B. J. Music Ed.

(1999) 16:3, 27591

Copyright # 1999 Cambridge University Press

Learning strategies in instrumental music

practice
Siw G. Nielsen

This case study of two organ students aims to identify learning strategies used in preparing a
complex piece for performance. The results are based on data gathered from verbal reports
given both during and after practice sessions. These sessions were also videotaped. The results
show that the students used learning strategies to select and organise information and to
integrate it with existing knowledge. In addition, they were systematic in their approaches to
sorting the learning material.

Introduction
Recent research (Weinstein and Mayer, 1986) has shown that successful students are
methodical in their approaches to learning. They actively plan their study and
spontaneously invent increasingly advanced strategies to improve their performance.
A focus on the diverse and individual ways in which musicians break tasks down into
component processes when practising may contribute to our understanding of how
musicians learn. This may lead to improved teaching and assessment of learning and
problem solving.
Previous research in instrumental learning has concentrated mainly on revealing
relationships between learning activities and learning results. There has been little
consideration of students' understanding of what they learn as they practice. Some
studies do take the learner's perspective into consideration, however.
Hallam (1992, 1995) categorises students' methods of practising as either `holistic'
or `serialist'. Beyond this, however, Hallam does not focus on learning strategies.
Chafn and Imreh (1994, 1997) study a pianist's use of separate hands and
segmentation of the piece as possible learning strategies during practice. However,
they emphasise how pianists dene the task as expressive or interpretative, and
explore basic musical features attended to during practice periods. Miklaszewski
(1989) and Gruson (1981) emphasise learning strategies to some extent by focusing
on several aspects of student's actions during practice. Both researchers emphasise
division of the material into shorter or longer fragments, playing hands separately, and
variation of tempo. In Gruson's study of the way pianists practice, there is an
additional emphasis on uninterrupted play, self-guiding statements, reading notes
aloud, counting aloud, playing other than the designated piece and intervention by
another. However, there is little emphasis on students' understanding of how they
themselves learn. This research offers only limited information about how a learning
activity aims to achieve a particular goal.
The present study, which investigated the work of two organ students as they
prepared a piece for performance, viewed learning through methodical practising as
cognitive problem solving (Mayer, 1994; Van Lehn, 1989).

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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

There seems to be some variation in the ways learning strategies are dened during
practice. This may be due to an absence of theoretical frameworks guiding this kind of
research. Recently, Jorgensen (1995) developed a useful rationale for classifying
learning strategies in this area. Jorgensen sees practising as `self-teaching' and has
used a didactic theory as a model of practice. However this rationale for classifying
learning strategies is not appropriate to the present study. It seemed more appropriate
to consider models involving strategic learning developed in areas other than music.
What students do as they learn is a prime determinant of efciency (Brown et al.,
1983). Some systematic activities that students use are referred to as strategies,
although the literature has not always made it clear what is strategic and what is not.
According to Schneider and Weinert (1990), recent research conceives systematic
learning as a deliberate or purposeful process, originally consciously applied, but
normally undergoing automatisation as a result of development and practice.
Learning strategies are dened as intended or goal-directed processes distinct from
those that either are not intended to accomplish goals or that accomplish goals other
than the ones intended. An activity is only dened as a strategy in so far as it can
relate to the intended goals. This denition explicitly does not stipulate that a strategy
must be consciously formulated or the product of a conscious or rational choice.
In this article the terms `strategy' and `learning strategy' are used according to the
following denition:
Behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning and that are
intended to inuence the learner's encoding process. Thus, the goal of any
learning strategy may be to affect the learner's motivational or affective state, or
the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organises, or integrates new
knowledge. (Weinstein and Mayer 1986: 315)
According to this interpretation, a strategy involves both thought and behaviour. It is
not just a `pure' cognitive information process, but consists also of different forms of
action directed towards learning material. Braten (1991: 17) denes cognitive
strategies during learning or problem solving as including both linguistic (verbal)
actions and the processing of information. As studying an instrument involves physical
manipulation, it seems reasonable to amplify learning strategies during practice in the
direction of external actions. This article seeks to integrate an understanding of
learning strategies during practice as both action and cognition, but with action
primarily in focus. This seems to be to accord with the more general denition given
above (Weinstein and Mayer, 1986) that conveys methodological implications that I
discuss later.
Weinstein and Mayer (1986) dene two `objects' that learning strategies are
intended to inuence: (a) the learner's motivational or affective state, and (b) the way
the learner selects, acquires, organises, or integrates new knowledge. Dansereau
denes strategies intended to operate on these two `objects' as:
Primary strategies, which are used to operate on the text material directly (e.g.
comprehension and memory strategies) and support strategies, which are used to
maintain a suitable state of mind for learning (e.g. concentration strategies).
(Dansereau 1985: 209)
The primary strategies are intended to inuence directly the learner's acquisition of
new knowledge by being concerned with the cognitive processing of textual material.
Support strategies are intended to inuence indirectly the learner's acquisition of new
knowledge by focusing on the learner's state of mind. The learning strategies in this
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

