Quantitative Techniques

Quantitative Techniques
Barhate Mangesh
Roll No- PG/509/MBA (I)/2009J
Name of Student Mr. Barhate Mangesh Tukaram

Roll No PG/509/MBA(I)/2009J
Institute Silver Bright Institute of Management (SBIM), Pune
Subject Quantitative Techniques
Date 10 Jan 2010
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES
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Barhate Mangesh
INDEX
- Preamble
- Methodology of Quantitative Techniques
- Set Theory
- Logarithms
- Linear Programming
- Matrix
- Data Analysis
- Mean
- Median
- Mode
- Dispertipn
- Skuewness
- Deviation
- Measures of Center and Location
- Measures of Variation
- Methods of Time Series
- Wrapping Up
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Preamble
Scientific methods have been man’s outstanding asset to pursue an ample

number of activities. It is analyzed that whenever some national crisis, emerges
due to the impact of political, social, economic or cultural factors the talents from
all walks of life amalgamate together to overcome the situation and rectify the
problem. Quantitative techniques had facilitated the organization in solving
complex problems on time with greater accuracy. The historical development will
facilitate in managerial decision-making & resource allocation, The methodology
helps us in studying the scientific methods with respect to phenomenon
connected with human behavior like formulating the problem, defining decision
variable and constraints, developing a suitable model, acquiring the input data,
solving the model, validating the model, implementing the results. The major
advantage of mathematical model is that its facilitates in taking decision faster
and more accurately.
Managerial activities have become complex and it is necessary to make right

