in South India

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    sonaliforex1
    151 views34 pages
    1. Buddhism was introduced to South India before the 3rd century CE, as evidenced by references in early Tamil literature like the Purananuru and mentions of Buddhist missions in King Ashoka's edicts from the 3rd century BCE. 2. Buddhism flourished in South India for some time, with famous Buddhist cities, monuments, and literary works produced. However, it eventually declined as Hinduism gained more prominence in the region. 3. Many eminent Buddhist teachers and scholars lived in South India and contributed to the spread and study of Buddhism, including monks from Sri Lanka sent by King Ashoka as well as local Tamil Buddhist authors.

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    Buddhism in South India

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    1. Buddhism was introduced to South India before the 3rd century CE, as evidenced by references in early Tamil literature like the Purananuru and mentions of Buddhist missions in King Ashoka's edicts from the 3rd century BCE. 2. Buddhism flourished in South India for some time, with famous Buddhist cities, monuments, and literary works produced. However, it eventually declined as Hinduism gained more prominence in the region. 3. Many eminent Buddhist teachers and scholars lived in South India and contributed to the spread and study of Buddhism, including monks from Sri Lanka sent by King Ashoka as well as local Tamil Buddhist authors.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    151 views34 pages

    Buddhism in South India

    Uploaded by

    sonaliforex1
    1. Buddhism was introduced to South India before the 3rd century CE, as evidenced by references in early Tamil literature like the Purananuru and mentions of Buddhist missions in King Ashoka's edicts from the 3rd century BCE. 2. Buddhism flourished in South India for some time, with famous Buddhist cities, monuments, and literary works produced. However, it eventually declined as Hinduism gained more prominence in the region. 3. Many eminent Buddhist teachers and scholars lived in South India and contributed to the spread and study of Buddhism, including monks from Sri Lanka sent by King Ashoka as well as local Tamil Buddhist authors.

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    Buddhism in South India

    by

    Pandit Hisselle Dhammaratana Mahthera


    Buddhist Publication Society Kandy Sri Lanka

    The Wheel Publication No. 124/125

    Abridged and translated from Dakuu Indiyve Bauddha Itihsaya (196 ! by Amarasiri "eeraratne# $o%yright & Buddhist Publication Society 196' BPS (nline )dition & (*++'! ,igital -ranscri%tion Source. BPS -ranscri%tion Pro/ect 0or free distribution# -his 1ork may be re%ublished2 reformatted2 re%rinted and redistributed in any medium# 3o1e4er2 any such re%ublication and redistribution is to be made a4ailable to the %ublic on a free and unrestricted basis2 and translations and other deri4ati4e 1orks are to be clearly marked as such#

    Contents
    -he 5ntroduction of Buddhism to South 5ndia################################################################################6 -he 7ise2 S%read2 and ,ecay of Buddhism in South 5ndia############################################################8 Buddhist 9onuments in South 5ndia###############################################################################################' :;ga%a<<anam################################################################################################################################' K;=chi%uram################################################################################################################################1+ $ity of >a=chi###############################################################################################################################11 9adhur;########################################################################################################################################11 -he 5m%act of Buddhism on 3induism#########################################################################################16 -amil Literary "orks by South 5ndian Buddhist Authors##########################################################18 -he Poem 9a?imekhalai#############################################################################################################18 Ku?@alakesA###################################################################################################################################16 >alaiy;%athy#################################################################################################################################1B >Arasoliyam###################################################################################################################################1B Siddh;ntattokai#############################################################################################################################1B -iru%%adigam###############################################################################################################################1B Bimbis;ra Kadai############################################################################################################################1' )minent Buddhist -eachers 1ho Li4ed in South 5ndia###############################################################19 1# 5lambodhiy;r#############################################################################################################################19 *# Ara4a?a A@igal#########################################################################################################################19 6# BhikkhunA 9a?imekhalai########################################################################################################19 # SAthalai S;ttan;r########################################################################################################################*+ 8# -he $oCian Bhikkhu SaDghamitta###########################################################################################*1 6# :;gaguttan;r############################################################################################################################*1 B# $ommentator Ecariya Buddhadatta######################################################################################** '# -he 9ah; -hera Buddhamitra################################################################################################** 9# Bodhidharma############################################################################################################################** 1+# Ec;riya ,ign;ga#####################################################################################################################*6 11# >iceF$hancellor ,harma%;la of :;land;############################################################################*6 1*# BadaratArtha ,hamma%;la####################################################################################################*6 16# -he -heras Buddhanandi and S;ri%utra#############################################################################* 1 # >a/rabodhi###############################################################################################################################* 18# Buddhamitra###########################################################################################################################*8 16# ,A%aDkara Buddha%%iya -hera############################################################################################*8 1B# $oCa Kassa%a -hera################################################################################################################*8 1'# Anuruddha -hera###################################################################################################################*8 19# ,hammakitti -hera################################################################################################################*6 A%%endiG H )Gtracts from the 9a?imekhalai#############################################################################*B 0rom Book >#################################################################################################################################*B Book III#######################################################################################################################################*9

    The Introduction of Buddhism to South India


    5t is not generally kno1n that Buddhism flourished in South 5ndia in ancient times# -he ancient chronicles of Sri Lanka such as the ,A%a4aJsa and 9ah;4aJsa are silent on the sub/ect# "hile studying -amil literature2 5 became interested in this sub/ect2 1hich is one of 1hich 1e should not be ignorant# -herefore2 in order to acKuaint myself 1ith it2 5 had to %eruse books on the history of South 5ndia and Sri Lanka2 the P;li teGts and commentaries2 in addition to studies in -amil literature# -he -amil book entitled Bauddhamum -amil 5lakkiamum (Buddhism and -amil Literature! by Seeni >engadasamy of 9adras 1as %articularly hel%ful to me# 5n this 1ork 5 %ro%ose to deal 1ith the arri4al of Buddhism in South 5ndia2 its s%read and its decay# 5 shall also touch on famous Buddhist cities2 the im%act of Buddhism on the local 3indu religion2 and on Buddhist teachers and their literary 1ork# -here is a di4ision of o%inion regarding the %eriod in 1hich Buddhism 1as introduced to South 5ndia# 3o1e4er2 on %erusal of -amil literary 1orks2 a solution to this %roblem can be found# -he earliest literary 1ork in 1hich Buddhism is traceable is a book called Pura?;nLru# :o trace of Buddhist influence can be found in books 1ritten %rior to this# 5n the Pura?;nLru there is reference to the Si4i M;taka# -he full im%act of Buddhism in South 5ndia is unmistakably sho1n in Slappadhikram and Maimekhalai2 1hich are t1o e%ic 1orks of the 6rd Sangam %eriod1 in -amil literature (*nd century $)!# (f these2 Maimekhalai is a %urely Buddhist 1ork2 1hich in addition to the narrati4e2 contains also eG%ositions of the Buddhist doctrine# * )Gtracts from other %oems 1ritten by the author of Maimekhalai2 SAthalai S;ttan;r2 are found in other -amil literary 1orks# Nuotations from 5lambodhiyar2 the Buddhist %oet2 are found in the :atrinai (%#B*!# -hus 1e are able to arri4e at the conclusion that Buddhism came to South 5ndia before the 6rd Sangam %eriod of -amil literature (*nd century $)!# -amil literary 1orks %ro4ide a clue to finding the time of the ad4ent of Buddhism# A%art from this2 the inscri%tions of King Asoka also shed much light on the sub/ect# -1o inscri%tions of King Asoka found at Oirnar in Surashtra are %articularly hel%ful# P-he merciful )m%eror2 endo1ed 1ith fa4ours from the gods2 has arranged for medical facilities to be %ro4ided to men and beasts2 in $oCa2 $era2 P;?@ya2 -;mra%;r?i (Sri Lanka!2 and in the kingdom of the Oreek king Antiochus#Q 0rom this it is clear that the )m%eror Asoka %ro4ided medical facilities in the kingdoms of South 5ndia# :othing is mentioned here of the s%read of Buddhism# Ret in edict number I555 found near Pesha1ar2 there is reference to the Buddhist missions of Asoka# Among the countries referred to are $oCa2 P;?@ya2 and Sri Lanka# -his inscri%tion 1as 1ritten in *8' B#$# and is direct e4idence of the Buddhist missions of Asoka to South 5ndia and Sri Lanka# As Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka had to come by 1ay of South 5ndia2 the s%read of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and South 5ndia should be considered contem%orary e4ents# At the third Buddhist $ouncil con4ened under the %atronage of King Asoka2 missionaries 1ere selected to be sent to 4arious countries round about 5ndia# -he )m%eror AsokaSs son 9ahinda 9ah; -hera 1as selected to %ro%agate Buddhism in Sri Lanka# 5n the 6rd century B#$# the >enerable 9ahinda arri4ed in Sri Lanka 1ith his Buddhist mission# 3e ordained many

    -he Sangam 1as a con4ocation of -amil %oets and literary critics to 1hom %oetic 1orks 1ere submitted for their a%%ro4al or other1ise#
    *

    See A%%endiG#

    disci%les and started missionary acti4ities on a big scale# 3is chief disci%le 1as the >enerable Ari<<ha 1ho assisted his teacher in his missionary endea4ours# 5t is unfortunate that Sri LankaSs ancient chronicles2 1hich ha4e taken %ains to gi4e details of the life and missionary acti4ities of King Asoka2 should ha4e omitted to record the introduction of Buddhism to South 5ndia# -he historian >incent Smith has ad4anced the 4ie1 that as South 5ndian -amils constantly harassed the Sinhalese 1ith in4asions the Buddhist monks 1ho 1rote the chronicles 1ere %re/udiced against them and did not 1ish to gi4e them a %lace in their books# ,es%ite this omission2 it is no1 acce%ted by all scholars that Buddhism 1as introduced to South 5ndia by the >enerable 9ahinda himself# -he aforementioned facts alone are sufficient to establish this assum%tion# Although our chronicles say that the >enerable 9ahinda arri4ed in Sri Lanka through his su%ernormal %o1ers2 scholars are of the o%inion that he tra4elled by sea and called at K;4eri%a<<anam in South 5ndia# 3e so/ourned here in a monastery called 5ndra >ih;ra2 1hich 1as one of the se4eral monasteries constructed in this %art of the country by the )m%eror Asoka# -he celebrated $hinese %ilgrim 3iuen -sang arri4ed at K;=chi%ura in South 5ndia in 6 + A#$# during the course of his tra4els# 3e mentions a stL%a 1++ feet in height 1hich eGisted there# "ith regard to the Buddhist monuments in the P;?@ya country 3iuen -sang 1rites as follo1s. P:ear the city of 9adura there is a monastery built by 9ahinda -hera2 the brother of King Asoka# -o the east of this there is a stL%a built by King Asoka#Q -he monastery and stL%a 1ere in a dila%idated condition at the time# -amil literature does not mention anything about these t1o shrines# -he commentator2 ,hamma%;la -hera2 mentions in his 1orks that he resided in a monastery 1hich 1as built by King Asoka in a %lace called BhadaratArtha# Se4eral Sinhalese %rinces2 including 9ah; Ari<<ha2 1ere ordained by >enerable 9ahinda in Sri Lanka# All of them assisted the 9ah; -hera in his missionary acti4ities# 0urther2 there is e4idence that they assisted the 9ah; -hera in %ro%agating the ,hamma in South 5ndia# )arly in the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka2 rock ca4es 1ere made habitable and offered to the SaDgha# Such ca4es are still to be seen at >essagiri2 $hetiyagiri and -onigala# Similar ca4es are to be seen in the 9adura district of the P;?@ya country# Beds cut in the rocks for monks to rest u%on are seen in these ca4es# 5nscri%tions are also found indicating the names of the donors# -he Br;hmA scri%t used by King Asoka in his inscri%tions has been utilised in some 1ritings# (ne such ca4e in the P;?@ya country is situated in a %lace called Aritta%attA# -his name is deri4ed from >enerable Ari<<ha 1ho resided in this %articular ca4e conducting his missionary acti4ities# 0rom the aforementioned facts it may be concluded that Buddhism 1as introduced to South 5ndia by King Asoka and his son2 the >enerable 9ahinda2 about the same time as the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka#