category represent ways of maintaining concentration, mastering anxiety, establishing

motivation and securing the efcient use of time. Examples are relaxation exercises,
constructive self-talk and pausing to rest. This article focuses only on primary
strategies during practice.
Three cognitive processes may serve to categorise the students' primary learning
strategies during practice (Mayer, 1994): what methods do students use to select
relevant information to master tasks, to select and organise information, and to
integrate these with existing knowledge?
Garcia and Pintrich (1994) see more general processes such as planning, monitoring and revising of procedures as part of the student's repertoire of primary
learning strategies. Other researchers see these as part of self-regulation or as higher
level metacognitive skills (Brown, 1987; Nisbet and Shuchsmith, 1986; Sternberg,
1983). The present study sees processes related to directing the strategy as part of the
learner's metacognitive competence, not as part of the repertoire of learning strategies. It is not clear whether it is possible, beyond the theoretical, to distinguish
between strategies on different levels.
By focusing on two organists, this study explored the repertoires of learning strategies
within practice sessions. It looked both at the initial stage of learning a particular
work, and at later practice sessions. The study also explored similarities and
differences in the working methods that can be found between these periods. This
article also explores techniques for gathering information developed in other disciplines to t the purpose of the present study and the naturalistic situation of
practising.

Method
The subjects and the music
The subjects were two third-year organ students at the Norwegian State Academy of
Music in Oslo. Their teacher described them as gifted and possessing a high level of
technical skill. The works practised were the Prelude from `Prelude et Fugue' in B
major (Opus 7) by Dupre (Student no. 1), and the Salve Regina movement from
Widor's Second Symphony (Opus 13). Both pieces represent some of their most
important works from the organ repertoire of the French Romantic period.
Before recording the initial practice sessions the students knew their pieces from
other live and recorded performances. However, no special auditory or analytic prestudy work had taken place. The pieces were part of the students' preparation for nal
examinations at the Academy. The students and their teachers selected the pieces as
exemplars of moderate difculty.

Procedure
The results are based on data gathered during the rst practice session and during or
immediately after the second (lasting one hour) in the rst and second learning periods.
The students practised on a familiar instrument in one of their usual practice rooms.
The rst learning period lasted for one week for Student no. 1, who practised the
Dupre piece for two to three hours per day, before playing it to his teacher. During
the following weeks he worked with other pieces. For Student no. 2 the rst learning
period lasted for two weeks, during which she practised the Widor for about one hour
per day. During this period she presented the piece several times to her teacher. The
following weeks she focused on other movements of the same Symphonie.
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

The second learning period started about three weeks after the end of the rst, and
both students prepared their pieces for concert performance. For Student no. 1 the
second period lasted four weeks and for Student no. 2, three. Both students worked
concurrently on other pieces during the second learning period. In each period, the
information was gathered in three sequences (Nielsen, 1997; 1998):
The rst sequence consisted of observation of practice behaviour (OBehav) conducted on the rst day of each learning period. The student's practice behaviour
was dened as the student's performance during practice and the distribution of
the musical material in time. The observation lasted for about an hour.
. The second sequence consisted of the student's concurrent verbal reports of
problem-solving activities during a session (VRDuring). The student was instructed to focus on cognitive processes involved in problem solving during
practice and continuously to give reports of them as if answering the following
questions: `What am I thinking?' and `What am I focusing on?' In this session, the
student continued working with the same piece as in the rst sequence, but on the
following day. The VRDuring-sequence was recorded on video and lasted for about
an hour.
. The third sequence consisted of the student's retrospective debrieng reports of
problem-solving activities after practice (RRAfter). These give accounts of the
actions and thoughts remembered from the problem-solving activity during
practice verbalised following the taped VRDuring-session. They were supposed to
expose further the student's knowledge of strategies. In addition, questions about
the procedure were asked during the RRAfter-sequence following the student's
reports. The RRAfter-sequence was performed immediately after the nishing of
the VRDuring-sequence, and lasted about ninety minutes. To help them recall
their original problem-solving activities, the students watched the video recording
from the VRDuring-sequence. (This showed both the student's verbal reports and
practice behaviour during the RRAfter-sequence.) The cues offered from this
helped to structure the researcher's questions during RRAfter. The RRAftersequence was also recorded on video, including the video recording from the
VRDuring-sequence, making it possible to co-ordinate the student's verbalisations
from VRDuring and RRAfter.
.

