Discuss how an understanding of motivations behind stalkers might help in the

management of such offenders and in reducing recidivism rates.

Stalking is a psychological behaviour that has physical and mental

debilitating consequences. It is defined as a deliberate pattern of persistent
intrusive and intimidating behaviour toward a particular person that makes the
victim feel harassed, threatened, and fearful (Miller, 2012). Though the nature of
stalking has been rooted throughout history, stalking became most prevalent in
the 1990s as a result of celebrity stalking and other prominent figures. By 2010,
stalking was deemed as a crime in Scotland and in England and Wales in
November 2012 (www.bbc.co.uk,2014). Prior to stalking being made against the
law within itself it was categorized under the Protection from Harassment Act,
which was passed in England and Wales in June 1997 (British Medical Journal,
2000). Stalking is understood to be motivated by varying obsessional behaviours.
The motivations of a stalker are guided by a neurotic belief in a romantic
relationship, an infatuation with a prior intimate, a vicious yearning to terrorize a
random victim, or a psychotic sensibility of identifying with the victim. The topic
for this essay is to discuss how an understanding of motivations behind stalkers
might help in the management of such offenders and in reducing recidivism
rates. This essay will aim to demonstrate how understanding a stalkers
motivation will lead to a greater understanding of how to manage stalkers, thus
reducing recidivism.
Because of the devastating effects on the victim such as fear it causes
them, violence towards them(mainly from ex-intimates), and the constant
disruption in every area of their lives, stalking has become a world wide
phenomenon. According to the stalking risk profile, victims are tormented with
anxiety, agoraphobia (afraid to leave their home), symptoms of PTSD,
depression, fear, and a host of many other crippling profound effects to the
victims wellbeing (Stalking Risk Profile, 2011). In the beginning, stalking was
most prevalent in the 1990s as a result of celebrity stalking (Stalking Risk
Profile, 2011). However, now anyone and everyone can be affected
(www.ncvc.org, 2002). Virtually, there is not any one specific kind of a stalker;
anyone from any socio-economic background can be categorized as a stalker
(www.ncvc.org,2002).