decisions to avoid heavy losses. Whether it is a manufacturing unit, or a service
organization, the resources have to be utilized to its maximum in an efficient
manner. The future is clouded with uncertainty and fast changing, and decision-
making – a crucial activity – cannot be made on a trial-and-error basis or by using
a thumb rule approach. In such situations, there is a greater need for applying
scientific methods to decision-making to increase the probability of coming up
with good decisions. Quantitative Technique is a scientific approach to managerial
decision-making. The successful use of Quantitative Technique for management
would help the organization in solving complex problems on time, with greater
accuracy and in the most economical way. Today, several scientific management
techniques are available to solve managerial problems and use of these
techniques helps managers become explicit about their objectives and provides
additional information to select an optimal decision.
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Methodology of Quantitative Techniques
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Scope of Quantitative Technique
The scope and areas of application of scientific management are very wide in engineering and
management studies. Today, there are a number at quantitative software packages available to
solve the problems using computers. This helps the analysts and researchers to take accurate and
timely decisions. This book is brought out with computer based problem solving. A few specific
areas are mentioned below.
1. Finance and Accounting: Cash flow analysis, Capital budgeting, Dividend and Portfolio
management, Financial planning.
2. Marketing Management: Selection of product mix, Sales resources allocation and
Assignments.
3. Production Management: Facilities planning, Manufacturing, Aggregate planning,
Inventory control, Quality control, Work scheduling, Job sequencing, Maintenance and
Project planning and scheduling.
4. Personnel Management: Manpower planning, Resource allocation, Staffing, Scheduling
of training programmers.
5. General Management: Decision Support System and Management of Information
Systems, MIS, Organizational design and control, Software Process Management and
Knowledge Management.
From the various definitions of Quantitative Technique it is clear that scientific management hen
got wide scope. In general, whenever there is any problem simple or complicated the scientific
management technique can be applied to find the best solutions. In this head we shall try to find
the scope of M.S. by seeing its application in various fields of everyday lift this include define
operation too.
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Set Theory
Set Theory is the mathematical science of the infinite. It studies properties of sets, abstract
objects that pervade the whole of modern mathematics. The language of set theory, in its
simplicity, is sufficiently universal to formalize all mathematical concepts and thus set theory,
along with Predicate Calculus, constitutes the true Foundations of Mathematics. As a
mathematical theory, Set Theory possesses a rich internal structure, and its methods serve as a
powerful tool for applications in many other fields of Mathematics. Set Theory, with its
emphasis on consistency and independence proofs, provides a gauge for measuring the
consistency strength of various mathematical statements. There are four main directions of
current research in set theory, all intertwined and all aiming at the ultimate goal of the theory: to
describe the structure of the mathematical universe. They are: inner models, independence
proofs, large cardinals, and descriptive set theory.
The following basic facts are excerpted from “Introduction to Set Theory,” Third Edition, by
Karel Hrbacek and Thomas Jech, published by Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York 1999.
1. Ordered Pairs
2. Relations
3. Functions
4. Natural Numbers
5. Cardinalities of Sets
6. Finite Sets
7. Countable Sets
8. Real Numbers
9. Uncountable Sets
Applications
Nearly all mathematical concepts are now defined formally in terms of sets and set theoretic
concepts. For example, mathematical structures as diverse as graphs, manifolds, rings, and vector
spaces are all defined as sets having various (axiomatic) properties. Equivalence and order
relations are ubiquitous in mathematics, and the theory of relations is entirely grounded in set
theory.
Set theory is also a promising foundational system for much of mathematics. Since the
publication of the first volume of Principia Mathematica, it has been claimed that most or even
all mathematical theorems can be derived using an aptly designed set of axioms for set theory,
augmented with many definitions, using first or second order logic. For example, properties of
the natural and real numbers can be derived within set theory, as each number system can be
identified with a set of equivalence classes under a suitable equivalence relation whose field is
some infinite set.
Set theory as a foundation for mathematical analysis, topology, abstract algebra, and discrete
mathematics is likewise uncontroversial; mathematicians accept that (in principle) theorems in
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these areas can be derived from the relevant definitions and the axioms of set theory. Few full
derivations of complex mathematical theorems from set theory have been formally verified,
however, because such formal derivations are often much longer than the natural language proofs
mathematicians commonly present. One verification project, Metamath, includes derivations of
more than 10,000 theorems starting from the ZFC axioms and using first order logic.
Logarithms
The logarithm is perhaps the single, most useful arithmetic concept in all the sciences; and an
understanding of them is essential to an understanding of many scientific ideas. Logarithms may
be defined and introduced in several different ways. But for our purposes, let's adopt a simple
approach. This approach originally arose out of a desire to simplify multiplication and division to
the level of addition and subtraction. Of course, in this era of the cheap hand calculator, this is
not necessary anymore but it still serves as a useful way to introduce logarithms.
Important Facts and Formulae
Logarithm: If a is a positive real number, other than 1 and am = X, then we write:
m = loga x and we say that the value of log x to the base a is m.
Example:
(i) 103 = 1000 => log10 1000 = 3
(ii) 2-3 = 1/8 => log2 1/8 = - 3

(iii) 34 = 81 => log3 81=4
(iiii) (.1)2 = .01 => log(.l) .01 = 2.
Properties of Logarithms:
1. loga(xy) = loga x + loga y
2. loga (x/y) = loga x - loga y
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3.logx x=1
4. loga 1 = 0
5.loga(xp)=p(logax) 1
6. logax =1/logx a
7. logax = logb x/logb a=log x/log a.
Remember: When base is not mentioned, it is taken as 10.

Common Logarithms:
Logarithms to the base 10 are known as common logarithms.
The logarithm of a number contains two parts, namely characteristic and mantissa.
Characteristic: The integral part of the logarithm of a number is called its characteristic.
Case I: When the number is greater than 1.
In this case, the characteristic is one less than the number of digits in the left of the decimal point
in the given number.
Case II: When the number is less than 1.
In this case, the characteristic is one more than the number of zeros between the decimal point
and the first significant digit of the number and it is negative.
Instead of - 1, - 2, etc. we write, 1 (one bar), 2 (two bar), etc.
Example:
Number Characteristic Number Characteristic
348.25 2 0.6173 1
46.583 1 0.03125 2
9.2193 0 0.00125 3
Mantissa: The decimal part of the logarithm of a number is known is its mantissa. For mantissa,
we look through log table.
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Linear Programming
Linear programming is a widely used mathematical modeling technique to determine the