The three sequences were organised as the following:

Table 1. The organisation of the three sequences within each phase in which information was
gathered
Day 1
Day 2
Day 2
Day 2

Observation of practice behaviour (OBehav)

Concurrent verbal reports during practising (VRDuring)
Pause
Retrospective debrieng reports after practice (RRAfter)

About 1 hour
About 1 hour
About 15 minutes
About 90 minutes

The present focus was seen as appropriate since learning strategies in this context
were conceived as originally consciously applied, but undergoing automatisation
through practice. The students' overt practice behaviour was seen as evidence of how
they learnt.
The verbal techniques for gathering information were adopted from comparable
research on learning and problem solving in areas such as reading, mathematics,
physics and secondary-language learning. (Garner & Alexander, 1982; Marfo &
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

Ryan, 1990; McDaniel & Kearney, 1984; Olshavsky, 19767; Siegler & Campbell,
1989.) During pilot studies, the verbal reporting techniques were adjusted to t the
purpose of the study and the natural practice situation. These procedures followed
guidelines offered by Ericsson and Simon (1993) and Taylor and Dionne (1994), and
included conducting a training session and prompting.
Considering this, the data for this study consist of a detailed listing of the students'
behavioural and verbal activities made from the videotapes from the two phases
(learning period 1 and 2).

Analysis
The observational sequences of practice behaviour
A detailed observational scheme of the students' performance during practice was
developed. Earlier studies have focused on categories such as tempo, the size of
segments played without interruption and the separation of hands (Gruson, 1981;
Chafn & Imreh, 1994; 1997; Miklaszewski, 1989). However, Gruson's study
indicated that the categories were not mutually exclusive, and frequency and interval
scoring of categories dened as distinct and continuous were mixed.
To describe the distribution of the musical material in time, earlier studies (e.g.
Miklaszewski, 1989) have focused on the number of bars worked on during a
particular time. The same procedure was used in the present study. The data give a
detailed account of the total time spent per bar during the entire session and bars
worked on consecutively.
A videotape of the students' concert performances was compared to the students'
performance during practice. The differences were described using four categories of
learning strategy: segmentation, change of tempo, playing with hands separately and
hands together (uni-/ bilateral play), and Change of rhythmical structure. Differences
relating to the interpretative and expressive aspects of the performance were not
considered. Apart from the category `Change of rhythmical structure', each category
was further divided into sub-categories (see Table 2). These were devised as work
with the videotape progressed.
Table 2. The detailed observational scheme
Category

Sub-categories

Denition

Segmentation

Shorter-than-measure

Plays a segment of a length that is shorter than that of a

measure.
Plays a segment of a length of a measure.
Plays a segment of a length that is longer than that of a
measure, but shorter than that of the piece.
Tempo is slower than the nal concert tempo, but faster
than 75 per cent of the nal tempo.
Tempo is maximum 75 per cent of the nal tempo, but
faster than 50 per cent of the nal concert tempo.
Tempo is maximum 50 per cent of the nal concert
tempo or slower.
Plays each hand or the pedal separately.
Plays both hands or one hand and the pedal separately.
The rhythmical pattern of a segment is altered by
changing the whole structure in certain ways (e.g. length
of accents changed compared to the written score).