    The ise! S"read! and #eca$ of Buddhism in South India


    5t is 1ell kno1n that the three Buddhist $ouncils held in 5ndia contributed much to the s%read of Buddhism throughout 5ndia and in other countries# 5n %articular the third council con4ened by King Asoka delegated 4arious Arahants 1ith the task of leading missions to selected lands# Both in the time of the Buddha and in subseKuent times Buddhist monks 1ent about from 4illage to 4illage s%reading the 1ord of the 9aster# -hose 1ho 1ent to South 5ndia had to take u% the challenge from Main and 3indu o%%onents and engage themsel4es in debate 1ith them2 a%art from struggling against other difficulties and obstacles# -he monks thus endea4ouring to s%read the ,hamma met 1ith encouragement and su%%ort from kings2 1ealthy merchants and noblemen# As a result of this they 1ent out to each and e4ery 4illage and city of South 5ndia and %ro%agated the Buddha ,hamma2 building monasteries and erecting centres of Buddhist learning# Some of the monks residing in the monasteries became skilled medical %ractitioners# -hey %ro4ided free medical ser4ices and free education in the monastic school thus rendering in4aluable ser4ice# -hey got the %eo%le to assemble at the monastery %remises2 and %reached M;taka tales2 the life of the Buddha2 read Suttas from the Buddhist scri%tures2 and thus increased the kno1ledge of the ,hamma by eG%laining and clarifying 1hat the %eo%le could not understand# "ith the hel% of kings and rich men they maintained almsFhalls for the benefit of the blind2 deaf and maimed# -hus on account of their social ser4ices and de4oted 1ork in the %ro%agation of the ,hamma2 Buddhism s%read ra%idly in South 5ndia# Another %oint in their fa4our 1as that these monks ignored caste differences2 and this 1as a great relief to the masses of de%ressed classes 1ho suffered acutely on account of casteF discrimination# -he o%%ressed classes found their emanci%ation in Buddhism# (%%osition to the rigid and inhuman caste system 1as one of the ma/or reasons for the %o%ularity of Buddhism# (ne can gain a good idea of the %o%ularity of Buddhism in South 5ndia by reading the Slappadhikram (The Book of the Anklet!6 by the Main %oet 5lango A@igal2 the Maimekhalai by the Buddhist %oet S;ttan;r2 the Thevram hymns of the 3indu saints such as A%%ar2 Sundarar2 and -iru/=;?asambandhar# All these %oets li4ed in the *nd to Bth century $) 0urther the 1orks of the >aishna4aite saints of the 'th and 9th century2 eGtolling the 4irtues of their god2 and the Periya%ur;?am by the 1*th century %oet Sekill;r2 and the :AlakesA 1ritten by the Mains against Buddhism2 gi4e a clear %icture of the %o%ular %lace Buddhism held for se4eral centuries in South 5ndia# Buddhism2 1hich flourished in South 5ndia from the 6rd century $)2 began to decline gradually from about the Bth century for se4eral reasons# -he >edic religion of :orth 5ndia2 Mainism2 and the E/A4aka faith had %receded Buddhism in South 5ndia# -hese religions had turned South 5ndia into a debating ground# 5t is not clear 1hat the indigenous religion 1as2 before the arri4al of these faiths from the :orth# -he religions contending for %o%ularity 4ied 1ith one another to 1in o4er kings and influential men# At the start it 1as Buddhism that emerged trium%hant from this struggle for %o%ularity# -he E/A4aka religion 1as left behind in this struggle# (nly the Buddhist2 Main and the >edic religions 1ere left to contend# :o1 Buddhism had to contest 1ith t1o ri4al faiths 1hich 1ere en4ious of its %o%ularity and %lanned to destroy it# -he Buddhist %osition 1as undermined by the combined efforts of these t1o ri4al faiths# Buddhism itself s%lit into se4eral sects# -he :AlakesA mentions three ri4al Buddhist sects2 9ah;y;na2 Tr;4akay;na2 and 9antray;na# -he
    6

    -ranslated by 7;machandra ,ikshitar# (Gford Union Press2 1969#

    3indu saint -iru/=;?asambandhar mentions in his Thevram that during his time Buddhism 1as di4ided into siG sects# -his disunity itself contributed to the decline of Buddhism# 0urther2 the Buddhist monks ga4e u% the social and 1elfare 1ork 1hich had brought them %o%ularity# -hey became selfFcentred and deteriorated from their high %rinci%les# 3ence they lost the su%%ort of the kings and influential men# -hus a 1eakened SaDgha found itself unable to 1ithstand the combined onslaught of the t1o ri4al faiths# "ith the decline of Buddhism in the 8th and 6th centuries Mainism gained ascendancy# At this time the >edic religion 1as not influential in South 5ndia# "ith the u%surge of Mainism2 the Mains concentrated their attack on Buddhism# -he Buddhist monks found themsel4es not eKual to the task of defending Buddhism# 5t is mentioned in a Main 1ork that the Main teacher Akalankar defeated Buddhist monks in contro4ersy and chased them off to Sri Lanka# But in s%ite of these setbacks Buddhism 1as by no means eradicated# 0or se4eral centuries Buddhism still sur4i4ed2 though in a state of decline# -he >edic religion of the Brahmins2 1hich had hitherto been in a 1eak %osition2 began to make head1ay and gain the su%%ort of the kings and men in high %ositions# -hereu%on Brahmanism got the u%%er hand o4er Mainism# 5t 1as at this stage that Buddhism disa%%eared from South 5ndia# -his Brahmanism had been un%o%ular for se4eral centuries on account of its animal sacrifices and obser4ance of the caste system# -he de%ressed classes detested this religion as it forbade them to study the >edas# After the 8th century2 Brahmanism began to change its em%hasis on these un%o%ular doctrines# 5t also incor%orated %o%ular South 5ndian gods such as K;lA2 Skanda2 Oa?a%ati2 and >ishnu into its %antheon# -his ne1 %hase of the 3indu religion ado%ted hymns o4erflo1ing 1ith faith as a means of gaining %o%ularity# Must as the Mains 1hen they gained %o1er directed their attacks on Buddhism2 3induism 1ith its ne1 orientation directed its onslaught on Buddhism as 1ell as Mainism# 3indu saints such as -iru/=;?asambandhar2 A%%ar2 Sundarar2 -irumangaiF;l4;r2 PeriF;l4;r and other such2 a%%eared in the Bth and 'th century $) and 1ere res%onsible for the renaissance of 3induism# -hey successfully engaged Buddhist and Main teachers in contro4ersy# 3induism at that time 1as not broken u% into sects such as the Shai4aites and >aishna4aites# 3ence Buddhists2 themsel4es di4ided2 1ere uneKual to the attack of the united 3indus# -he Thevram %salms of -iru/=;?asambandhar mention that he engaged Buddhists in contro4ersy and con4erted them to his faith# Tiruvsagam2 1ritten by 9anikka4;sagar of Sidambaram2 mentions that he defeated Buddhist teachers in contro4ersy and made them flee to Sri Lanka# -irumangaiF;l4;r mentions in his 1orks that he stole a golden image of the Buddha from a monastery in :;ga%a<<anam and offered it to build u% the -iru4arangam 3indu tem%le# -hough Buddhism suffered such haVards and became 1eakened it 1as not until the 1 th century that it disa%%eared from South 5ndia# -he continuation of the 9ah;4aJsa mentions that in the 16th century King Par;kramab;hu of ,ambadeniya brought do1n Buddhist monks and scri%tures from $oCa to re4i4e Buddhism in Sri Lanka# ,uring this %eriod there 1as a great deal of cultural intercourse bet1een South 5ndia and Sri Lanka# -he chief of the monks 1ho 1ere brought from South 5ndia 1as >enerable ,hammakitti# 3e 1rote the continuation of the 9ah;4aJsa from the time of King Sirime4an u% to his time# 3e is also considered to be the author of the Pali %oem Dhvamsa2 though there is di4ision of the o%inion about this# -he >enerable ,A%aDkara of $oCa2 kno1n as Buddha%%iya2 also came to Sri Lanka for his studies in Buddhism# -he Pali %oem a!!amadhu ("e#tar of $erses! 1as 1ritten in adoration of the Buddha by him# 3e is also the author of %&pasiddhi' a Pali grammar# -he >enerable Buddhamitta and 9ah; Kassa%a 1ere also t1o $oCian Bhikkhus 1ho

    came to Sri Lanka# -hey studied the ,hamma here and rendered great ser4ice in the cause of the religion# 0rom these facts it 1ill be seen that u% to the 16th century Buddhism 1as still strong in South 5ndia# U% to the 1 th century there 1ere Buddhists2 monasteries and centres of Buddhist learning in some %arts of South 5ndia# After that Buddhism disa%%eared2 lea4ing only traces of its heyday in the many ruins and the influence it brought to bear on 3induism#

    Buddhist %onuments in South India


    5n order to find out 1here Buddhism flourished2 and in 1hat condition it eGisted %rior to the 1 th century it is necessary to study the ruins of Buddhist buildings in the chief kingdom of South 5ndia2 namely the $oCa country# -he ca%ital of $oCa 1as K;4eri%a<<anam# 5t 1as so called because it 1as situated on the mouth of the ri4er K;4eri# 0rom the 4ery start this city 1as a centre of Buddhist acti4ities# -he M;taka book mentions this city as the home of the sage Akitti 1ho ga4e a1ay his 1ealth to the %oor2 became a hermit and li4ed in a 1ood close to the city# As large numbers of %eo%le flocked to %ay him homage he found no leisure there# -herefore he left the %lace and 1ent to Karaiti4u island off the :orth coast of Sri Lanka# -he >enerable 9ah; 9ahinda2 1hile leading the Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka2 so/ourned in this city# 5 ha4e %re4iously mentioned a monastery here# -he -amil %oems Slappadhikram and Maimekhalai refer to this monastery as the 5ndra >ih;ra# 5t is deri4ed from the elderSs name 9ah; 5ndra (9ahendra! in its Sanskritised form# 5n the *nd century a Bhikkhu called Ara4a?a A@igal occu%ied this monastery# 5t is mentioned in the %oem Maimekhalai that there 1as a small Buddhist shrine in a %ark called U%a4ana and a re%lica of the BuddhaSs foot%rint 1as 1orshi%%ed there# 5n the same %oem it is said that King Killi4ala4an2 1ho reigned in the *nd century2 became a Buddhist and con4erted the %rison to a %reaching hall at the reKuest of the nun2 9a?imekhalai# Later he built a Buddhist monastery there# -he 7asa4;hinA2 a Pali book of Buddhist stories 1ritten in the 16th century in Sri Lanka2 mentions that a king of the $oCa country erected a tem%le to the god Si4a2 but being con4erted by Buddhist monks2 he made the tem%le a Buddhist >ih;ra# -he >enerable Buddhadatta2 commentator of great fame2 mentions in his books that he resided in a monastery at K;4eri%a<<anam# 3e 1as su%%orted by the king of the time# Among the -amil commentators and Buddhist teachers he stands out %reFeminent# 5n the introduction to the Pali Abhidhamm;4at;ra2 the >enerable Buddhadatta says that he li4ed in a monastery at K;4eri%a<<anam constructed by a minister named Krishnad;sa# 3e describes in 4erse this flourishing city 1ith its 1ide streets filled 1ith busy %eo%le# Again in the Madhurattha $ilsini' his commentary to the Buddha4amsa2 he mentions that he 1rote this book 1hile residing in the same monastery# Among the famous Buddhist centres of ancient $oCa 1as the city of BhLtamangala# 3ere too the >enerable Buddhadatta resided in a monastery built by one >ishnud;sa# -he Pali 1ork >inaya >inicchaya 1as 1ritten by him there# 3e describes the city of BhLtamangala in the same strain as he 1rote of the $oCian ca%ital2 K;4eri%a<<anam# Bodhimangai 1as another city 1here Buddhism found a foothold# 5t 1as here that the Buddhist teachers Buddhanandi and S;ri%utra li4ed# -he Periya%ur;?am mentions a debate bet1een -iru/=;?asambandhar and these t1o teachers# -he 4ery name Bodhimangai is suggesti4e of its Buddhist associations# Pon%a<<ri of the -a=/ai district 1as another Buddhist stronghold# 3ere the Buddhist teacher Buddhamitra li4ed in the 11th century# -he -amil grammar $rasolium 1as 1ritten by him# -he book 1as so named in honour of the $oCian King >Ar;/endra#

    Ngapaanam
    -his city2 situated near a %ort of the $oCa country2 1as an im%ortant Buddhist centre from ancient times# 3ere a monastery called BadarotArtha >ih;ra 1as built by King Asoka# 5n the 'th '

    century B#$# >enerable ,hamma%;la resided here and 1rote the :etti%%akara?a commentary# 5n the year B*+ A#$# a >ih;ra 1as constructed 1ith the assistance of king :arasinha%otha4arman for the use of $hinese mariners 1ho called o4er here for %ur%oses of trade# -his 1as kno1n as the $hinese monastery# 9arco Polo2 tra4elling from $hina to >enice2 mentions this monastery# 5n the 'th century the >aishna4aite teacher -irumangaiFy;l4;r stole a golden Buddha image from a Buddhist >ih;ra in :;ga%a<<anam and used the gold for reno4ating a 3indu tem%le# -his fact is mentioned in the (uruparamparai ar)hram2 a -amil 1ork of the %eriod# ,uring the reign of the %o1erful $oCa king 7;/ar;/a (9'8W1+1 A#$#!2 a monastery called Siri Sailendra $L@;ma?i >ih;ra 1as built here# -he King of SrA >i/aya in Sumatra had hel%ed the $oCian king to %ut u% this shrine# A co%%er %late 1ith an engra4ing of the lands endo1ed by this king to the monastery 1as remo4ed to Leiden museum2 1here it is %reser4ed# 5n the 1 th century2 too2 $hinese merchants called at this %ort for merchandise# -hey engra4ed an inscri%tion at the >ih;ra# $hinese records also make reference to this inscri%tion# 5n the 18th century ele4en Burmese Bhikkhus and one en4oy des%atched to Sri Lanka by the Burmese king 7;m%atir;/a 1ere shi%1recked 1hile returning to their nati4e land# 0ortunately they reached :;ga%a<<anam and resided in the $hinese >ih;ra# -his is confirmed by the Kaly;?i SAm; rock inscri%tion in Burma# Sir "alter )lliot mentions that to the north of :;ga%a<<anam a large gopuram (tem%le to1er! eGisted by the sea in 1'66# 5t ser4ed as a lighthouse for mariners# 5n 1'6B the go4ernment of 5ndia %ermitted $hristian missionaries to demolish this Buddhist structure and erect one of their buildings# "hile the large tree by the go%uram 1as being u%rooted2 fi4e Buddha statues 1ere found# 0our of them 1ere of metal and one 1as of %orcelain# (ne de%icted the Buddha in the %osture of eG%ounding the ,hamma# "hen Lord :a%ier2 the British Oo4ernor2 4isited the %lace2 the missionaries %resented him 1ith these antiKuities# 5n the %edestal of the BuddharL%a an inscri%tion in 1*th century -amil 1as found# 5t read2 P9ay it be aus%iciousX -he -eacher to 1hom Agama Pa?@itar 1ent for refuge for the emanci%ation from SaJs;ra#Q -here is at %resent a Brahmin 4illage in :;ga%a<<anam called PutaJko<<am# 9r# S# Krishnas1;my 5yengar mentions that this 4illage 1as constructed after demolishing a Buddhist monastery there# 5n 9adras museum are to be found se4eral ty%es of Buddha images and Buddhist car4ings# 0rom these facts one can conclude that :;ga%a<<anam 1as a stronghold of Buddhism# 5t 1as the %ride of 5ndian Buddhists for se4eral centuries# -he great commentator2 Buddhaghosa2 embarked for Sri Lanka from this %ort# -he 4illage Buddhaku@i2 as the name im%lies2 1as the abode of Buddhists# After the 18th century2 %articularly 1ith the arri4al of the )uro%eans2 Buddhist remains are lost# (f the ancient $oCian cities2 UraiyLr2 called Uraga%ura in Sanskrit2 1as the home of the celebrated commentator Buddhadatta# -his city too 1as a Buddhist centre from the time of the arri4al of Buddhism in the South# So far 1e ha4e discussed only the celebrated centres of Buddhist learning in the $oCa country# A%art from these there 1ere also a large number of minor to1ns 1here Buddhism 1as acti4e# (f these2 Buddhamangalam2 SaDghamangalam2 Kumbakonam2 9ayLra%a<<anam2 Alamku@i%a<<i and so on are also im%ortant centres of Buddhist culture# -o1ns ha4ing names including the 1ords Buddha2 SaDgha2 Elam (i#e# Bodhi tree!2 unmistakably re4eal their Buddhist %ast# 5n some of the 3indu tem%les of these cities Buddha statues are seen 1ith 3indu 4ariations# -he -ho?@aima?@ala region of South 5ndia 1as also an area inhabited by Buddhists but unlike the $oCa country it had no great centres of Buddhist acti4ity# (nly a fe1 Buddhist cities 9