optimum allocation of scarce resources among competing demands. Resources typically include
raw materials, manpower, machinery, time, money and space. The technique is very powerful
and found especially useful because of its application to many different types of real business
problems in areas like finance, production, sales and distribution, personnel, marketing and many
more areas of management. As its name implies, the linear programming model consists of linear
objectives and linear constraints, which
means that the variables in a model have a proportionate relationship. For example, an increase
in manpower resource will result in an increase in work output.
Essentials of Linear Programming Model
For a given problem situation, there are certain essential conditions that need to be
solved by using linear programming.
1. Limited resources : limited number of labour, material equipment and finance
2. Objective : refers to the aim to optimize (maximize the profits or minimize the costs).
3. Linearity : increase in labour input will have a proportionate increase in output.
4. Homogeneity : the products, workers' efficiency, and machines are assumed to be identical.
5. Divisibility : it is assumed that resources and products can be divided into fractions. (in case
the fractions are not possible, like production of one-third of a computer, a modification of
linear programming called integer programming can be used).
Properties of Linear Programming Model
The following properties form the linear programming model:

1. Relationship among decision variables must be linear in nature.
2. A model must have an objective function.
3. Resource constraints are essential.
4. A model must have a non-negativity constraint.
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Formulation of Linear Programming
Formulation of linear programming is the representation of problem situation in a mathematical

form. It involves well defined decision variables, with an objective function and set of
constraints.
Objective function
The objective of the problem is identified and converted into a suitable objective function. The
objective function represents the aim or goal of the system (i.e., decision variables) which has to
be determined from the problem. Generally, the objective in most cases will be either to
maximize resources or profits or, to minimize the cost or time. For example, assume that a
furniture manufacturer produces tables and chairs. If the manufacturer wants to maximize his
profits, he has to determine the optimal quantity of
tables and chairs to be produced.
Let
x1 = Optimal production of tables
p1 = Profit from each table sold
x2 = Optimal production of chairs
p2 = Profit from each chair sold.
Hence,
Total profit from tables = p1 x1