One-measure-long
Longer-than-measure
Tempo

Tempo I
Tempo II
Tempo III

Uni-/bilateral play
Change of
rhythmical structure

Unilateral
Bilateral

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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

The verbalisation sequences

Both the verbal reports during practice and the retrospective debrieng reports were
transcribed verbatim. A coding grid was developed for the verbal reports from the
VRDuring-sequence. The categories identied were problem recognition, evaluation
of performance and choice of strategies. The coded verbalisations from VRDuring
were organised into a scheme showing both the verbalisations and the following
behavioural actions in succession (Nielsen, 1997). The verbalisations from VRDuring
were also co-ordinated with the verbalisations from the RRAfter within each learning
period to make explicit the information implicit in the VRDuring. Further, a content
analysis was conducted of each category in the coding grid, and here I will present the
results of the content analysis of the category strategy choice.
The results from the rst practice session in each learning period were based on the
students' behavioural actions. The results from the second were based on verbal
actions, which were seen as extending and clarifying behavioural actions.
Though variables, like two persons practising two different musical works at
different times, can make the data less comparable, some variables can contribute in
the opposite direction.
The common purpose of the practice sessions could be seen as part of both
students' preparations for performance. The pieces were assumed to involve representative problems with each student's skills and knowledge as an organist. Both works
were from the same stylistic period in the organ repertoire, and this inuenced several
aspects of the performances, both technically and interpretatively. This implies some
external similarities between each student's task, though each piece involved specic
challenges for the individual performer. All these variables contribute towards making
useful comparisons of the students' methods of working.

Results
It became clear that the students' repertoire of learning strategies varied to some
degree between learning periods. There follows a description of the students'
strategies within each learning period, which also compares the two students'
strategies between learning periods.

Repertoires of learning strategies within the rst learning period

In the rst learning period both students worked only with parts of the piece. Student
no. 1 practised the rst twenty-ve bars of the Prelude (a total of 103 bars), while
Student no. 2 practised the rst twenty-six bars of the Salve Regina movement (a total
of 78 bars). For both students the rst learning period included the following
strategies:
(a) to divide the piece into `working areas' (larger sections) that are focused separately
(b) to play the musical material within each working area in different segments
(c) to play segments in different tempi
(d) to play each hand or the pedal separately (unilateral play) or both hands or one hand
and the pedal separately (bilateral play)
(e) to systematically alter the rhythmical structure of a segment
(f) to use combinations of strategies in sequence
(g) to change the possible solution to a problem
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

(h) to keep to only one ngering of a segment

(i) to do markings in the score
(j) to take pauses where the score is studied further
In addition, Student no. 1 isolated part movements as gurations based on chords,
while Student no. 2 used the metronome to help playing segments in different tempi.
Considering this, the students' repertoires of learning strategies seemed to be almost
consistent within this rst learning period.
If we focus on the use of time in the two OBehav-sessions, the students emphasised
the playing of segments Longer-than-measure in a slow tempo (Tempo III ) (see Figure
1). In addition, Student no. 2 tended to play segments where the rhythmical pattern
of the segment was altered by changing the whole structure in certain ways (e.g.
length of accents changed compared to the written score).

Strategies

Fig. 1. Use of time to strategies in the OBehav-sessions in the rst learning period

Repertoires of learning strategies within the second learning period

In the second learning period both students worked with the whole piece (Student no.
1 with the whole Prelude and Student no. 2 with the whole Salve Regina movement).
For both students the second learning period included the same strategies as the rst,
except for the method of keeping to only one ngering within a segment. Instead they
both tested out different solutions to a problem. Beyond this, the repertoire for
Student no. 1 also included minimising patterns of movements to chords, overdoing
movements, and developing exercises based on parts of the piece. The repertoire for
Student no. 2 also included playing segments along with a vocal expression.
Considering this, the students' repertoires of learning strategies seemed to be almost
consistent within this second learning period.
If we focus on their use of time to some of the common strategies in this learning
period (as studied in the two OBehav-sessions), the students emphasised the playing
of segments Longer-than-measure in a fast Tempo I (see Figure 2).