    such as KL4am2 SaDghamangai2 -iru%%;diri%%uliyLr and K;=chi%uram eGisted there# (f these2 KL4am 1as a Buddhist stronghold from the early days# A large Buddha statue2 1hich 1as found here2 is to be seen at the 9adras museum# )4en today SaDghamangai is considered a Buddhist 4illage# -he 4ery name re4eals its connection 1ith the Buddhist SaDgha# -his is the birth%lace of S;kiya :;yakar2 a Buddhist teacher 1ho is said to ha4e embraced Shai4aism at a later stage# -iru%%;diri%%uliyLr 1as a centre of Buddhist learning# A Buddhist Uni4ersity is said to ha4e eGisted there#

    Kchipuram
    -he chief city of the -ondaima?@ala region2 K;=chi%uram2 occu%ies an im%ortant %lace in South 5ndian Buddhist history# 0rom early times it 1as a meeting %lace for the four chief religions 1hich contended for su%remacy in this region# By far most of its %o%ulation 1as Buddhist# 3iuen -sang2 1ho 4isited it in the Bth century2 mentions that king Asoka had erected a stL%a there# 5n the -amil classic Maimekhalai it is mentioned that King Killi4ala4an built a cetiya in the city in honour of the Buddha# 5t is further mentioned in the same 1ork that the king offered a %ark named -arumada4ana to the Buddhist order# A shrine containing an im%rint of the BuddhaSs feet 1as erected in the %ark# -he Buddhist teacher Ara4a?a A@igal is re%orted to ha4e migrated from K;4eri%a<<anam to the city# 9a?imekhalai2 ha4ing become a Buddhist nun2 li4ed in this city to the end of her days# )4en today there is a 3indu tem%le called 9a?imekhal;i Amman Ko4il in this city# -his is a Buddhist tem%le con4erted into a 3indu shrine# Ec;riya ,harma%;la2 rector of the :;land; Uni4ersity and Anuruddha -hera2 author of AbhidhammatthasaDgaha2 1ere nati4es of this city# -he 1ell kno1n commentator of the early 8th century Ecariya Buddhaghosa mentions in the concluding stanVas to his commentary on the ADguttara :ik;ya (9anoratha%ur;?A! that at the time of com%iling the 1ork he li4ed at K;=chi%ura 1ith his friend Bhikkhu Moti%;la# Again in the Pa%a=casLdani2 the commentary on the 9a//hima :ik;ya2 he mentions that the book 1as 1ritten 1hen he 1as residing at 9ayLra%a<<anam 1ith a Bhikkhu named Buddhamitta# 5n the Samanta%;s;dik;2 the )lder states that 1hen residing at K;=chi%ura he sa1 the -elugu commentary kno1n as the Andha<<hakath;# 3iuen -sang2 1ho arri4ed at K;=chi in 6 + A#$#2 mentions that about 1++ Buddhist monasteries 1ere there at the time 1ith about a thousand monks in them# 3e also mentions that the Buddhist teacher Ec;riya ,Agn;ga 1as a nati4e of Sinha4aktra (modern Siyamangala! near K;=chi# 9ahendra4arman2 the Palla4a king2 1rote his Sanskrit 1ork2 Mattavilsa* rahsana' in the 'th century# 5n this he refers to the eGistence of many Buddhist >ih;ras at K;=chi2 the chief of 1hich 1as 7;/a >ih;ra# (f the Palla4a kings 1ho reigned at K;=chi%ura2 Buddha4arma 1as a Buddhist# 3e erected Buddhist monasteries and su%%orted them# 5t is mentioned that King 3imasAtala of the 'th century 1as a su%%orter of the Buddhists# -he Main named Akalanka defeated the Buddhist monks in a debate in the %resence of the king# 3e con4erted the king and made the Buddhist monks flee to Sri Lanka# At %resent there is a shrine called K;m;kriyamman Ko4il in K;=chi# -his 1as originally a shrine of the 9ah;y;na Buddhists dedicated to the goddess -;r;# 5ndian archaeologists are of the o%inion that it 1as later con4erted to a 3indu %lace of 1orshi%# 5n fact e4en today there are Buddha statues in the Ko4il# -here is a standing image there called YS;ttanS2 a 1ord deri4ed from the P;li 1ord +satth,2 teacher2 namely the Buddha# According to the 3indu story2 this S;ttan 1as the son of their goddess K;m;kriyamman# -he %resent KacchAs4ara Ko4il2 )k;mbares4ara Ko4il and Kuruk;?il Amarand;l Ko4il are con4erted Buddhist shrines# 5n these 1+

    are found Buddha images done u% as 3indu gods# -he Buddhist tem%le at Kaccikkun;yan;r Ko4il has been so demolished that nothing of it remains# -here are inscri%tions 1hich mention land endo1ments to this Buddhist >ih;ra# An eminent %oet of Ma4a 1riting in the 1 th century mentions the eGistence of thirteen Buddhist monasteries in K;=chi# 3e mentions that at this time Buddhism and >aishna4ism had got so miGed u% that it 1as difficult to distinguish one from the other# -he con4ersion of Buddhist >ih;ras to 3indu Ko4ils2 %arading Buddha statues in the guise of 3indu gods and transferring the Buddhist history of these shrines to 3indu ones are a source of grief to the Buddhist 1ho sees them# A%art from the many statues found broken u%2 the use of numerous Buddhist images for building 1alls2 foundations2 and other building 1ork is also a source of grief to the Buddhist# A%art from the loss sustained by Buddhism2 Buddhist art in Asia has been de%ri4ed of 4aluable treasures# 0rom these facts it is seen that K;=chi%uram 1as a great centre of Buddhism e4en as Anur;dha%ura 1as in Sri Lanka# 7eno1ned Buddhist teachers such as Ara4a?a A@igal2 9a?imekhalai2 ,inn;ga2 Bodhidharma2 the commentator Ecariya ,hamma%;la2 Anuruddha and Buddh;ditiya li4ed in this city# -he %resent -irum;li >aishna4aite shrine 1as formerly a Buddhist centre# 3ere too are found a large number of rock ca4es# Asoka characters (of the Br;hmA scri%t! are found in them# 9r# ># 7# 7;machandra is of the o%inion that these 1ere occu%ied by Buddhist and Main monks# Similarly2 Buddhist to1ns and 4illages eGisted in the P;?@ya country# -his region 1as the birth%lace of Ecariya ,hamma%;la2 >a/irabodhi2 and other Buddhist scholars# -here are many rock ca4es here 1hich 1ere once inhabited by Buddhist monks# 0inally2 1e ha4e to consider the $era kingdom and its Buddhist centres# -his region is also called Kerala2 or the 9alay;lam country# King )l;ra2 1ho conKuered and ruled Sri Lanka (**+ B#$#!2 1as a nati4e of Kerala#

    City of Vachi
    -his 1as the ca%ital of the $era country# SAlla%%adhik;ram2 the -amil %oem2 describes the ca%itals of the chief kingdoms of South 5ndia2 $oCa2 $era2 and P;?@ya# 5t is mentioned in the Maimekhalai that the great grandfather of Ko4alan2 hero of the SAlla%%adhik;ram2 built a Buddhist shrine (st&pa! at >a=chi# 3e 1as 1on o4er to Buddhism by a Bhikkhu li4ing in a %lace called P;da%anka Mamalaya# 3e s%ent all his 1ealth on Buddhist causes# 5n the *nd century this cetiya and se4eral others eGisted at >a=chi# 5t is mentioned in the %oem Maimekhalai that Ko4alanSs father2 9a?imekhalai and the Bhikkhu Ara4a?a A@igal 1ent to >a=chi and 1orshi%%ed its many Buddhist shrines# Se4eral 3indu tem%les bearing such names as S;ttan K;4u and Aiya%%an Ko4il eGist today in the 9alay;lam country# All these 1ere former Buddhist shrines# S;ttan2 as mentioned before2 is a name for Buddha# K;4u is a garden or monastery# 3ence S;ttank;4u means P9onastery of the Buddha#Q

    Madhur
    Another region 1here Buddhist cities and 4illages eGisted is found in the P;?@ya country# 5ts ca%ital 9adhur; 1as a centre of Buddhist acti4ity# 9adhuraikk;=chi2 a 1ork 1ritten in the last Sangam %eriod of -amil literature2 mentions the eGistence of Buddhist monasteries and Buddhists in this city# 5n the %oem Maimekhalai the eGistence of a shrine dedicated to $int;de4A 11

    is referred to# 3istorians are of the 4ie1 that this is a shrine dedicated to the 9ah;y;na goddess -;r;# -his 4ie1 is confirmed by the fact that -;r; 1as also kno1n by the name $int;de4A# 3ieun -sang2 1ho arri4ed here in the Bth century2 mentions that he sa1 the ruins of a monastery built by King Asoka# 3e also sa1 the ruins of a >ih;ra constructed by 9ahinda -hera close to this# :o reference to these monasteries is found in -amil literature# "hoe4er built these 4ih;ras2 the fact that Buddhist monasteries eGisted in 9adhur;2 is established# 7eference has already been made to Ari<<a%a<<i 1hich deri4ed its name from the rock ca4e used by the Buddhist teacher Ari<<ha from Sri Lanka# 5nscri%tions in Br;hmA characters ha4e been found in the rock ca4es that 1ere occu%ied by Buddhist monks# Podiyakanda2 mentioned in -amil literature2 also became a centre of Buddhist acti4ity# -he 9ah;y;nist teacher >a/rabodhi (661WB6+! 1as born here# 3e 1ent out to $hina and Ma%an to %ro%agate ,hy;na (Zen! Buddhism# -he %resent -an/ore district 1as kno1n in ancient times as -anchai# Ecariya ,hamma%;la2 1ho 1rote commentaries to thirteen books of the Khuddaka :ik;ya (Sutta Pi<aka!2 1as a nati4e of this %ro4ince# -here is e4idence of this region being inhabited by Buddhists# 5t 1as the custom from the BuddhaSs time to erect monasteries in %arks and gardens# -his %ractice %re4ailed both in 5ndia and Sri Lanka# 0urther2 9ana4Lr and -u@ita%ura 1ere Buddhist cities 1ith numerous shrines# 5n a %ara%hrase 1ritten to the -amil %oem Rakka y;ga%%arani there is reference to a city called BuddhaF%ura (Buddhist city!# -his has so far not been identified# 0rom the foregoing one can get a glim%se into the flourishing state of Buddhism in $oCa2 P;?@ya2 $era (Kerala! and the -hondaima?dala regions 1hich com%rise South 5ndia# 0rom the a4ailable literature and the ruins2 1e get the im%ression that Buddhism 1as %re4alent all o4er South 5ndia# Sekkil;r2 the author of the Periya%ur;?am2 a 3indu religious 1ork2 mentions that in the Bth century the Shai4aite religion 1as moribund2 Buddhism 1as trium%hant and 4ictorious# 3e says that the Shai4aites %rayed to Shi4a to destroy Buddhism and build u% 3induism# By Shi4aSs di4ine %ro4idence -irugn;nasabandhar 1as born to redeem Shi4aSs faith# Sekkil;r cannot be incorrect 1ith regard to the flourishing state of Buddhism that he refers to#