Total profit from chairs = p2 x2
The objective function is formulated as below,
Maximize Z or Zmax = p1 x1 + p2 x2
Constraints
When the availability of resources are in surplus, there will be no problem in making decisions.
But in real life, organizations normally have scarce resources within which the job has to be
performed in the most effective way. Therefore, problem situations are within confined limits in
which the optimal solution to the problem must be found. Considering the previous example of
furniture manufacturer, let w be the amount of wood available to produce tables and chairs. Each
unit of table consumes w1 unit of
wood and each unit of chair consumes w2 units of wood. For the constraint of raw material
availability, the mathematical expression is, w1 x1 + w2 x2 £ w
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In addition to raw material, if other resources such as labour, machinery and time are also
considered as constraint equations.
Non-negativity constraint
Negative values of physical quantities are impossible, like producing negative number of chairs,
tables, etc., so it is necessary to include the element of non-negativity as a constraint i.e., x1, x2 ³
0
Example for Linear Programming by Graphical Method
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Matrix
A matrix is an ordered set of numbers listed rectangular form.
Example. Let A denote the matrix
[2 5 7 8]
[5 6 8 9]
[3 9 0 1]
This matrix A has three rows and four columns. We say it is a 3 x 4 matrix.
We denote the element on the second row and fourth column with a2,4.
Properties of Addition
The basic properties of addition for real numbers also hold true for matrices.
Let A, B and C be m x n matrices
1. A + B = B + A commutative
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C associative
3. There is a unique m x n matrix O with
A+O = A additive identity
4. For any m x n matrix A there is an m x n matrix B (called -A) with
A+B = O additive inverse
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
Unlike matrix addition, the properties of multiplication of real numbers do not all generalize to
matrices. Matrices rarely commute even if AB and BA are both defined. There often is no
multiplicative inverse of a matrix, even if the matrix is a square matrix. There are a few
properties of multiplication of real numbers that generalize to matrices. We state them now.
Let A, B and C be matrices of dimensions such that the following are defined. Then
1. A(BC) = (AB)C associative
2. A(B + C) = AB + AC distributive
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3. (A + B)C = AC + BC distributive
4. There are unique matrices Im and In with
Im A = A In = A multiplicative identity
Solving Linear Systems of Equations as Application
Reduced Row Echelon Form
When solving linear systems, we first transform the system into an augmented matrix. At that
point our goal is to transform the matrix into an "easier" matrix whose corresponding linear
system has the same solution set. We now defined what it means for a matrix to be "easier".
Definition
An m x n matrix is in reduced row echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:
1. All zero rows, if any, are at the bottom of the matrix
2. The first nonzero entry of each row is a one. This one is called the leading one or the
corner.
3. Each corner is to the right and below the preceding corner.
4. The columns containing a leading one have zeros in all other entries.
If only 1, 2, and 3 are satisfied, then the matrix is in row echelon form.
Example
Of the following three matrices,
The A and B are in rref, while C is not.
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The main purpose of putting a matrix in rref is that this form makes the solution of the linear
system easy to identify. For example A corresponds to the system
x1 = 4 x2 = 2 x3 = x3
or in parametric form we get the line
x1 = 4 x2 = 2 x3 = t
B corresponds to the system
x1 + 3x3 = 5 x2 - x3 = 0 x3 = x3
This also gives us a line. In parametric form it is
x1 = 5 - 3t x2 = t x3 = t
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Data Analysis
Data and Statistical data:
Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of
quantitative data and the use of probability theory to estimate population parametersStatistical
methods can be used to summarize or describe a collection of data; this is called descriptive
statistics.
Data: A collection of values to be used for statistical analysis.

A dictionary defines data as facts or figures from which conclusions may be drawn. Data may
consist of numbers, words, or images, particularly as measurements or observations of a set of
variables. Data are often viewed as a lowest level of abstraction from which information and
knowledge are derived. Thus, technically, it is a collective or plural noun.
Datum is the singular form of the noun data. Data can be classified as either numeric or
nonnumeric. Specific terms are used as follows:
Types of Data
Qualitative data are nonnumeric.
1. {Poor, Fair, Good, Better, Best}, colors (ignoring any physical causes), and types of
material {straw, sticks, bricks} are examples of qualitative data.
2. Qualitative data are often termed categorical data. Some books use the terms individual
and variable to reference the objects and characteristics described by a set of data. They
also stress the importance of exact definitions of these variables, including what units
they are recorded in. The reason the data were collected is also important.
Quantitative data are numeric.
Quantitative data are further classified as either discrete or continuous.

Discrete data are numeric data that have a finite number of possible values.
o A classic example of discrete data is a finite subset of the counting numbers,

{1,2,3,4,5} perhaps corresponding to {Strongly Disagree... Strongly Agree}.
When data represent counts, they are discrete. An example might be how many
students were absent on a given day. Counts are usually considered exact and integer.
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Continuous data have infinite possibilities: 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.141421...
The real numbers are continuous with no gaps or interruptions. Physically

measureable quantities of length, volume, time, mass, etc. are generally
considered continuous. At the physical level (microscopically), especially for
mass, this may not be true, but for normal life situations is a valid assumption.
Data analysis is a process of gathering, modeling, and transforming data with the goal of
highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. Data
analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of
names, in different business, science, and social science domains.
Frequency Distribution:
The distribution of empirical data is called a frequency distribution and consists of a count of the
number of occurrences of each value. If the data are continuous, then a grouped frequency
distribution
is used. Typically, a distribution is portrayed using a frequency polygon or a histogram.