Comparing the repertoires within the two learning periods

Considering the presented results, the learning strategies were mostly consistent
within the two learning periods. This also was the case for each individual student's
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

Fig. 2. Use of time to strategies in the OBehav-sessions in the second learning period

repertoire. However, there were some inconsistencies as both students kept to only one
ngering within the rst learning period, while they tried out ngerings in the second.
In the case of the students' different learning strategies in the two learning periods,
there were some similar features in the rst period. Both students reduced the
quantity of information to be processed; though the strategies differed. Student #1
isolated part movements while Student no. 2 used a metronome to assist in steady
playing. In the second learning period the strategies took on different features.
Student no. 1 tried to reduce the quantity of information processed by overdoing
movements and developing exercises based on parts of the piece. Student no. 2 tried
to increase the quantity of information to be processed by playing segments combined
with a vocal expression.
If we study to what extent they used some of the same approaches in the two
learning periods (as studied in the OBehav-sessions), the students employed their
time differently between strategies. However, as shown in Figure 3, both students
were relatively consistent in their use of time to play hands separately and hands
together and to play segments Shorter-than-measure or One-measure-long. (The differences are no more than that of about 10 per cent between the OBehav-sessions in the
rst and second learning periods.) In other words, there were slight variations of
method between the students.
The students' use of time showed differences both in quantity and direction. The
students were most alike in their use of time to Tempo I. In the second learning period
both students increased their use of time to play segments in Tempo I expressed in
percentages (Student no. 1 increased by about 55 per cent and Student no. 2
increased by about 58 per cent). The students were most unlike in relation to the
differences in quantity and direction in their use of time to play segments in Tempo II.
Student no. 1 increased his use of time to Tempo II in the second learning period
while Student no. 2 reduced her time expressed in percentage.
Further, the students were most unlike in relation to the quantity of the differences
in their use of time to Change of rhythmical structure. Student no. 1 reduced his use of
time by about 13 per cent in the second learning period, while Student no. 2 reduced
her use of time by about 60 per cent in the same learning period. Student no. 2 was
consistent in her use of time to play segments Longer-than-measure between the
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

Fig. 3. Differences in use of time to strategies between OBehav-sessions in the rst and second
learning periods

learning periods, while Student no. 1 increased his use of time by about 22 per cent.
Both students also reduced their use of time to play segments in Tempo III in the
second learning period, but not to the same extent (Student no. 1 reduced by about
78 per cent and Student no. 2 by about 60 per cent). This implies that Student no. 2
was more consistent in her use of these strategies in the two learning periods than
Student no. 1. On the other hand, Student no. 1 was more consistent in using Change
of rhythmical structure than Student no. 2.
Considering the nished product of their rehearsal as being able to play the piece as
a whole in a relatively fast tempo, the students' use of time within the different
strategies seems reasonable. Both students increased their use of time to play
segments in a fast tempo. Their use of time to play segments Longer-than-measure was
either consistent (Student no. 2) or had increased (Student no. 1). Simultaneously,
both reduced their use of time to Tempo III and Change of rhythmical structure.
However, their consistencies in use of time to play with one or both hands or to
playing segments Shorter-than-measure and One-measure-long are surprising. With their
use of time to employ these strategies in the rst learning period, I expected them to
use relatively less time in the second. However, the differences are minor.

Theoretical discussion
The students' learning strategies within the two learning periods investigated may be
categorised as primary strategies intended directly to inuence the learner's acquisition
of knowledge. In the following, I rst discuss to what extent the students' learning
strategies may divide into strategies to select relevant information to master the task, to
organise the selected information, and to integrate the presented information with
existing knowledge. Second, I compare the results with earlier research on learning
strategies. Considering this, I nally present a classication of learning strategies
during practice.

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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