    1*

    The Im"act of Buddhism on &induism


    "hen Buddhism made its eGit2 it left behind indelible im%ressions of its im%act on the life and religious thought of South 5ndia# Buddhist ideas 1ere incor%orated into the 3indu religion# 9odern 3induism is imbued 1ith Buddhist as 1ell as Main ideas# :ot only this2 the 3indus made an attem%t to absorb the 5slamic faith# ,uring the time of King Akbar2 a ne1 U%anishad named AllahFU%anishad 1as com%osed# Let us no1 consider the Buddhist ideas that ha4e been introduced into 3induism# 9any South 5ndian 3indus do not e4en kno1 that some of their ideas ha4e come to them from the im%act of Buddhism 1hen it flourished in their land# Although Buddhism 1as 1i%ed out2 the fact remains that the 3indus 1orshi% the Buddha as the ninth A4atar or incarnation of their Ood >ishnu# -hat became necessary because the 1orshi% of the Buddha 1as %o%ular among the masses and hence the necessity to incor%orate him into the 3indu %antheon# (ne cannot say 1ith %recision during 1hich %eriod this occurred# 5n AmarasiJhaSs Sanskrit dictionary of the 'th century it is mentioned that the Buddha 1as the son of King Suddhodana and Nueen 9;y;# 5n the book on >ishnuSs nine incarnations (Dasvatralarita!2 1ritten in the 11th century2 it is mentioned that the Buddha is the ninth incarnation of >ishnu# -herefore 1e may conclude that this incor%oration of the Buddha into the 3indu %antheon occurred bet1een the com%ilation of these t1o 1orks# "hile one branch of 3induism2 the >aishna4aites2 made the Buddha an incarnation of their god2 the other branch2 the Shai4aites2 not to be outdone by them2 also made the Buddha one of their gods2 calling him S;st; Aiyan;r and ,harmar;/an# Again the Buddha 1as called >in;yaka and 1as eKuated to the ele%hantFfaced god Oanesh# >in;yaka 1as a name used by the Buddhists for the Buddha# -he 3indus call Oanesh2 Y>in;yaka#S -he ,harmar;/a >ih;ra and >in;yaka >ih;ra 1ere con4erted into ,harmar;/a Ko4il and >in;yaka Ko4il# -he Buddha categorically denounced animal sacrifices 1hich the >edic Brahmins taught 1ere highly meritorious# (n account of the Buddhist influence some 3indus renounced the slaughter of animals and ado%ted the first Buddhist %rece%t# -hus 1ith the hel% of Buddhist teachings the 3indus managed to reform their religion 1hich 1as losing ground and became moribund# -he Bodhi tree is a sacred ob/ect to Buddhists because the Buddha attained )nlightenment under one such tree# -amil Buddhist %oets 1riting in adoration of the 9aster referred to him in such terms as2 Ythe :oble (ne 1ho attained )nlightenment under the Bodhi treeS2 and Ythe mine of mercy 1ho sat under the Bodhi tree#S -he Shai4aite teachers A%%er2 Sundar;r2 -iru/=;?asambandhar2 in their -he4;ram hymns refer to Buddhists as +)odhiyr, or 1orshi%%ers of BodhiFtrees# (ne of the Buddhist %oets of the Sangam %eriod 1as called 5lambodhiy;r# 5n the antiFBuddhist %oem2 "lakes2 1ritten by the Mains2 reference is made to the 1orshi% of Bodhi trees by Buddhists# -his Buddhist %ractice is retained u% to date by the 3indus of South 5ndia# -hey do not e4en kno1 that this %ractice of theirs is a legacy from their Buddhist ancestors# Buddhist monks erected monasteries in 4illages2 resided there and taught the ,hamma# -his %ractice 1as ado%ted by the 3indus 1ho o%ened +ma-ams, (resting %laces! for similar %ur%oses# 5t is also a 1ell kno1n fact that the Ad4aita4;da of SaJkar;ch;riya2 1hich also goes by the name of 9;y;4;da2 )k;tma4;da and Sm;rta4;da2 1as influenced by 9ah;y;na %hiloso%hy# 3a4ing studied the Buddhist %hiloso%hies of Sunya4;da and >i/n;na4;da he ado%ted these systems to his teachings# -he 3indu teacher 7;m;nu/a called SaJkaraSs Ad4aita4;da Yhidden Buddhism#S 9;dha4;ch;rya2 an eG%onent of ,4aita4;da2 refuted SaJkaraSs %hiloso%hy2 saying it 1as Buddhism in a different garb# -he Padma%ur;?a too calls this teaching Yhidden 16

    Buddhism#S -hus from the 4ery mouth of 3indu teachers 1e ha4e e4idence of the strong influence eGercised by Buddhism on SaJkara# 0urther2 %o%ular gods and goddesses of the 9ah;y;na Buddhists 1ere gi4en 3indu names such as K;lA2 Pid;rA and ,rau%adA and 1ere 1orshi%%ed in the original shrines# -he shrine of the Buddhist goddess 9a?imekhalai at K;=chi became K;m;kriyamman Elayam# -he shrine of the 9ah;y;na goddess -;r; became ,rau%adiyamman Ko4il# -hese are t1o more of the many 3indu ko4ils in South 5ndia 1hich 1ere originally Buddhist shrines# -hese are some of the legacies 1hich 3induism deri4ed from Buddhism# -he erection of +ma-amsS2 SaJkaraSs Ad4aita4;da2 the con4ersion of Buddhist deities to 3indu gods2 Buddha being made an incarnation of >ishnu2 the reduction of animal sacrifices2 are the siG items 1here the influence of Buddhism is seen to ad4antage# -hese %ractices and teachings are carefully adhered to e4en today# -hough Buddhism 1as eG%elled from South 5ndia2 yet many 4estiges of it ha4e remained# Buddhism lost in South 5ndia# Ret the BuddhaSs teachings and %hiloso%hy did not fail to 1in o4er the minds of men#

    Tamil 'iterar$ Wor(s b$ South Indian Buddhist )uthors


    South 5ndia %roduced many Buddhist teachers 1ho made 4aluable contributions to -amil2 Pali and Sanskrit literature# -hey com%osed numerous 1orks on a 4ariety of sub/ects such as religion2 %hiloso%hy2 history2 grammar2 etymology2 astronomy and medicine# 7eference to their 1orks is found in -amil literature and other historical records# 5t is most unfortunate that of the large number of books 1ritten from the 6rd to the 1 th century only 4ery fe1 are a4ailable today# (ne literary 1ork and a book on grammar are all that remain to us# -he names of some other books are a4ailable# -he large number of books that 1ere destroyed is lost to %osterity# -he Mains and Buddhists %ro%agated their faith in the local languages# -he Buddhist monks 1ho came to South 5ndia studied the local language2 %reached and 1rote books for the edification of the nati4e %o%ulation# -hough their literary 1orks 1ere destroyed by enemies they ha4e left enduring marks of their influence# 5n the th century the celebrated commentator Ech;riya Buddhadatta li4ed in Buddhist cities such as Uraga%ura (UraiyLr!2 K;4eri%a<<anam2 and BhLtamaDgalam and 1rote se4eral commentaries in Pali# 7hys ,a4ids mentions that he took material for his commentaries from the Buddhist literature a4ailable to him in -amil# 5n the %ara%hrase of the :AlakesA and >Arasoliyam there are eGtracts from -amil Buddhist %oems 1hich eGisted at the time# -oday it is not %ossible to say from 1hich books the eGtracts 1ere taken# -here is no doubt that many Buddhist 1orks in -amil eGisted during the heyday of Buddhism# 5t is %ossible that books 1ere destroyed during religious contro4ersies# -his ha%%ened se4eral times in Sri Lanka2 too# -he Mains and Shai4aites o%%osed Buddhism tooth and nail# 5t is likely that these ad4ersaries destroyed Buddhist books# After the decline of Buddhism the tussle for su%remacy 1as bet1een the Mains and 3indus# 5n this the 3indus came out trium%hant 1hile Mainism began to decline# -he Mains2 1ho 1ere scattered all o4er2 took sufficient %recautions to %reser4e their -amil literature# -he Buddhists 1ere not able to do e4en this2 and all Buddhist books eGce%t t1o 1ere lost# Although the -amil books 1ere destroyed2 the Pali books 1ritten by -amil Buddhist scholars are %reser4ed in Sri Lanka2 Burma (9yanmar! and Siam (-hailand!2 e4en today# As -amil Buddhist books 1ere not used outside 5ndia these books %erished 1ith Buddhism in South 5ndia# 5n the 1 th century >enerable -otagamu4e 7;hula2 Buddhist scholar in Sri Lanka2 made use of a -amil glossary to the M;taka2 1hen he 1rote the Pa=cik;%radA%a# )4en this book has been lost# -he loss of -amil Buddhist literature 1as a death blo1 to Buddhism in South 5ndia#

    The Poem %a*ime(halai


    -he fi4e )%ics in -amil literature are Slappadhikram2 Maimekhalai2 $alaiypathi2 .u-alakes2 and /vaka 0intmani1 5t is a strange fact that not one of these 1as 1ritten by 3indu -amils# Maimekhalai' $alaiyapathi and .u-alakes are the 1orks of -amil Buddhist %oets# -he remaining t1o are Main 1orks# Although the e%ics of the Mains are %reser4ed intact2 of the Buddhist 1orks only Maimekhalai remains to tell the grandeur and glory of Buddhism in a land 1here it is no more# -he story of Maimekhalai is unkno1n in Pali2 Sanskrit and Sinhala literature# 5t is a treasure house of Buddhist doctrinal eG%ositions2 and a narrati4e of unusual charm# 5t is a monument of the glorious days of Buddhism in South 5ndia#

    18

    -he beautiful 3indu maiden2 9a?imekhalai2 studied the siG systems of %hiloso%hy in 3induism2 and other %re4alent religions of the time# She com%ared them to the teachings of the Buddha and became im%ressed 1ith the latter# Later2 on hearing doctrinal eG%ositions from the Buddhist teacher Bhikkhu Ara4a?a A@igal2 she became a Buddhist nun and de4oted her time to the %ro%agation of Buddhism in South 5ndia# -hese are the highlights of the story# -here is doctrinal eG%osition in the %oem dealing 1ith the 0our :oble -ruths2 ,e%endent (rigination (pai##a*samuppda!2 mind (#itta! and mental states (#etasikas! and Buddhist %ractices like sla and nonF4iolence (ahi2s! are 1ell eG%lained# -he aim of the author 1as to com%are Buddhism fa4ourably 1ith the other %re4ailing religions# 3e takes the occasion to criticiVe Mainism2 the chief o%%onent of Buddhism at the time# "hile eG%osing the 1eaknesses of the contem%orary religions he enthrones the Buddha ,hamma as the %erfect religion# 3is intention 1as thereby to %ro%agate Buddhism# -he %oem contains 6+ cantos and its story is a continuation of the Slappadhikram# -his %oem is in4aluable to the student of South 5ndiaSs Buddhist history# Maimekhalai is a mine of information on the history of South 5ndia2 Buddhism and its %lace during that %eriod2 contem%orary arts and culture2 and the customs of the times# 5ts author 1as SAthalai S;ttan;r2 bard of the Buddha in -amil literature#

    Ku !ala"es#
    -his is one of the fi4e great classic e%ics in the -amil Language# 5t is no1 lost2 but Kuotations from it are found in books by authors 1ho had access to this classic# -he %oem 1as 1ritten for the %ur%ose of sho1ing to ad4antage Buddhist %hiloso%hy by com%arati4e e4aluation 1ith >edic and Main %hiloso%hies# -he Mains 1rote :AlakesA as a re%ly to this book2 and this is still %reser4ed intact# -hat .u-alakes is a Buddhist 1ork needs no further %roof# -he biogra%hy of the BhikkhunA .u-alakes is found in the commentary to the -herig;tha2 ,hamma%ada $ommentary and in the ADguttara :ik;ya# -he story of .u-alakes in the -amil 1ork is the identical biogra%hy 1ith a fe1 differences# -he commentary to the 1ork :AlakesA also touches on the story of .u-alakes# -he story 1as taken from the .u-alakes in order to %resent the Main re%ly to Buddhist criticism# .u-alakes 1as originally a Main nun 1ho 1ent about 5ndia eG%ounding Mainism and challenging anybody to refute her 4ie1s# >enerable S;ri%utta2 a disci%le of the Buddha2 took u% the challenge one day and in the ensuing debate .u-alakes 1as defeated# She renounced Mainism and became a Buddhist nun# -he author of the %oem de%icts the Buddhist nun2 .u-alakes2 cham%ioning the Buddhist doctrines and refuting Mainism# -his dre1 the Main re%ly :AlakesA 1hich alone is no1 a4ailable# .u-alakes 1as 1ritten %rior to the 8th century# 5t is said the author 1as a Buddhist named :;gaguttan;r# -he >inaya subF commentary named >imati4inodanA refers to the .u-alakes as a 1ork by a -amil Buddhist teacher 1ritten to refute heretical 4ie1s# -he Pali teGt is as follo1s. 3 u))e kira imasmi2 dami4a*rahe ko#i )hinnaladdhiko "gaseno nma Thero .u-alakesvatthu2 paravda*mathana5ya dassanattha2 dami4a*ka))ar&pena karonto 67 P0ormerly2 in this -amil country an elder named :;gasena com%iled a 1ork in -amil containing the story of Ku?@alakesA2 for refuting heretical doctrines2 adducing arguments for demolishing the 4ie1s ad4anced by nonFBuddhists#Q -he Pali name :;gasena may ha4e been -amilised to :;gaguttan;r# -he destruction of .u-alakes 1as a se4ere blo1 to Buddhism# A s%lendid source of Buddhist history2 the record of the culture and other details of the times 1as lost 1ith that 1ork#

    16

    Valaiypathy
    -his 1ork too is no1 lost and no details can be gi4en# 5t is not e4en certain 1hether this is a Buddhist or Main 1ork# Some scholars are of the o%inion that it 1as a Buddhist book# -hey base their e4idence on Kuotations from the >alaiya%athy found in other literary 1orks# As the author of $alaiyapathy has Kuoted the Tirukural' it is %ossible that the author dre1 his ins%iration from the latter#

    V#rasoliyam
    -his is a -amil grammatical 1ork 1ritten on the lines of the Sanskrit 1orks on the sub/ect# -he author 1as Buddhamitra2 a 9ah;y;nist Bhikkhu# A commentary to this 1as 1ritten by his %u%il2 Perum ,e4an;r# -he 1ork 1as so called in honour of the king of the time 1ho 1as a %atron of the author# -his book is no1 in disuse# Being the 1ork of a Buddhist author 1ho used eGam%les from lines describing the 4irtues of the Buddha2 it became distasteful to 3indu scholars# 5t 1as com%iled in the 11th century# "ith the hel% of >Arasoliyam and its glossary one can get a glim%se into Buddhism in South 5ndia at the time# Some of the historical facts mentioned in this 1ork about $oCian kings are confirmed by inscri%tions engra4ed on rocks# 9oreo4er2 in the glossary one comes across the names of se4eral 1orks in -amil literature# )4en in eGam%les gi4en for the %ur%ose of elucidating rhetorical de4ices there is al1ays mention of the Buddha and his 4irtues# -his 1ork enables us to get a general kno1ledge of -amil literature and its history# Like all other Buddhist 1orks it 1as on the 4erge of eGtinction 1hen it 1as rescued by a Sri Lankan -amil scholar2 $# R# -h;motharam Pillai# )4en no1 this book is not a4ailable in South 5ndia#