Mathematical distributions are often used to define distributions. The normal distribution is,
perhaps, the best known example. Many empirical distributions are approximated well by
mathematical distributions such as the normal distribution.
Grouped Frequency Distribution A grouped frequency distribution is a frequency distribution

in which frequencies are displayed for ranges of data rather than for individual values. For
example, the distribution of heights might be calculated by defining one-inch ranges. The
frequency of individuals with various heights rounded off to the nearest inch would be then be
tabulated.
Graphical presentation of Frequency distribution:
Histogram:
A histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequencies. A histogram is the graphical version
of a table that shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several or many specified
categories.
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Example of a histogram of 100 values
Advantages
• Visually strong
• Can compare to normal curve
• Usually vertical axis is a frequency count of items falling into each category
Disadvantages
• Cannot read exact values because data is grouped into categories

• More difficult to compare two data sets
• Use only with continuous data
Frequency Polygons:
Frequency polygons are a graphical device for understanding the shapes of distributions. They
serve the same purpose as histograms, but are especially helpful in comparing sets of data.
Frequency polygons are also a good choice for displaying cumulative frequency distributions.
To create a frequency polygon, start just as for histograms, by choosing a class interval. Then
draw an X-axis representing the values of the scores in your data. Mark the middle of each class
interval with a tick mark, and label it with the middle value represented by the class. Draw the Y-
axis to indicate the frequency of each class. Place a point in the middle of each class interval at
the height corresponding to its frequency. Finally, connect the points. You should include one
class interval below the lowest value in your data and one above the highest value. The graph
will then touch the X-axis on both sides.
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Advantages
• Visually appealing
• Can compare to normal curve
• Can compare two data sets
Disadvantages
• Anchors at both ends may imply zero as data points

Frequency Curve:
A smooth curve which corresponds to the limiting case of a histogram computed for a frequency distribution of a co
the number of data points becomes very large.
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Advantages
• Visually appealing
Disadvantages
• Anchors at both ends may imply zero as data points

Describing Data
Numerically
Center and Variation

Other Measures
Location
of Location
Range
Mean
Percentiles
Variance
Median
Quartiles Standard
Deviation
Mode
Interquartile
Weighted Range
Mean
Coefficient
of Variation
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Measures of Center and Location
Center and Location
Mean Median Mode Weighted Mean
∑w x
n
∑x i
XW =
i i
x=
∑w
i=1
n i
∑x
N
i µW =
∑ wx i i
µ= i=1
N
Mean (Arithmetic Average)
∑w i
The Mean is the arithmetic average of data values
Sample mean
n = Sample Size
n
∑ x i
x + x + L + x
x = i= 1
= 1 2 n
n n
N = Population Size
N
∑ i= 1
x i
x + x + L + x
µ = = 1 2 N
N N
Population mean
The most common measure of central tendency

Mean = sum of values divided by the number of values
Affected by extreme values (outliers)
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Median
In an ordered array, the median is the “middle” number

If n or N is odd, the median is the middle number
If n or N is even, the median is the average of the two middle numbers
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Median = 3 Median = 3
Mode
A measure of central tendency

Value that occurs most often
Not affected by extreme values
Used for either numerical or categorical data
There may may be no mode
There may be several modes
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Mode = 5 No Mode
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mean = 3 Mean = 4
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 15 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 10 20
= =4
= =3 5 5
5 5
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Weighted Mean
Used when values are grouped by frequency or relative importance
Example: Sample of
26 Repair Projects
Weighted Mean Days
Days to Frequency to Complete:
Complete
5 4 XW =
∑w x
i i
=
(4× 5) + (12× 6) + (8× 7) + (2× 8)
6 12 ∑w i 4 + 12 + 8 + 2
7 8 164
= = 6.31 days
8 2 26
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Shape of a Distribution
Describes how data is distributed