Categorisation
Considering the students expressed goals of their use of strategies during practice,
some of the presented strategies can be viewed as strategies to select relevant information.
For example, both students took pauses where the score was studied further.
Considering this visual examination of the score, they selected current problem areas
that had to be put in focus to master the piece. This strategy can be classied as a
method of selecting relevant information. With memorising parts of the piece,
Student no. 2 reported that it would have been better to:
study the actual part of the piece to know `that's the way', and then try to play it
from memory. Then I could have identied the errors more precisely instead of
trying to play the part from its beginning stopping at the same place repeatedly. I
did it eventually, but then I had been trying to identify the problem for a while.
The students also used a combination of playing segments Longer-than-measure and
Tempo I to diagnose their skills in performing parts of the piece during practice.
Compared to the other segment and tempo activities, these two activities imply the
performance of parts of the piece closer to the nished product of their rehearsal.
This combination may represent an opportunity to play through longer sections and
to identify problem areas. Student no. 1 reported that: `you have to test it maybe
play it through more to identify the problem'. This combination may be classied as
a strategy to select relevant information.
In learning to master a musical work the following two strategies may affect which
parts of the piece the learner focus during practice:
SELECTION STRATEGIES: Strategies to select relevant problem areas:
(a) a visual examination of the score
(b) playing through larger sections in a tempo close to the nal tempo
Considering that the students expressed the goals of their strategies used during
practice, some can be viewed as strategies to organise the selected information. For
example, both students worked with the aim of joining parts of the piece as a whole.
They played the parts in different segments and played segments in different tempi.
They played each hand or the pedal separately. They played both hands or one hand
and the pedal separately. They systematically altered the rhythmical structure of a
segment, used combinations of strategies in sequence, kept to only one ngering of a
segment and changed the possible solution to a problem when it did not work as a
whole. To a varying extent, they also used the metronome to assist in playing segments
in different tempi, developed exercises based on parts of the piece and tested out
different solutions to a problem when the chosen solution no longer worked as a
whole.
In learning to master a musical work the following strategies may affect the way the
learner organises relevant information during practice:
ORGANISING STRATEGIES: Strategies to join parts of the piece as a whole:
(a) to play parts in different segments
(b) to play segments in different tempi
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

(c) to play each hand or the pedal separately, or both hands or one hand and the pedal
separately
(d) to systematically alter the rhythmical structure of a segment
(e) to use combinations of strategies in sequence
(f) to keep to only one ngering of a segment
(g) to change the possible solution to a problem
(h) to use the metronome to assist in playing segments in different tempi
(i) to develop exercises based on parts of the piece
(j) to test out different solutions to a problem
Though these strategies mainly affect the way the learner organises the information, it
is difcult to see how such organisation can be done without the student selecting
relevant parts beforehand. Some of these strategies involve elements of rehearsal where
information is being repeated to be remembered.
Hallam (1997: 95) considers it useful to distinguish between strategies as `repetitious' (repeating larger parts of the material as the whole piece or phrases to gradually
increase speed, often using a metronome to assist in this process) and `analytic' (such
as changing rhythms, varying slurs, inventing relevant exercises, gaining an overview,
whole-part, identifying difculties, monitoring and evaluation) in the learning of new
music. Some `analytic strategies' may be dened as part of the learners' metacognitive
competence (monitoring and evaluation). Several others (such as changing rhythms
and varying slurs) may be considered as organisational strategies. Instead of separating rehearsal strategies from organisation strategies, I chose to consider the repetition of parts of the material where some aspects of the performance such as length of
segments, tempo, rhythmical structure and uni- and bilateral playing may vary, as
integrated in the organisational strategies to join parts of the piece as a whole. This
decision was based on the results of the present study. This caused a change in the
before-mentioned organisation strategies (a)(d) and (h), to:
(a) to repeat parts in different segments
(b) to repeat segments in different tempi
(c) to repeat each hand or the pedal separately, or both hands or one hand and the pedal
separately
(d) to repeat segments with systematically altered rhythmical structure
(h) to repeat segments in different tempi using the metronome to assist
Considering the students expressed goals of their use of strategies during practice, one
of the presented strategies can be viewed as a strategy to integrate the presented
information with existing knowledge. One student used associations made between an
auditive representation of a vocal expression and the phrasing performed on the
organ. She played segments of the piece along with a vocal expression, and the
phrasing of the melody was related to what she felt sounded `natural or organic'
(Student no. 2), when it was sung. This strategy relates auditive `pictures' beyond the
score to performance and may affect the way the learner integrates relevant information with existing knowledge. Though this strategy mainly may affect the way the
learner integrates the information, it is difcult to see how such integration can take
place without the learner selecting relevant parts beforehand.
To conclude, the chosen theoretical types of strategy contribute to categorise the
students' learning strategies in ways that appear to accord with students' verbalised
goals. The strategies are not mutually exclusive. Thus, an important theoretical
contribution of this study is that learning strategies in instrumental practice are
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