    $iddhntatto"ai
    -his too is a Buddhist 1ork 1hich has no1 been lost# 0rom the name it a%%ears to ha4e been a 1ork on the Abhidhamma# 5t is not certain 1hether it is the 1ork of one author or se4eral authors# 5n a %ara%hrase to the Shai4aite religious book named Si4agn;na Siddhiy;r2 its author M=;na%rak;sar2 a Shai4aite scholar2 makes reference to some Kuotations from this %oem# 5n a %ara%hrase of the Main 1ork :AlakesA there is reference to Sidh;ntattokai# 0rom these facts it can be concluded that it 1as a Buddhist 1ork# A%art from this there is no other source of information about it#

    Tiruppadigam
    0rom the title it can be inferred that this 1as a %anegyric on the Buddha# M=;na%rak;sar2 1ho 1rote a %ara%hrase to the 3indu 1ork Siva!5na Siddhiyr Kuotes a 4erse and says2 Ythis is taken from the -iru%%adigam#S -he author of the %ara%hrase to the :AlakesA Kuotes t1o 4erses from this 1ork2 but does not mention from 1here he got the Kuotation# But2 as he has Kuoted one of the 4erses 1hich M=;na%rak;sar has ackno1ledged 1hile Kuoting2 it can be assumed that he 1as Kuoting the Buddhist 1ork mentioned abo4e# -hese t1o 4erses are hymns in %raise of the Buddha2 referring to his d;na and sAla %;ramit;# 3ence this 1as %robably a -amil book of BuddhaFhymns2 1hich is no1 lost# :o details of its author2 its length or 1hen it 1as 1ritten are a4ailable#

    1B

    %im&isra Kadai
    -hat such a book eGisted can be seen from a reference to it in the %ara%hrase to the :AlakesA# -here2 four 4erses are Kuoted and the remark is made2 Ythis Kuotation is from the Bim)isra .adai' a Buddhist 1ork#S -he 3indu scholar M=;na%rak;sar too Kuotes 4erses from this Buddhist 1ork and ackno1ledges the source# ,etails regarding this book too are not a4ailable as it has been lost and is no1 forgotten# -he theme of the book must ha4e been the life of king Bimbis;ra 1ho 1as a de4oted follo1er of the Buddha# 0rom the a4ailable Kuotations one gets the im%ression that like the Maimekhalai this 1as 1ritten in the Esiriya%%; metre in -amil %oetry#

    1'

    +minent Buddhist Teachers ,ho 'i-ed in South India


    -he fact that Buddhism flourished in South 5ndia is am%ly %ro4ed by Buddhist ruins2 the %resent day customs2 manners and ideas of Buddhist origin and the books 1ritten by Buddhist authors of South 5ndia# 5n addition2 there is e4idence of many South 5ndian Buddhist teachers2 both lay and monastic2 1ho graced the land of their birth# "e shall here include brief references to them#

    '( )lam&odhiyr
    -he last Sangam of -amil literature 1as held in the 1st or *nd century A#,# 5lambodhiy;r2 the Buddhist %oet2 li4ed during this %eriod# Se4eral of his 4erses are found in the B*nd 4erse of a 1ork called "arinai' com%osed during the last Sangam %eriod# 3is 4ery name indicates that he 1as a Buddhist#

    *( +ra,a a +!igal
    5nformation about this Buddhist teacher is found in the Maimekhalai# 3e li4ed for a long time at K;4eri%a<<anam# ,uring his youth he tra4elled north u% to the ri4er Oanges and south to SrA P;da (AdamSs Peak! in Sri Lanka# -he author of Maimekhalai %ortrays him as a 4ersatile eG%onent of the ,hamma 1ho engaged himself in Buddhist missionary 1ork# 3e 1as the head of the Buddhist monastery at K;4eri%a<<anam# 5t 1as to him the berea4ed 9;dha4A2 mother of 9a?imekhalai2 1ent for consolation after the murder of her husband2 Ko4alan# -here2 both mother and daughter 1ere instructed in the ,hamma and they undertook to obser4e the Buddhist %rece%ts# Later 1hen 9a?imekhalai 1as im%risoned by the Nueen of the $oCa country2 it 1as the inter4ention of this Buddhist teacher at the %alace 1hich obtained her release# 0rom the story it is e4ident that e4en the royal family held him in re4erence# "hen K;4eri%a<<anam 1as ra4aged by a tidal 1a4e2 he left for >a=chi# After li4ing there for a short time2 he finally settled do1n at K;=chi%ura# 3e li4ed during the latter %art of the 1st century or in the early %art of the *nd century#

    -( %hi""hun# Ma ime"halai
    She is the heroine of the -amil classical %oem Maimekhalai by SAthalai S;ttana# 5n K;4eri%a<<anam there li4ed a 1ealthy man named Ko4alan# 3e had a mistress named 9;dha4i 1ho 1as a dancer by %rofession# -heir daughter 1as 9a?imekhalai# She gre1 u% amidst riches and became a skilful musician and dancer# Attracted by her beauty and talents2 the son of the king of $oCa2 Prince Udaya2 fell in lo4e 1ith her# 5n order to get rid of her father2 he had him charged on a false accusation 1hen he 1ent to 9adhur;# (n this charge Ko4alan 1as eGecuted# "hen his 1ife came to hear of this horrible crime2 she 1as dee%ly mo4ed and became disgusted 1ith the 1orld# She 1ent 1ith her daughter 9a?imekhalai to the Bhikkhu Ara4a?a A@igal 1ho consoled her in her grief by %reaching the ,hamma2 and both mother and daughter became Buddhists# 9a?imekhalaiSs grandmother tried to %ersuade both of them to continue their %rofession as dancers2 and Prince Udaya too made ad4ances to 9a?imekhalai# But this 1as of no a4ail# Sensual %leasures had no a%%eal for her2 and her mind being firmly set u%on the religious life she became a Buddhist nun# -he %rince 4isited her se4eral times and tried to %ersuade her to re4ert to the lay life# (n a %ilgrimage to Sri Lanka2 9a?imekhalai 1orshi%%ed

    19

    at the :;gadA%a shrine on an island off the northern coast of Sri Lanka# -here she 1orshi%%ed the BuddhaSs foot%rint2 and 1hile at the shrine2 sa1 a 4ision of her %re4ious birth 1herein the %rince had been her husband# A deity at the shrine ga4e her a miraculous bo1l from 1hich she could feed any number of %eo%le 1ithout the su%%ly of food becoming eGhausted# "hen she returned to K;4eri%a<<anam she ga4e alms daily to the %oor in a %ublic hall# -he king of $oCa 1as %leased 1ith her good 1ork and ga4e her %ermission to ask for a boon# She asked that the royal %rison be con4erted to an almsFhall2 and this 1as done# A 1oman named K;yaca?@ik; left her husband and came to K;4eri%a<<anam 1here she li4ed on alms along 1ith other beggars fed by 9a?imekhalai# She 1as beautiful and resembled 9a?imekhalai in some 1ays# 3er husband too arri4ed at K;4eri%a<<a?am in search of her# 3e sa1 the Prince Udaya s%eaking to 9a?imekhalai in the almsFhall# ,uring this con4ersation 9a?imekhalai s%oke of the transient and 1orthless nature of the human body2 and urged the %rince to renounce his %assion for her# K;yaca?@ik;Ss husband mistook 9a?imekhalai for his 1ife# 3e thought a young man 1as %aying amorous attention to his 1ife# 3e hid in the almsFhall and 1hen a suitable occasion came he attacked the %rince and struck him 1ith a s1ord2 killing him on the s%ot2 not kno1ing his true identity# -his incident became kno1n to the %ublic and religious men residing at the alms hall re%orted it to the king# -he king ascertained the facts and sa1 to it that 9a?imekhalai 1as gi4en %rotection from men 1ho might try to a4enge the death of the Prince on her# -he Kueen managed to get 9a?imekhalai im%risoned on a false charge# Later2 1hen the facts of the case 1ere kno1n2 the Nueen relented[ she freed 9a?imekhalai and begged her %ardon# 9a?imekhalai2 finding that she 1as not safe in the city2 1ent on a %ilgrimage to Ma4a# 7eturning from there2 she arri4ed at K;=chi2 1here she studied 4arious religions under se4eral teachers# 0inally2 she returned to K;=chi 1here the Buddhist teacher Ara4a?a A@igal li4ed# She %ursued further studies in Buddhism and li4ed the holy life of a Buddhist nun to the end of her days# She li4ed in the *nd century A#$#

    .( $#thalai $ttanr
    3e 1as the author of the -amil e%ic Maimekhalai# A Buddhist %oet of the Sangam %eriod2 he 1as a master in the eG%osition of the ,hamma# -he three Sangams 1ere con4ocations held under royal %atronage of the -amil kings of $oCa2 $era2 and P;?@ya# -hese con4ocations 1ere organised on the lines of the Buddhist $ouncils# S;ttan;r is called a Sangam %oet because he took %art in one of those con4ocations# -he full name of the author of Maimekhalai 1as 9adhurai KLla4;?ikan SAthalai S;ttan;r# 9adhurai refers to his nati4e city2 9adhur;# KLla4;?ikan indicates his %rofession as that of a grain merchant# SAthalai means Yfrom 1hose (foreF! head %us flo1ed#S 5t is told that 1hen he found mistakes in the 1orks of contem%orary %oets scrutiniVed by him2 he used to strike his forehead 1ith his iron style and this caused freKuent 1ounds 1hich su%%urated# S;ttan;r 1as his %ersonal name2 often abbre4iated to S;ttan# 3e 1as not only a first class %oet and an eminent literary critic2 but also an able eG%onent of the Buddhist doctrine# "ell 4ersed in religion2 logic and %hiloso%hy2 he sho1ed the su%eriority of Buddhism2 e4aluating it against the background of contem%orary religious thought# 3e 1as held in honour by 5lango A@igal2 the distinguished author of the -amil classic Slappadhikram# 3is classic Maimekhalai is a lasting monument to his scholarshi%2 encyclo%aedic kno1ledge2 and eGcellence as a -amil %oet# 0rom cha%ter *B of the Maimekhalai one can see his %roficiency in the siG systems of 3indu %hiloso%hy# -here 1ere se4eral other %oems by him2 4erses from 1hich are found in %oems such as "attriai' .urunthokai uran&ru and Ahan&ru# -he aim of *+

    1riting the Maimekhalai 1as the %ro%agation of the Buddha ,harma# 5t is seen that Maimekhalai 1as 1ritten after the -irukkural 1as com%osed2 because there are t1o 4erses from the -irukkural Kuoted in Maimekhalai# -herefore it can be assumed that S;ttan;r li4ed in the latter half of the *nd century#

    /( The Co0ian %hi""hu $a1ghamitta


    "ell kno1n to all students of Sri Lankan history2 he 1as a 9ah;y;nist Bhikkhu 1ho caused a great u%hea4al there in the 6rd century# 3e 1as a -amil 1ho hailed from $oCa# King Oot;bhaya (*86W*66 A#$#! eG%elled 6+ Bhikkhus from Sri Lanka for being incorrigible heretics# -hey 1ent to South 5ndia and li4ed in the $oCa country# SaDghamitta met them and made u% his mind to a4enge his brethren of the 9ah;y;na sect# 3e came to Sri Lanka and started to %ro%agate the 9ah;y;na faith# -he Bhikkhus of the 9ah;4ih;ra2 the sect of orthodoG -hera4;da2 re%orted him to the king# -he king asked them to debate 1ith SaDghamitta in his %resence and %romised to su%%ort the 4ictorious %arty# -he 9ah;4ih;ra Bhikkhus 1ere led by the )lder SaDgha%;la2 an uncle of the king# SaDghamitta trium%hed in this debate and the king ke%t his %romise# -he king entrusted the teaching of his t1o sons to this teacher2 1ho found the younger and more able %rince rece%ti4e to his influence# -he elder %rince disliked his teacher# "hen the elder %rince Me<<hatissa became king2 SaDghamitta left the island as he felt that he 1as not safe# -en years later2 1hen the king died and his younger brother ascended the throne2 SaDghamitta returned and he himself cro1ned 9ah;sena as king of Sri Lanka# :o1 SaDghamitta %lanned to destroy the 9ah;4ih;ra2 the seat of -hera4;da Buddhism# 3e told the king that the 9ah;4ih;ra monks 1ere not follo1ing the true teachings of the Buddha2 and got the king to forbid his sub/ects to su%%ort them# -he monks of the 9ah;4ih;ra finding that the %eo%le did not su%%ort them 1ith their daily necessities of life2 left the ca%ital2 Anur;dha%ura2 and 1ent to the southern %art of Sri Lanka# SaDghamitta no1 %ointed out that %ro%erty 1ithout an o1ner belonged to the state and the king handed o4er the monastery to SaDghamitta# 3e had the great monastery demolished2 and made use of all the articles that 1ere in it to build u% the Abhayagiri >ih;ra2 the centre of the 9ah;y;nist teachings# -he Kueen 1as grie4ed to see the ancient religion of Sri Lanka2 the %ristine doctrines of the Buddha2 ruined by this monk from South 5ndia# She had him and his collaborator2 the minister Sona2 assassinated# -hus ended SaDghamittaSs scheme to con4ert Sri Lanka to the 9ah;y;na doctrine# -here is no re%ort that he had 1ritten any book#