Symmetric or skewed
Left-Skewed Symmetric Right-Skewed
Mean < Median < Mode Mean = Median = Mode Mode < Median < Mean
(Longer tail extends to left) (Longer tail extends to right)
Other Location Measures
Other Measures
of Location
Percentiles Quartiles
The pth percentile in a data array: 1st quartile = 25th percentile

p% are less than or equal to this
value
2nd quartile = 50th percentile
(100 – p)% are greater than or = median
equal to this value
(where 0 ≤ p ≤ 100) 3rd quartile = 75th percentile
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Quartiles
Quartiles split the ranked data into 4 equal groups
25% 25% 25% 25%
A Graphical display of data using 5-number summary:

Minimum -- Q1 -- Median -- Q3 -- Maximum
Shape of Box and Whisker Plots
The Box and central line are centered between the endpoints if data is symmetric around the median
A Box and Whisker plot can be shown in either vertical or horizontal format
Distribution Shape and Box and Whisker Plot
Left-Skewed Symmetric Right-Skewed
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3
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Measures of Variation
Variation
Range Variance Standard Deviation Coefficient of

Variation
Interquartile Population Population

Variance Standard
Range
Deviation
Sample Sample
Variance Standard
Deviation
Variation
Measures of variation give information on the spread or variability of the data values.
Range
Simplest measure of variation

Difference between the largest and the smallest observations:
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Range = xmaximum – xminimum
Example:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Range = 14 - 1 = 13
Interquartile Range
Can eliminate some outlier problems by using the interquartile range

Eliminate some high-and low-valued observations and calculate the range from the remaining
alues.
Interquartile range = 3rd quartile – 1st quartile Interquartile Range
Example:
Median X
X Q1 Q3 maximum
minimum (Q2)
25% 25% 25% 25%
12 30 45 57 70
Interquartile range
= 57 – 30 = 27
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Variance
Average of squared deviations of values from the mean
Sample variance:
∑ (x i − x ) 2
s 2
= i= 1
n - 1
∑ (x i − µ) 2
σ 2
= i= 1
N
Population variance:
∑ (x i − x ) 2
s = i= 1
n - 1
∑ (x i − µ) 2
σ = i= 1
N
Standard Deviation
Most commonly used measure of variation

Shows variation about the mean
Has the same units as the original data
Sample standard deviation:
∑
i =
(x i − x ) 2
s = 1
n - 1
∑ (x i − µ) 2
σ = i = 1
N
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Population standard deviation:
Comparing Standard Deviations
Data A
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = 3.338
Data B
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = .9258
Data C
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 s = 4.57
Coefficient of Variation
Measures relative variation

Always in percentage (%)
Shows variation relative to mean
Is used to compare two or more sets of data measured in different units
Population Sample
 σ  s 
CV =   ⋅ 100% CV =   ⋅100%

µ  x 
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The Empirical Rule
If the data distribution is bell-shaped, then the interval:

µ ± 1σ contains about 68% of the values in the population or the sample
68%
µ
µ ± 1σ

µ ± 2σ contains about 95% of the values in the population or the sample

µ ± 3σcontains about 99.7% of the values in the population or the sample
95% 99.7%
Tchebysheff’s Theorem
µ ± 2σ µ ± 3σ
Regardless of how the data are distributed, at least (1 - 1/k2) of the values will fall within k
standard deviations of the mean
Examples:
(1 - 1/12) = 0% ……..... k=1 (µ ± 1σ)
(1 - 1/22) = 75% …........k=2 (µ ± 2σ)
(1 - 1/32) = 89% ………. k=3 (µ ± 3σ)
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Methods of Time Series

Time Series
Time series is set of data collected and arranged in accordance of time. According to
Croxton and Cowdon,”A Time series consists of data arranged chronologically.” Such data
may be series of temperature of patients, series showing number of suicides in different months
of year etc. The analysis of time series means separating out different components which
influences values of series. The variations in the time series can be divided into two parts: long
term variations and short term variations. Long term variations can be divided into two parts:
Trend or Secular Trend and Cyclical variations. Short term variations can be divided into two
parts: Seasonal variations and Irregular Variations.
VARIATIONS IN
TIME SERIES
LONG TERM SHORT TERM