related to learning strategies in other learning areas than the musical one, through
common theoretical categories.
However, this categorisation does not include all the strategies as presented. The
remaining strategies have in common that they sort the learning material. For
example, both students divided the piece into `working areas'. This implies that the
material is sorted into larger sections that were focused separately. This division
reected the basic formal units of the pieces. For example, in the rst learning period
for Student no. 1 the basic musical material within each working area consisted of
only one pattern. For Student no. 2 the basic material consisted of a phrase of the
original Gregorian melody on which the piece was based. This involves both splitting
a whole into parts according to the basic formal units of the composition and grouping
the musical material. In this way a common pattern or a phrase of a melody may serve
as a link. If elements of splitting wholes into parts may be included as a purpose of the
selecting strategies, then the strategy in the rst-mentioned case may be considered as
a selection strategy. Otherwise, it may constitute a supplement to the outlined
theoretical categories of learning strategies. Similar considerations may be made for
the remaining strategies.
Strategies to sort the learning material
(a) to divide the piece into `working areas' (larger sections) that are focused separately
(b) to do markings in the score
(c) to minimise patterns of movements to chords
(d) to overdo movements
(e) to isolate part movements in movements patterns as gurations based on chords
As we see, these `sorting' strategies involve elements of both selecting and organising.

Comparison with earlier research on learning activities during

practice
The present study does yield some common results with the earlier research that I
summarised in the introduction. These mainly concern activities as segmentation,
separation of hands, and varying tempi. In addition, Gruson (1981) focused on
activities directed towards the score such as pausing.
Other results of the present study concern students' increased use of time to play
segments in Tempo I. They either were consistent (Student no. 2) or increased
(Student no. 1) their use of time to play segments Longer-than-measure, as practice
progressed. They also reduced their use of time to play segments in Tempo III and
were relatively consistent in their use of time to play hands separately and together and
to play segments Shorter-than-measure or One-measure-long between the observed
learning periods. Some of these results were expected from the ndings of earlier
research. This applies to the relation between increasing length of segments as practice
progresses (Student no. 1), which is consistent with the results by Miklaszewski
(1989) and Chafn and Imreh (1994, 1997). Miklaszewski (1989) suggested, besides
some divisions of the more difcult material into very short fragments, a systematic
lengthening of fragments taken for elaboration through sessions the more the piece is
practised. Chafn and Imreh (1994, 1997) suggested that as the pianist (Imreh)
learned the piece, she was able to work with larger segments in the more difcult
section, so that the segments focused on in this section in later practice sessions looked
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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

much more like the segments in the easier section. These results indicate a systematic
lengthening of segments taken into elaboration with practice, but that depended on
the texture of the musical material. In the case of playing segments in different tempi
and uni- and bilateral play, there exist no comparable results.
To conclude, the present study conrms some of the presumed learning strategies
that earlier research has suggested. Earlier studies have concentrated mainly on the
learner's behavioural actions. However, their results may be seen as conjectures
according to the present denition of learning strategies as goal-directed actions.
Further, the methodological approach of the present study allows its results to convey
a larger abundance of learning strategies.
Finally, based on this comparison, I present a classication of learning strategies
during practice founded on the present study's theoretical perspective, where both
results from the mentioned earlier research and from the present study t in.

A classication of learning strategies during practice

The individual strategies in this classication (see Table 3) are drawn from the main
results of the present study, from the mentioned earlier empirical research, and from
the philosophical research by Jorgensen (1995). The comparable results from the
earlier empirical studies were largely similar to the main ndings presented here.
Thus, beyond the results from the present study, the individual strategies in the
classication are drawn from Jorgensen (1995). This mainly concerns strategies that
may be categorised as support strategies (Dansereau, 1985). As the placing of
strategies from Jorgensen (1995) in the following classication suggests relations
between learning activities and purposes, and as his categorisation is not empirically
founded, the strategies drawn from his work must be considered as conjectures, and
as such as suggested learning strategies in practice.
Table 3. A preliminary scheme for classifying learning strategies in practice
PRIMARY STRATEGIES
1. Strategies to select relevant
parts of learning material
(Selection strategies)

1.1 Strategies to select

relevant problem areas

. A visual examination of the

score

. Playing through larger

sections in a tempo close to

the nal tempo
. Playing prima vista

2. Strategies to organise and to 2.1 Strategies to join parts of

form relations in the learning the piece together as a whole
material (Organising
strategies)