    2( Ngaguttanr
    3e 1as the author of the Buddhist %oem .u-alakes# "e kno1 him as its author2 because in the commentary to :AlakesA a 4erse is Kuoted from the .u-alakes2 and it is follo1ed 1ith the remark2 Ythis is a 4erse from :;gaguttan;r#S Ret according to the Pali commentary called >imati4inodanA2 the author of .u-alakes is called :;gasena# 5t is %ossible that this name 1as con4erted into :;gaguttan;r by -amil 1riters# :o further details about this %oet are a4ailable# As the :AlakesA 1as 1ritten early in the 1+th century2 1e ha4e to conclude that .u-alakes 1as 1ritten %rior to this#

    *1

    3( Commentator 4cariya %uddhadatta


    Ecariya Buddhadatta2 held in %rofound 4eneration by Buddhists as a commentator of the BuddhaF1ord2 1as a -amil from South 5ndia# 3e li4ed in the famous South 5ndian Buddhist cities2 K;4eri%a<<anam2 Uraga%ura2 BhLtamaDgalam2 K;=chi and also at the 9ah;4ih;ra 9onastery2 Anur;dha%ura2 Sri Lanka# -he commentary called 9adhurattha >il;sinA 1as 1ritten 1hen he resided in a monastery built by a Buddhist minister named Krishnad;sa2 at K;4eri%a<<anam# 9adhurattha4il;sinA is a Pali commentary to the Buddha4msa of the Sutta Pi<aka# 3e 1rote the reno1ned treatise on Abhidhamma2 Abhidhamm;4at;ra2 at the in4itation of a Bhikkhu named Sumati# 3e is also the author of the Pali 1ork on the >inaya called $inayavini##haya# 5t is mentioned in the book that this 1as 1ritten in the reign of the $oCian king2 Acyuta4ikrama# "hile residing in Anur;dha%ura2 Sri Lanka2 he 1rote the 8ttaravini##haya# -he Pali %oem of adoration to the Buddha /inla9kra .vya is another of his eGcellent literary 1orks# 5n this 1ork he describes his nati4e $oCa country and its cities such as K;4eri%a<<anam and BhLtamaDgalam in mellifluous 4erses# 3e 1as a senior contem%orary of the great commentator Buddhaghosa2 1ho has %aid a glo1ing tribute to him in one of his 1orks# YAfter his (BuddhadattaSs! demise e4en men like me are considered scholars2S says Ecariya Buddhaghosa# Ecariya Buddhadatta is second only to the great Buddhaghosa in erudition2 scholarshi%2 and ability as a commentator to the BuddhaF1ord# 3e li4ed in the 8th century#

    5( The Mah Thera %uddhamitra


    3e li4ed in South 5ndia in the 8th century# 3e should not be confused 1ith the Bhikkhu Buddhamitra2 the author of $rasoliyam' the -amil grammar# -his 9ah; -hera resided at 9ayLra%a<<anam (the %resent 9;y;4aram!# At that time the celebrated commentator Buddhaghosa 1as his guest# Pa%a=casLdani2 the commentary to the 9a//hima :ik;ya2 1as 1ritten at his in4itation# 5n the conclusion to the Pa%a=casLdani2 Ecariya Buddhaghosa says. :y#ito sumantin therena )hadanta )uddhamittena pu))e may&rar&papaanamhi saddhi2 vasante1 Y"hen 5 1as formerly li4ing at 9ayLra%a<<a?am2 1ith the -hera Buddhamitta2 5 1as in4ited to 1rite this#S

    6( %odhidharma
    3e 1as formerly a %rince hailing from a royal South 5ndian family# A 9ah;y;nist Buddhist teacher named Pra/=ottara 1on him o4er to the 9ah;y;na faith and ordained him as a monk# ,uring his youth he 1orked for the %ro%agation of his faith in South 5ndia# -o1ards the latter %art of his life he left for $hina as a Buddhist missionary# At $anton he met the )m%eror "uFti2 but failed to im%ress him# -hereu%on he 1ent to the :orth of $hina and founded the ,hy;na school of Buddhism ($hinese. $hSan[ Ma%anese. Zen!# 3e li4ed there till he %assed a1ay# 3e de%recated the making of offerings to the Buddha[ it 1as %urity of the mind and enlightenment that he stressed#

    **

    '7( 4criya Dignga


    3iuen -sang in his 7ecords of the "estern "orld gi4es an account of this teacher# 3e 1as a nati4e of SAyamangalam 1hich is situated to the south of K;=chi# 3e studied com%arati4e religion and %hiloso%hy and became a monk of >;tsA%utrAya :ik;ya# Later he 1ent to :orth 5ndia and became a 9ah;y;nist under the influence of >asubandhu# At :;land; he defeated nonFBuddhists in a debate2 and 1on the admiration of the monks of the uni4ersity# A %hiloso%her and a debater of great re%ute2 he toured 5ndia2 lecturing and debating# 0inally he settled do1n at K;=chi# 3e is the founder of the >i==;?a4;da school of Buddhist %hiloso%hy# Among his %u%ils 1as the 4iceFchancellor of the :;land; Uni4ersity2 ,harma%;la 9ah; -hera# 3is numerous 1orks include the "yyapravesa (5ntroduction to Logic! and "yyasamu##haya (0ompendium of ;ogi#!2 t1o Sanskrit books# -here is no mention of any books in -amil by him# 3e li4ed bet1een 6 8W *8 A#$#

    ''( Vice8Chancellor Dharmapla of Nland


    3e should be differentiated from the commentator ,hamma%;la2 1ho li4ed at BadaratArtha and 1as a master of the -hera4;da# -he -hera ,hamma%;la of :;land; on the other hand 1as a distinguished eG%onent of the 9ah;y;na doctrines# 3e 1as the third son of a -amil king 1ho ruled at K;=chi# Although his father arranged to ha4e him married2 he secretly 1ent to a Buddhist teacher and entered the (rder# 3e tra4elled in 5ndia and abroad and acKuired a great store of kno1ledge# 3e eGcelled in all arts and sciences# "hilst on a lecture tour he arri4ed at KosambA# -here Buddhists 1ere locked in a great contro4ersy 1ith their o%%onents and 1ere faring badly# $oming to the rescue of the Buddhists he dis%layed his brilliant oratory and encyclo%aedic kno1ledge2 tearing to shreds the arguments of his 3indu o%%onents# By this 4ictory he 1on o4er the king2 1ho 1as on the s%ot 1ith a large number of distinguished 4isitors# -he )lderSs fame s%read far and 1ide and he 1as offered the 4iceFchancellorshi% of :;land; Uni4ersity2 a %osition reser4ed for 5ndiaSs foremost Buddhist scholar# 3is %u%il 1as SAlabhadra himself2 a 4ersatile scholar under 1hom 3iuen -sang studied Sanskrit 1hen he 1as at :;land;# SAlabhadra succeeded his teacher# -he 4ice chancellor died young at the age of 6*# 5t is a great mistake that some scholars ha4e made trying to identify Ara4a?a A@igal2 mentioned in Maimekhalai2 1ith2 the 4ice chancellor ,harma%;la#

    '*( %adarat#rtha Dhammapla


    3e is the Ecariya ,hamma%;la mentioned in Pali literature as a great commentator# A nati4e of South 5ndia2 he li4ed in the city of -a=/; 1here the ri4er -;mra%ar?i flo1s# -his is identified 1ith -an/ore of the $oCa country# (ther scholars are of the o%inion that Ecariya ,hamma%;la 1as a nati4e of a to1n by the name of -an/a4ur in the P;?@yan country# 5t is also e4ident from the :etti%%akara?a commentary com%iled by him that he also li4ed at BadaratArtha >ih;ra at :;ga%a<<anam# 3e 1ent to Sri Lanka and resided at the 9ah;4ih;ra2 Anur;dha%ura# ,uring this time the commentaries on the -heraF and -herAg;th;2 Ud;na2 5ti4uttaka2 Peta >atthu2 >im;na4atthu2 $ariy; %i<aka and the :etti%%akara?a 1ere 1ritten# All these commentaries are named Paramattha ,A%anA# 3e also 1rote a 4oluminous subFcommentary to the $isuddhimagga'

    *6

    called aramatthama5!&s1 3e li4ed some1here about B96 A#$# 5n the :etti%%akara?a commentary he says. +Saddhammotaranahne aane nga savhaya Dhammsoka Mahr!a $ihre vasat may1 Y(5 1rote this commentary! 1hile 5 1as residing at the monastery built by King Asoka at :;ga%a<<anam2 1hich is like unto a %ort for embarking on the ocean of the ,harma#S -he S;sana4aJsa refers to him as follo1s. YEcariya ,hamma%;la2 1ho com%iled a number of commentaries such as the one on the 5ti4uttaka2 1as a resident of the Badaratittha >ih;ra in the -amil country# 3ence he may be considered as a Sinhalese Bhikkhu# 0urther he is the author of the subFcommentaries on the >isuddhimagga2 ,Agha :ik;ya2 9a//hima :ik;ya and the Samyutta :ik;ya#S

    '-( The Theras %uddhanandi and $riputra


    -hese t1o )lders are re%orted to ha4e li4ed at Bodhimangai in the $oCa country# "e ha4e an account of them in the Periya%ur;?nam2 a Shai4aite 1ork 1hich records a debate bet1een Buddhists and Shai4aites# ,uring this time the Shai4aite teacher -iru/=;?asambandhar 1ent round the city 1hich 1as a stronghold of Buddhism 3e rode in %rocession raising trium%hal cries2 blo1ing conch shells and trum%ets# -he Buddhists of Bodhimangai told him2 YRou cannot thus go in trium%hal %rocession through our cityX $ome let us debate on religion#S -iru/=;?asambandhar acce%ted the challenge# -he Buddhists retained the )lder Buddhanandi as their s%okesman# -iru/=;?asambandharSs assistant2 by eGercising his magical %o1ers through a mantram2 caused a thunderbolt from hea4en to strike the )lder do1n# -he Buddhists %ersisted2 saying Y,o not come to dis%lay magical %o1ers2 come to debate on doctrinal matters#S -iru/=;?asambandhar is said to ha4e defeated Buddhanandi -hera# :o further details of these t1o )lders are a4ailable# -iru/=;?asambandhar li4ed in the Bth century A#$#

    '.( Va9ra&odhi
    3e 1as a nati4e of Podiyakanda in the P;?@ya country# 3is father 1as a royal cha%lain# 3e 1ent to :;land; in :orth 5ndia for his studies and returned 1hen he 1as *6 years old# At that time his country 1as in the gri% of a se4ere drought and the king :arasinha%otha4arman a%%ealed to >a/rabodhi for hel%# 3e 1as able to cause rain to fall by the eGercise of his occult %o1ers# >a/rabodhi 1as a 9ah;y;nist Bhikkhu adhering to the >a/ray;na faction# 3e 4isited Sri Lanka and resided there for siG months at the Abhayagiri >ih;ra# ,uring this time he attem%ted to s%read 9ah;y;nism in Sri Lanka2 but returned soon to his nati4e land# 0rom there he 1ent to $hina 1ith his %u%il2 Amogha4a/ra2 and did missionary 1ork there# 3e %assed a1ay in the year B6+ A#$# 5n accordance 1ith his 1ishes his %u%il returned to Sri Lanka and 5ndia to %ro%agate the >a/ray;na doctrines# 3e is said to ha4e been recei4ed 1ith honour by SAlamegha2 King of Sri Lanka#

    '/( %uddhamitra
    A%art from his name the concluding 4erses to his -amil grammar $rasoliyam re4eal his dee% faith in Buddhism# 3e 1as the local ruler in a %ro4ince of South 5ndia# 3is book 1as named after >Aracola alias >Arara/endra2 the $oCa king2 1ho in4ited him to 1rite his 1ork# -his king ruled from 1+66 to 1+B+# -he inscri%tions of the time eulogise him 4ery highly# So does Buddhamitra 1ho calls him Ythe ruler 1ho subdued the 1hole earth#S Both Buddhamitra and his royal %atron li4ed in the 11th century# Buddhamitra 1as a 9ah;y;nist Bhikkhu# 3e should not be confused 1ith another -hera4;da Bhikkhu of the same name2 1ith 1hom Ecariya Buddhaghosa resided 1hen he 1rote the Pa%a=casLdanA# -he %ara%hrase to BuddhamitraSs $rasoliyam 1as 1ritten by his %u%il Perumde4an;r# 3e too 1as a de4oted Buddhist#

    '2( D#pa1"ara %uddhappiya Thera


    5n Sri Lanka he is kno1n as the $oCian Buddha%%iya -hera2 or $oCian ,A%aDkara# 3e is the author of the Pali grammar2 %&pasiddhi2 used in monastic colleges e4en today# -his is a 4ery %o%ular book 1ritten on the lines of Kacc;yanaSs grammar# 3is book of the Pali 4erses in %raise of the Buddha is called a!!amadhu ("e#tar of $erses!# 5t is a standing monument to his eGcellence as a %oet and his dee% lo4e for the Buddha# 5n Sri Lanka he studied Buddhist scri%tures under the >enerable Enanda >anaratana# 3e returned to $oCa and li4ed as the abbot of the Baladitya monastery# 5n the concluding stanVas to his %&pasiddhi he mentions that he 1as born in $oCa and resided for some time in Sri Lanka# 3e 1as a master of Pali literature and grammar "hile he so/ourned in the island2 Yhe 1as like unto a banner hoisted o4er Sri Lanka#S 3e li4ed in the 1*th century#

    '3( Co0a Kassapa Thera


    3e 1as a master of the -i%i<aka and the Pali language# Among his 1orks are the commentary on the Abhidhamma2 1orks called Mohavi##hedan2 the commentary to the >inaya Pi<aka2 >imati4inodanA2 and the An;gata4aJsa# 5n the Ssanava2sa (<istory of Buddhism!2 and a Burmese Pali 1ork called the (anthavamsa2 it is mentioned that he 1as a -amil from $oCa# 5n the concluding stanVas to Mohavi##hedan he mentions that he 1as a resident of a monastery called :;gana in :;ga%a<<anam of the $oCa country#