VARIATIONS VARIATIONS
CYLICAL SEASONAL IRREGULAR

TREND
VARIATIONS VARIATIONS VARIATIONS
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Wrapping Up
Quantitative Techniques adopt a scientific approach to decision-making. In this approach, past

data is used in determining decisions that would prove most valuable in the future. The use of
past data in a systematic manner and constructing it into a suitable model for future use
comprises a major part of scientific management. For example, consider a person investing in
fixed deposit in a bank, or in shares of a company, or mutual funds, or in Life Insurance
Corporation. The expected return on investments will vary depending upon the interest and
time period. We can use the scientific management analysis to find
out how much the investments made will be worth in the future. There are many scientific
method software packages that have been developed to determine and analyze the problems.
Quantitative Technique is the scientific way to managerial decision-making, while emotion and
guess work are not part of the scientific management approach. This approach starts with data.
Like raw material for a factory, this data is manipulated or processed into information that is
valuable to people making decision. This processing and manipulating of raw data into
meaningful information is the heart of scientific management analysis.
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Quantitative Techniques

Name of Student Mr. Barhate Mangesh Tukaram

Scientific methods have been man’s outstanding asset to pursue an ample

Managerial activities have become complex and it is necessary to make right

Methodology of Quantitative Techniques

Scope of Quantitative Technique

Important Facts and Formulae

Logarithm: If a is a positive real number, other than 1 and am = X, then we write:

m = loga x and we say that the value of log x to the base a is m.

(ii) 2-3 = 1/8 => log2 1/8 = - 3

(iiii) (.1)2 = .01 => log(.l) .01 = 2.

1. loga(xy) = loga x + loga y

2. loga (x/y) = loga x - loga y

Remember: When base is not mentioned, it is taken as 10.

Instead of - 1, - 2, etc. we write, 1 (one bar), 2 (two bar), etc.

Number Characteristic Number Characteristic

Linear programming is a widely used mathematical modeling technique to determine the

Essentials of Linear Programming Model

Properties of Linear Programming Model

The following properties form the linear programming model:

Formulation of Linear Programming

Formulation of linear programming is the representation of problem situation in a mathematical

Total profit from tables = p1 x1

Example for Linear Programming by Graphical Method

Let A, B and C be m x n matrices

3. There is a unique m x n matrix O with

A+O = A additive identity

4. For any m x n matrix A there is an m x n matrix B (called -A) with

A+B = O additive inverse

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

1. A(BC) = (AB)C associative

4. There are unique matrices Im and In with

Solving Linear Systems of Equations as Application

Reduced Row Echelon Form

An m x n matrix is in reduced row echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:

1. All zero rows, if any, are at the bottom of the matrix

3. Each corner is to the right and below the preceding corner.

Of the following three matrices,

The A and B are in rref, while C is not.

or in parametric form we get the line

B corresponds to the system

This also gives us a line. In parametric form it is

Data: A collection of values to be used for statistical analysis.

Quantitative data are numeric.

Quantitative data are further classified as either discrete or continuous.

o A classic example of discrete data is a finite subset of the counting numbers,

The real numbers are continuous with no gaps or interruptions. Physically

is used. Typically, a distribution is portrayed using a frequency polygon or a histogram.

Grouped Frequency Distribution A grouped frequency distribution is a frequency distribution

Graphical presentation of Frequency distribution:

Example of a histogram of 100 values

• Cannot read exact values because data is grouped into categories

• Anchors at both ends may imply zero as data points

• Anchors at both ends may imply zero as data points

Center and Variation

Measures of Center and Location

Center and Location

Mean Median Mode Weighted Mean

The Mean is the arithmetic average of data values

The most common measure of central tendency