. To repeat parts in different

segments

. To repeat segments in

different tempi

. To repeat each hand or the

pedal separately, or both

hands or one hand and the
pedal separately
. To repeat segments with
systematically altered
rhythmical structure
. To repeat segments in
different tempi using the
metronome as assistance

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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

. To use combinations of

strategies in sequence

. To keep to only one

2.2 Strategies to sort the

learning material

3. Strategies to relate the

learning material to existing
knowledge (Integration
strategies)

ngering of a segment
To change the possible
solution to a problem
. To develop exercises based
on parts of the piece
. To test out different
solutions to a problem
. To divide the piece into
`working areas' (larger
sections) that are focused
separately
. To do markings in the score
. To minimise patterns of
movements to chords
. To overdo movements
. To isolate part-movements
in movement patterns as
gurations based on chords

3.1 Strategies to relate

kinaesthetic `pictures' to the
performing of the material
3.2 Strategies to relate auditive
`pictures' beyond the score to
the performing of the material

. Mental rehearsal

3.3 Strategies to relate visual

`pictures' beyond the score to
the performing of the piece
3.4 Strategies to ensure
positive and to avoid negative
transfer

4.1 Strategies to activate and

maintain concentration

. Pausing/ resting
. Prepare body and muscles

4.2 Strategies to activate and

maintain motivation

. Constructive self-talk
. Help from others

5.1 Strategies for mental

preparation for a public
performance

. Mental exercises
. Relaxation exercises

. To play segments along with

a vocal expression

. Listening to others'

performances/recording

. To identify similarities and

dissimilarities

SUPPORT STRATEGIES
4. Strategies to direct
attention to the task at hand

5. Strategies to master
achievement anxiety

6. Strategies to secure efcient 6.1 Strategies that utilise the

use of time
distribution of practice over
time (massed vs. distributed
practice)
6.2 Strategies concerned with
the formulation of general
objectives and short-term
goals

for the practice activity

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Learning strategies in instrumental music practice Siw G. Nielsen

The classication does not aim to generalise from the results of my study, but to see
strategies in the existing `literature' that relate to the results of the present study. The
classication is preliminary. Considering the present study's results where the two
subjects in focus also used different strategies, it appears reasonable to expect both
elaborations of the existing categories, and new categories besides the presented ones
as results from further research. For example, I have placed the category of `sorting
strategies' as constituting part of the organisation strategies. As these strategies may
involve both elements of selecting and organising, this placing must be considered as
preliminary and as a hypothesis which further research may demonstrate the
probability of or reject.

Conclusion and educational implications

This study shows able students' use of learning strategies to select relevant problem
areas, to join parts of the piece as a whole, and to relate auditive `pictures' beyond the
score to the performing of the piece. In addition, they used strategies to sort the
learning material. An important contribution to this study is that the theory of
learning strategies developed in reading, mathematics and similar learning areas
where the cognitive aspects predominate, can be used in a learning area where motor
performance is crucial.
One educational implication would be that teachers instruct their students to
develop their strategic competence in the suggested categories. Borkowski and Turner
(1990) assume that efcient learning depends on the co-ordination between different
components as strategies, metacognition, motivation, and a non-strategic knowledge
base. This implies that good learners have to know a large number of strategies and to
understand when, where, and why these are important (Borkowski & Muthukrishna,
1992). This applies to expanding the students' specic, relational, and general
metacognitive knowledge.
Specic strategy knowledge includes an understanding of a goal, the strategy's
appropriate applications and range of applicability It also needs to include the learning
gains expected from consistent use of the strategy, the amount of effort associated
with its deployment and also whether the strategy is enjoyable or burdensome to use
(Borkowski, Johnston & Reid, 1987). Considering this knowledge, Borkowski and
Turner (1990) also assume that emerging knowledge of the similarity and differences
of multiple strategies in a domain allows for a structuring of strategies. Relational
strategy knowledge highlights the attributes of each strategy, faced with the changing
demands of different tasks. Lastly, teachers should encourage students to recognise
the general utility and importance of adopting a strategic approach. General awareness of strategy reects the student's understanding that effort is required to apply
strategies and that effort often produces success (Borkowski, Johnston & Reid, 1987).
Finally, the results could be seen as demonstrating students' need to reect on their
use of strategies during practice as a prerequisite for being able to use a range of skills
systematically.

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