    '5( +nuruddha Thera


    3e li4ed in the 1+th or 11th century and his birth%lace is said to ha4e been K;4eri%a<<anam# 3is most famous 1ork is a manual of Abhidhamma2 the A)hidhammatthasa9gaha' 1hich has ser4ed as an introduction to the Abhidhamma %hiloso%hy for o4er eight centuries# 5t is still 4ery %o%ular e#g#2 in Burma (9yanmar! and Sri Lanka# -hroughout the centuries2 many commentaries ha4e been 1ritten on it and in our times it has been translated into "estern languages# Another t1o treatises on the Abhidhamma2 1ritten in 4erse2 ha4e been attributed to Anuruddha -hera2 aramattha*vini##haya and "mar&papari##heda= but his authorshi% of these t1o is doubted by some scholars2 as also that of the AnuruddhaF\ataka#

    *8

    '6( Dhamma"itti Thera


    3e 1as a $oCian Bhikkhu of the 16th century 1ho came from South 5ndia to Sri Lanka# 3e 1rote the first %art of the 0ullava2sa2 1hich is a continuation of the 9ah;4aJsa2 the famous chronicle of Sri Lanka# 3is addition to it eGtended from King Sirime4an u% to his o1n time# Also a 0hroni#le of the Tooth %eli# (Dhvamsa! has been ascribed to him# 0urther2 1e could infer from historical information that a large number of learned Buddhist monks and laymen li4ed in the 4arious cities and 4illages of South 5ndia# 9ost of the books they 1rote2 eGce%t t1o2 ha4e %erished# 0rom the list of names of the Buddhist 4illages and hamlets2 from the names of Buddhist monks and laymen still a4ailable2 from the large number of Buddhist ruins still sur4i4ing2 1e can dra1 the inference that Buddhism once flourished in South 5ndia from the 6rd to the 16th century of the $hristian era# 0rom the history of Sri Lanka 1e can get further information about the state of Buddhism in South 5ndia in the 1 th and 18th centuries# King Pandit Par;kramab;hu early in the 1 th century got do1n a learned Bhikkhu 1ho 1as a linguist2 to hel% in the translation of the M;taka book to Sinhala# A minister of King Bhu4anekab;hu 5> of Oam%ola2 named Sen;dhilaDk;ra2 caused a Buddhist monastery to be built at K;=chi%ura# -his is e4idence of Buddhism in South 5ndia e4en at this late stage# 0rom these facts 1e can conclude that right u% to the coming of the )uro%eans Buddhism eGisted in South 5ndia# -hough Buddhism in 5ndia had to yield to 3induism2 yet the %eriod 1hen Buddhism flourished 1as one of 1hich the -amil nation can rightly be %roud in 4ie1 of its outstanding contribution to Buddhist literature in -amil2 Pali and Sanskrit# :o12 after the time of religious ri4alries is %assed2 this %eriod may 1ell be remembered as a strong bond bet1een the -amil nation and the Buddhist countries#

    *6

    )""endi. / +.tracts from the Ma ime"halai


    translated b$

    :ao %ahadur Krishnas;mi +iyangar


    7e%roduced 1ith the kind %ermission of the %ublishers2 9essrs# LuVac ] $o# Ltd#2 London2 from Maimekhalai in its <istori#al Setting (19*'! (-he footnotes ha4e been added by the )ditor of -he "heel Series#!

    9odern interFreligious conferences seem to ha4e had a %recursor at the time 1hen the Maimekhalai 1as com%osed# Book 5 contains the royal announcement of the annual 5ndra 0esti4al2 celebrated at Puh;r (K;4eri%a<<anam!2 in 1hich 1e read. PLet those 1ellF4ersed in the holy teachings take their %lace under a1nings or in cano%ied halls# Let those 1ell 4ersed in 4arious religions assemble in the halls of learning set a%art for discussion# Oi4e u% feeling of enmity e4en to those 1ho are inimical to you#Q (Book 5# -ransl# %# 118!

    <rom %oo" V
    -he hermit SaDghadharma taught her (i#e# 9a?imekhalaiSs friend2 SutamatA! the teaching of the Buddha. P9y king %ossessed of all good Kualities by nature2 the embodiment of all good Kualities 1ithout diminution2 ha4ing learned by eG%erience 4arious kinds of life in this 1orld2 took it u%on himself to use his life not for the attainment of his o1n sal4ation2 but for the eGercise of kindness to li4ing beings2 in order that the 1hole mass of li4ing beings might attain to that sal4ation# -hus turning the 1heel of the la1 he conKuered desire#Q (%# 1*6!# ^ Must then a%%eared2 in the guise of a lady of the city2 the goddess 9a?imekhalai2 1ith a 4ie1 to 1itnessing the celebration of the great festi4al /ust then taking %lace in the city# She 1ent round the %a4ilion containing the seat of the Buddha2 reciting the follo1ing laudation. PShall 5 describe you as the kno1ing (ne2 the %ure (ne of good deeds2 the ancient (ne2 the eGalted (ne2 1ho kne1 ho1 to lead life in this 1orld_ Shall 5 describe you as the (ne 1ho got beyond the reach of lo4e2 1ho 1as the sure guardian of all2 as the (ne 1ho destroyed the enemy2 e4il conduct_ 3o1 shall 5 describe the feet of him 1ho set the 1heel of thousand s%okes in motion2 1ithout a thousand tongues to describe 1ith#Q (%# 1* !
    An alternati4e rendering of this %assage. P( LordX Rou are the "ise2 the Pure2 Pious and the Ancient2 abo4e all others in austerity# ( LordX Rou destroyed the e4ils and discarded anger. you are the (mniscient# ( LordX Rou conKuered 9;ra[ you are the blissful and you condemned the unholy and false 1ays# ( LordX Rour feet are marked 1ith thousandFs%oked 1heels# Rou do not ha4e thousand tongues 3o1 shall 5 %raise thee_Q

    *B

    Book >5 relates that for %rotecting young 9a?imekhalai from Prince Udyakum;ra2 1ho 1as in search of her2 the goddess 9a?imekhalai %ut her to slee% by a charm and Ycarried her through the air thirty yo/anas southS2 to an island called 9a?i%alla4am2 1hich has been identified 1ith the island :;gadi%a2 off the coast of Sri Lanka# -he story continues. ^ 9a?imekhalai 1oke u% from her slee% on the sandy beach of 9a?i%alla4am# Looking round she found nothing that 1as familiar to her and felt herself as strangely %laced as a soul in a ne1 birth^ She 1andered about till she came to 1hat seemed to be a seat of the Buddha# -he seat had been %laced there by 5ndra and had the miraculous %o1er to let those 1ho 1orshi%%ed it kno1 their %re4ious life2 as Buddha himself had deli4ered a sermon sitting on it# -his ha%%ened on the occasion 1hen t1o neighbouring :;ga chiefs2 related to each other2 fought for %ossession of it# As the 1ar %ro4ed destructi4e2 Buddha a%%eared before them and %acified the combatants by %reaching a sermon# (Book >5552 %# 161W16*!# At sight of this2 9a?imekhalai forgot herself in 1onder# 3er hands automatically folded o4er her head2 from her eyes flo1ed tears of /oy[ she YcircumambulatedS the di4ine seat three times and %rostrated before it# Oetting u%2 she looked at the seat again2 and began to recollect all that had taken %lace in her %re4ious eGistence# (Book 5I2 %# 16*!# 9a?imekhalai 1alked about admiring the beauty of the sand dunes2 flo1er gardens and cool tanks# 5n a short 1hile there a%%eared before her a lady 1ho addressed her. Y"ho are you that ha4e arri4ed here alone like a 1oman 1ho had suffered shi%1reck_S (After re%lying to her!2 9a?imekhalai 1ished to kno1 1ho the other lady 1as# -he lady said that in the neighbourhood of that island 1as another called 7atnad4A%a (-he 5sland of Me1els!# Y-here on a high %eak of the hill SamantakL<a8 there are the foot%rints of the Buddha# 3a4ing offered 1orshi% at the foot%rints2 5 came to this island long ago# Since then 5 ha4e remained here kee%ing guard o4er this Y,harmaFseatS under the orders of 5ndra# 9y name is -i4aF-ilakai (,4A%a -ilak;!# Peo%le follo1ing the ,harma of the Buddha strictly2 offering 1orshi% to this YBuddha seatS 1ill gain kno1ledge of their %re4ious birth2 kno1ing their %ast as a result of this 1orshi%# 5t is only those fe1 1ho are fit to acKuire ,harma%ada forsooth# Since by such 1orshi% you ha4e acKuired kno1ledge of your %re4ious birth2 you must be such a great one# 5n front of this seat there is a little %ond full of cool 1ater o4ergro1n 1ith all 4arieties of 1aterFlily# 0rom that 1ill a%%ear a ne4erFfailing begging bo1l by name AmudaFSurabi (Am`ta Surabhi!# -he bo1l a%%ears e4ery year of the day (of full moon! in the season of the early sun2 in the month of 7shabha2 in the fourteenth asterism2 the day on 1hich the Buddha himself 1as born# -hat day this year is today and the hour is /ust no1# -hat Bo1l2 5 1een2 1ill come into your hand# 0ood %ut into it 1ill be ineGhaustible# Rou 1ill learn about it from Ara4a?a A@igal 1ho li4es in your o1n nati4e city#Q 9a?imekhalai2 on hearing this2 making her obeisance to the YBuddha seatS 1ent along 1ith -i4aF-ilakai2 circumambulating the %ond and stood in front of it# -he bo1l emerged from the 1ater2 and turning round to the right reached the hands of 9a?imekhalai# She felt delighted beyond measure and uttered the follo1ing chant in %raise of the Buddha. Y3ailX holy feet of the 3ero that subdued 9;raX 3ailX holy feet of 3im2 1ho destroyed the e4il %athX 3ailX holy feet of the Oreat oneX Labouring to set others in the %ath of ,hammaX 3ailX holy feet of the Perfectly "ise2 1ho gi4es to others the eye of 1isdomX
    0rom The Story of Buddhism >ith Spe#ial %eferen#e to South India' %ublished by the ,e%artment of 5nformation and Publicity2 Oo4ernment of 9adras2 196+# 8 -his refers to the Sri P;da %eak (PAdamSs PeakQ! in Sri Lanka#

    *'

    3ailX holy feet of 3im2 1hose ears are deaf to e4il 1ordsX 3ailX holy feet of him2 1hose tongue ne4er uttered other than truthX 3ailX holy feet of him2 1ho 4isited hell itself to destroy suffering thereX 3ailX holy feet of him2 that destroyed the sorro1s of those of the :;ga 1orldX -o %raise you is beyond the %o1er of my tongue[ to bo1 at your feet is alone %ossible for my body#S -o 9a?imekhalai in this attitude of %rayer2 -i4aF-ilakai eG%ounded the sufferings of hunger and the merit accruing to those that enable creatures to a%%ease hunger# Y3ungerS2 she told 9a?imekhalai2 Y1ill destroy good birth2 1ill kill nobility2 1ill cut off the hold that learning has u%on the learned %eo%le as the great su%%ort of life 1ill de%ri4e %eo%le of all feeling of shame2 1ill s%oil Kualities that are beautiful2 1ill make %eo%le stand at the door of others 1ith their 1i4es# Such indeed is the nature of the sinful cra4ing hunger# Y0ood %ro4ided to allay the hunger of those that cannot other1ise satisfy it2 is true charity2 and all right kind of life in this 1orld comes to such %eo%le# Among those that li4e in this 1orld2 those that gi4e food are those that gi4e life# -herefore to those that are hungry gi4e that 1hich 1ill destroy hunger#S (Book I52 %# 16B!#

    %oo" ===
    9a?imekhalai2 1ho had already learned all that had ha%%ened in her %re4ious birth2 after ha4ing taken u%on herself the duty of gi4ing gifts (d;na! and 1alking the %ath of right conduct (sAla!2 1orshi%%ed three times the tri%le /e1el of Buddha2 ,harma and SaDgha2 %lacing herself entirely under its %rotection2 and then saluted the Bhikkhu Ara4a?a A@igal# -he Bhikkhu2 in eG%ounding to her the righteous %ath of the ,harma2 said. PAt that time 1hen the 1orld 1as full of beings %oor in understanding2 the Buddha2 at the earnest entreaty of all the celestial beings of -usitaloka2 a%%eared on earth lea4ing that hea4en of /oy em%ty# -hen2 seated at the foot of the Bodhi tree2 he conKuered the enemy 9;ra and became the 4ictor (/ina!# -he good teaching of the 0our -ruths 1hich the beautiful 4ictor im%arted after ha4ing %ulled out by the roots the three faults 62 1ere taught 1ith ineffable beneficence in the %act by innumerable other Buddhas# -hese -ruths %ro4ide the means of crossing the ocean of eGistence by destroying the t1el4e %rimal causes (nid;nas!B# -hese latter a%%ear one from the other in order as cause and effect2 and being ca%able of rea%%earance2 (each link! as conseKuent u%on that 1hich is before it2 assume the form of a ne4erFending circle# "hen in this order of cause and conseKuence the first ceases to eGist2 the neGt follo1s in cessation[ 1hen it comes into eGistence2 that 1hich follo1s it does so ine4itably# So these are %ro%erly described as a chain of causes and conditions# -hus arranged these t1el4e %rimal causes fall into four di4isions2 ' sho1ing three links9# A%%earance in birth or rebirth is of three kinds (human2 hea4enly or of the nether 1orld!2 and is of three di4isions2 %ast2 %resent and future# 1+ -hese also %roduce the faults2 deeds and there conseKuences211 and are im%ermanent and cause only sorro1# 3e 1ho gets to

    6
    B

    -he three roots of e4il (akusala*mala!. greed hate and delusion# -he t1el4e %rimal causes 1hich make u% the links of ,e%endent (rigination (pai##asamuppda!# ' -he four sections (#attro sa9gh!2 see $isuddhimagga (tr# by a;?amoli!2 $h I >b2 c *9+2 9 -he three links (ti*sandhi!# See $isuddhimagga I>b2 c *'9# 1+ See $isuddhimagga I>b2 c *'B#

    *9

    understand this character of these %rimal causes2 he kno1s 1hat 1ill assure him the %ermanence of release (:ir4;na!# 0urther it becomes the means for the culti4ation of the 0our -ruths 1* and is constituted of the fi4e skhandhas# 5t is ca%able of being argued in the siG forms beginning 1ith the Yassertion of truth#S16 5t results in the four forms of eGcellence# 5t is o%en to Kuestion in four 1ays and being ca%able of res%ecti4e ans1ers in four 1ays similarly# 5t is 1ithout origin and 1ithout end# 5t is a series of continuous becoming 1ithout e4er reaching final destruction# 5t neither does nor can it be described as being done# 5t is neither self nor is it %ossessed by another self# 5t is nothing that is gone2 nothing that is to come# 5t cannot be brought to an end nor is it to end itself# 5t is itself the result of the deed2 birth and cessation# Such is the nature of the t1el4e causes and conditions beginning 1ith ignorance and called the %rimal causes# -hese t1el4e are. (1!5gnorance (pedamai2 Sanskrit. avidy!2 (*!Action (seykai2 Sanskrit. karma!2 (6!$onsciousness (uarvu2 Sanskrit. vi!5a!2 ( !:ame and form (aru*uru2 Sanskrit. nmar&pa!2 (8!SiG organs of sense (vyil2 Sanskrit. sa-yatana2! (6!$ontact (uru2 Sanskrit. spar?a!2 (B!Sensation (nuharvu2 Sanskrit. vedan!2 ('!-hirst or cra4ing (vetkai2 Sanskrit. t@?!2 (9!Attachment (parru2 Sanskrit. updna!2 (1+! Becoming or eGistence (pavam2 Sanskrit. )hava!2 (11! Birth (torram2 Sanskrit. !ti!2 (1*! -he result of action2 old age and death (vinayppayan2 Sanskrit. !ar*maraa!# 5f %eo%le understand the t1el4efold nature of the chain of cause and effect2 they then understand the su%reme truth and 1ill en/oy %ermanent bliss# 5f they do not2 they are bound to suffer in the de%ths of hell# (1! 5gnorance consists in not understanding 1hat 1as eG%lained abo4e2 in being liable to delusion and in belie4ing in 1hat one hears to the neglect of that 1hich one is able to see for oneself2 as belie4ing in the eGistence of the horns of a rabbit because someone else says that they do eGist# (*! 5n the three 1orlds2 life is illimitable2 and li4ing beings in them are of siG classes# -hey are men2 gods2 Brahmas2 the inhabitants of hell2 the cro1d of animals and s%irits# According to good deeds and bad2 birth 1ill take %lace in one or other of these# )4er since it assumes the form of embryo2 the results of these deeds 1ill sho1 themsel4es either in the ha%%iness of mind or in anGiety of suffering# (f these e4il deeds2 killing2 theft and illicit seGual beha4iour sho1 themsel4es as e4ils s%ringing u% in the body# Lying2 s%eaking ill of others2 harsh 1ords and useless talk2 these four sho1 themsel4es as e4ils of s%eech# ,esire2 anger and illusion are three e4ils that arise in the mind 1 # -hese ten the 1ise 1ould a4oid# 5f they should fail to do so2 they
    11

    See in $isuddhimagga I>b2 c *9'2 the threefold round (ti*vatta! of defilements (kilesa!2 kammic action (kamma! and kammaFresult (vipka!# 1* See $isuddhimagga I>b2 c 6++# 16 PSiG forms2Q see ib# c *99# 1 -hese are the Yten un1holesome courses of actionS (dasa akusala kamma*patha!#

    6+

    1ould be born as animals or s%irits or beings of the nether 1orld2 and make themsel4es liable to eGtreme anGiety of and suffering# Oood men2 on the contrary2 1ould a4oid these ten2 and assuming the good disci%line (sAla! and taking u%on themsel4es to do deeds of charity (d;na!2 1ill be born in the three higher classes of beings2 such as de4;s (gods!2 men or brahmas2 and li4e a life of en/oyment and ha%%iness as a result of good deeds# (6! $onsciousness (uarvu! consists in feeling like one aslee%2 1ithout the feeling leading to any action2 or to any satisfaction#18 ( ! :ame and form consist in that 1hich has the feeling described abo4e2 and constituting mind and body# (8! (rgans of sense are2 on eGamination2 those that carry consciousness to the mind ( vi!n5a or ullam!# (6! $ontact consists in vi!n5a and the organs of sense eG%eriencing touch 1ith other things (veru pulangal!# (B! Sensation (nuharvu! consists in the mind or 4i/n;=a en/oying that of 1hich it has become conscious# ('! -hirst or cra4ing consists in not feeling satisfied 1ith that 1hich is thus en/oyed# (9! Attachment consists in the desire for en/oyment im%elling one into action# (1+! Becoming consists in the accumulation of deeds indicating the conseKuence to 1hich each leads#16 (11! Birth (tonral! consists in the result of deeds leading to the conscious taking of birth in one or other of the siG forms of birth in the ine4itable chain of cause and effect# (1*! ,isease (pii! consists in the suffering of the body by a change from its natural condition in conseKuence of the result of deeds# (ld age ( m&ppu! consists in the loosening of the body as one dra1s nearer and nearer to the end# ,eath ( skk-u! ultimately consists in the human body2 com%osed of life and body2 disa%%earing as the setting sun# 0rom ignorance arises action[ from action s%rings consciousness[ from consciousness come name and form[1B from name and form s%ring the organs of sense[ through organs of sense contact becomes %ossible[ contact results in sensation or eG%erience[ eG%erience %roduces desire[ from desire s%rings attachment[ from attachment comes into eGistence collection of deeds[ as the result of this collecti4e deed arise 4arious other forms of birth[ birth ine4itably brings along 1ith it age2 disease and death2 and the conseKuent anGiety and the feeling of inca%acity to get rid of it# -his ne4erFending suffering is the ultimate result# 5n such a ne4erFending circle of eG%erience2 1hen ignorance ceases2 action 1ill cease[ 1ith action consciousness 1ill cease[ 1ith consciousness name and form (mind and body! 1ill cease[ 1ith the cessation of name and form2 organs of sense 1ill cease[ 1ith the cessation of the organs of sense2 contact 1ill cease[ contact ceasing2 sensation or eG%erience 1ill cease[ 1ith sensation or eG%erience ceasing2 desire 1ill cease[ desire ceasing to eGist2 there 1ill be no attachment[ 1ithout attachment2 there is no accumulation of deeds[ 1ithout the accumulated mass of deeds2 there 1ill be no becoming[ 1ith the cessation of becoming2 there 1ill be no birth2 no disease2 no
    18

    -his might be a reference to the definition of consciousness2 in this conteGt2 as rebirth consciousness (paisandhi*#itta! 1hich is a kind of subliminal consciousness ()hava9ga*#itta!# 16 -his refers to a t1ofold di4ision of becoming ()hava!2 the kammaF%rocess (kamma*)hava! and the rebirthF%rocess (upapatti)hava!# 1B 5#e# mind and body#

    61

    age2 no death2 and in conseKuence2 no anGiety and no hel%lessness# -hus this ne4erFending series of suffering 1ill be destroyed# (f these t1el4e %rimal causes2 the first t1o2 ignorance and action2 are regarded as belonging to the first section# All those that follo12 s%ring from these t1o# -he follo1ing fi4e2 namely2 name and form2 organs of sense2 contact eG%erience2 these fi4e2 as s%ringing from the former t1o2 are regarded as constituting the second di4ision# -hirst2 attachment and the collection of deeds constitute the third di4ision as the result2 as e4il in the en/oyment of the %re4ious fi4e2 and in conseKuence2 as action resulting therefrom# 5t is from the folly of desire and conseKuent attachment that becoming arises# -he fourth di4ision includes birth2 disease2 age and death2 since these four are eG%erienced as a result of birth1'# Action is the cause of birth and consciousness s%rings out of it2 1here these t1o meet they mark the first con/unction# "here sensation and cra4ing meet2 it marks the second con/unction# -he third /unction comes in 1here the accumulation of deeds results in birth# -hus are marked the three %oints of /unction in this chain of t1el4e causes and conditions# -he three forms of birth are those of men2 gods and animals# -hese result from the consciousness in %re4ious births as a result of the conformations s%ringing out of ignorance# -his ha%%ens either from the delusion that this kind of birth is actually cessation of birth or the taking of birth in a ne1 form 1ithout the consciousness2 or the ne1 birth coming 1ith consciousness and the ne1 form eGisting together# -he three times are the %ast2 %resent and future# (f these2 the %ast includes ignorance and action# -o the %resent refer consciousness2 name and form2 the organs of sense2 contact2 sensation2 thirst (or cra4ing!2 the becoming and birth# -o the future belong birth2 disease2 age and death# -he resulting anGiety and hel%lessness are e4ils that s%ring out of the %re4ious series of %resent action# ,esire2 attachment and ignorance2 and the birth resulting therefrom2 constitute action in the %resent and cause future birth# $onsciousness2 name and form2 organs of sense2 contact2 sensation (or eG%erience!2 birth2 age2 disease and death2 are the conseKuential eG%erience in life2 both %resent and future# -hese are full of e4il2 of deeds2 and of conseKuences resulting from these deeds2 and thus constitute suffering# Being such2 they are all im%ermanent# "hile the nature of release (4A@u!2 consists in the understanding that there is nothing like a soul in anything eGisting# $onsciousness2 name and form2 the organs of sense2 contact2 sensation2 birth2 disease2 age2 death2 1ith the resulting anGiety and hel%lessness2 these constitute disease# 0or this disease2 the causes are ignorance2 action2 desire2 attachment and the collection of deeds# 0or suffering and birth2 attachment is the cause[ for bliss and cessation of birth2 nonFattachment is the cause# "ords that embody this idea constitute the 0our -ruths2 namely2 suffering2 the cause of suffering2 the remo4al of suffering and the 1ay to the remo4al of suffering# -here are four kind of Kuestions and ans1ers. (1! -o gi4e a definite re%ly[ (*! -o se%arate the com%onent %arts of an issue and ans1er these se%arately[ (6! -o ans1er by a counter Kuestion2 and ( ! -o kee% silence in ans1er to a Kuestion#
    19

    -o a Kuestion 1hether a thing that comes into eGistence 1ill also go out of eGistence2 if the ans1er is Yit 1illS2 this is to gi4e a definite re%ly#

    1'

    19

    See >ism Ib2 c *9+# See A9guttara*"ikya2 -hrees2 :o 6'[ 0ours2 :o# *#

    6*

    -o a Kuestion 1hether a dead man 1ill be born again or not2 the inKuiry 1hether in life he 1as 1ithout attachment or not2 is to ans1er by se%arating the issues in4ol4ed and to gi4e se%arate ans1ers to it# -o a Kuestion 1hether it is the seed that is first or the %almFtree2 the enKuiry 1hich seed and 1hich %articular tree2 is ans1er by a counter Kuestion# -o a Kuestion 1hether Ythe sky flo1erS is ne1 or old2 silence is the best ans1er[ this is one 1ay of getting round an incon4enient Kuestion# Bondage and release result from the skandhas (the aggregates of eG%erience!# -here is no agent outside entitled to bring them into contact# 0or the skandhas and their manifestations as described abo4e2 the cause is the grou% of three e4ils. desire2 anger and illusion# )Gamine se%arately and understand that e4erything is im%ermanent2 full of suffering2 1ithout a soul and unclean[ thus treating it2 gi4e u% desireX 7ealiVing that friendliness2 com%assion and /oy (at the 1ellFbeing of others! constitute the best attitude of mind2 gi4e u% angerX By the %ractice of hearing2 (sruti!2 contem%lation (#intana!2 eG%eriencing in mind ()hvan! and realiVing in 4ision (darsana!2 reflect2 realiVe and gi4e u% all illusionX 5n these four 1ays get rid of the darkness of mindXQ 5n these aus%icious 1ords2 free from inconsistency2 ( Aravaa A-igal! eGhibited the illuminating lam% of the kno1ledge# 9a?imekhalai2 ha4ing assumed the habit of an ascetic (tpas! and ha4ing heard the eGcellent eG%osition of the ,harma2 de4oted herself to %enance *+ that she may get rid of the bondage of birth# P

    *+

    "o1 Better to be translated as Preligious life#Q

    66

    The Buddhist Publication Societ$


    -he BPS is an a%%ro4ed charity dedicated to making kno1n the -eaching of the Buddha2 1hich has a 4ital message for all %eo%le# 0ounded in 198'2 the BPS has %ublished a 1ide 4ariety of books and booklets co4ering a great range of to%ics# 5ts %ublications include accurate annotated translations of the Buddhads discourses2 standard reference 1orks2 as 1ell as original contem%orary eG%ositions of Buddhist thought and %ractice# -hese 1orks %resent Buddhism as it truly isHa dynamic force 1hich has influenced rece%ti4e minds for the %ast *8++ years and is still as rele4ant today as it 1as 1hen it first arose# 0or more information about the BPS and our %ublications2 %lease 4isit our 1ebsite2 or contact. -he Administrati4e Secretary Buddhist Publication Society P#(# BoG 61 8 Sanghara/a 9a1atha Kandy2 Sri Lanka )Fmail. b%seb%s#lk "eb site. htt%.ff111#b%s#lk -el. ++9 '1 **6 B*'6 0aG. ++9 '1 *** 66B9

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