Through research studies, surveys, and victim testimonies there have

been great strides in understanding the stalker. Paul Mullen, Michele Pathe,
Rosemary Purcell were the first to develop a system called the Stalking Risk
Profile(SRP) to classify the typology of a stalker which in turn helped to
understand a stalkers motives(Stalking Risk Profile, 2011). The typologies were
found to be categorized as, rejected stalker, resentful stalker, intimacy seeking
stalker, incompetent suitor, and predatory stalker (Australian Stalking
Information, 2010). The predatory stalker was found to stalk the victim to
sexually attack her; the motivation here is rejection. The resentful stalker is
someone who feels they have been mistreated or that they are the victim of
some type of scrutiny or injustice. Severe mental illness was found to cause
paranoia in the resentful stalker making the stalker believe the victim has done
something wrong. The resentful stalker believes stalking is a way of getting
revenge or levelling the playing the field (Australian Stalking Information, 2010).
The rejected stalker starts stalking after the breakup of a close relationship,
typically an intimate relationship; however family, close friends or co-workers
that were very close with the stalker can become a target of a rejected stalker.
The motivation of a rejected stalker can be to repair the relationship, or evoke
revenge because of the rejection (Australian Stalking Information, 2010). The
intimacy seeking stalker is someone who is lonely, rather it be an intimate
partner or a close friend. This type of stalker has a mental illness that
incorporates delusional beliefs about the victim, such as the idea that they are in
a relationship, besides the fact the relationship does not exist (erotomania)
(Australian Stalking Information, 2010). The incompetent suitor normally stalks
because of loneliness or lust and targets strangers or acquaintances. The
motivation for this stalker is to obtain a date for a short term, but when they do
continue to prey their actions are managed because they are undiscerning of the
torture to the victim (Australian Stalking Information, 2010). Through identifying
the typology of a stalker Mullen, Pathe, and Purcell were able to identify the
motivation of the stalker. They also concluded that motivation is another type of
typology (Australian Stalking Information, 2010). Motivation was found to
embody the intimacy seeking, resentful, predatory, and rejected stalker. Because
of the typologies using the SRP, professionals are able to understand that the
motivation is rooted from obsession and control (Australian Stalking Information,
2010). Although typologies aided in understanding the different types of stalkers,
there were still problematic flaws with narrowing the motivations (obsessions)
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down to one specific stalker (Mullen, 2011). To add, the typology correlated with
the diagnosis; for example, the SRP found that the presence of psychotic
breakdown with maniac delusions is expected to raise the risk of violence
(Managing Risks in Stalking Situations, 2006).
A stalker is generally not motivated from sex, but varying behaviours of
obsession and control (British Medical Journal, 2000). According to the Australian
Stalking Information, stalking is not a mental disorder, but behaviour. Through
professionals understanding that although many stalkers have mental disorders,
there are some who do not; some suffer from substance abuse (The Psychology
of Stalking, 1998). Through court ordered sanctions to mental health
professionals it has been proven that treatment is not effective (Journal of the
American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 2006). Studies have proven that
the longer the behaviour of stalking has existed, the longer it will continue
(Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 2006). The only
study that has been reported, reported that in recidivism rates almost half of the
offenders, reoffended, with most returning to stalking within a year (Journal of
the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 2006). The offenders that
were more prone to reoffend were the personality disordered, certainly if they
were substance abusers (Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the
Law, 2006).
Now that through research we have acquired the knowledge of the
motivations of a stalker and we can now use the knowledge to manage the
behaviour of a stalker through implementing methods of risk assessment and
therapeutic interventions (MacKenzie and James, 2011). The danger of
recurrence may be deducted through the unified advancement of the probability
plan to deal with future precarious predicaments, in addition to the
environmental and the social, as well as direct emotional states (MacKenzie and
James, 2011). What professionals are overlooking is believed anecdotally, that
the obsession of stalking can be attributed to childhood. Maybe the person was
neglected in childhood, suffered child abuse, felt inadequate growing up, or
simply wasnt affirmed enough as a child. Nevertheless, by understanding the
motivations we can use the knowledge that is obtained as a guide to intervene
and manage the behaviour (Stalking Risk Profile, 2011). This can be done by
knowing their characteristics. The profile of a stalker tells a lot about the
ideology of the stalker. To know a man, one must walk in his shoes. That being
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said, knowing, not perceiving a stalkers reason for obsession will enable
professionals to better educate themselves by learning the methods to help the
stalker overcome their specific deficiency, such as conflict resolution, emotional
regulation, and social and communication skills (McKenzie and James, 2011). The
methods that are used are proven to have empirical validity such as, cognitive
behavioural and behavioural therapy techniques, including social cognition
theory and the relapse prevention paradigm. These methods are used in
conjunction with conflict resolution, emotional regulation, and social and
communication skills (MacKenzie and James, 2011). There are different
management techniques used with the varying characteristics of a stalker.
The SRP was a great way to lead the battle in understanding the
motivations of a stalker and how to manage them by correlating the behaviour
with the stalker, but like all discoveries still poses varying weaknesses. By using
the typologies, the stalkers are being grouped together because of their similar
behaviours, but just like identical twins, nobody is completely the same in
nature. Treating and managing the stalker as the same as the other stalker in the
behavioural category is why there has been less recidivism rates (Stalking Risk
Profile, 2011). To support this claim, the trauma and mental health report
suggest that stalkers should be managed individually, and not in group setting
(The trauma and mental health report, 2012).
After analysing the motivations of a stalker, which were found by Mullen,
Pathe, and Purcell to be love, revenge, and rejection, we are now able to assess
the behaviour. (Stalking Risk Profile, 2011). The types of obsessive motivations
play in the roles of different types of stalking are in three categories which are,
erotomania, the love obsessed, and simple obsessed. Erotomania is the
feeling of genuinely believing the victim is in love with them. Which Segways to
love obsession. The love obsessional stalker involves 20-25% of cases and
compromises 42% of stalkers ( Australian stalking information, 2010). The love
obsessional stalker can either be a stranger or platonic acquaintance of the
victim. The love obsessed stalker develops a fixation on the victim with whom
they have had no sexual or intimate relationship with. At the beginning, the
motivation is to make the victim cognizant of the stalkers presence.
Subsequently the stalker expects the victim to reciprocate the feelings of the
stalker. Because of this obsession, most celebrity stalkers come under this
category. Simple Obsessional stalkers comprise about 48% of stalkers. These
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stalking cases range from 70%-80% which are dominated by males (Heffernan,
2014). They display traits of extreme jealousy, insecurity, paranoia, and feelings
of helplessness and powerlessness (Stalking resources, 2010). Usually these
stalkers are ex- partners and incapable of letting the relationship end. The
obsession starts after the relationship has terminated or is about to end. The
motivation behind this obsession is purely to restore the relationship or to obtain
a form of retaliation.
The difficulty in starting and maintaining intimate relationships are the
fundamental grounds for many stalking incidents; through improving this aspect
of the objective, it can lead to not only dissolving the current behaviour of
stalking, but can in fact reduce recidivism (The trauma and health report, 2012).
It was reported that the stalkers motivated by a vengeful grudge, had an intense
sensitivity to the disorientation, discomfort and petrifaction derived by their
activities. As a result of the sensitivity, specialist developed programs to increase
victim empathy (The trauma and health report, 2012).
According to the literature, we cannot reduce such motivations during
treatment because the underlying problem is not the obsession, but in fact many
stalkers are suffering from serious mental disorders (www.fixatedthread.com,
2011). Schizophrenia, bipolar affective disorder, and delusional disorders are
among the most common causes found to occur in stalkers
(www.fixatedthread.com,2011). Antipsychotic medications have been used to
treat the behaviour of stalking, but were proved not to work due to the violent
nature of some stalkers (www.fixatedthread.com,2011). The risk of relapsing
posed a serious threat not only to the victim, but to the stalker as well
(www.fixatedthread, 2011).
While there is not much literature on managing a stalker effectively, evidence
does show that the greatest step in the link between knowing a stalkers
motivation and being able to manage them is treating them as person and not
criminal (The Guardian, 2013). Identifying a stalkers motivation has been found
to aid in developing a risk assessment (Currentpsychiatry, 2012). Although we
have advanced over the years of awareness of the nature of stalking and now
have practical suggestions on how to manage stalking and intervene through the
use of treatments and therapy both the victim and the stalker, using risk
assessment, risk assessment has proven to be inadequate when treated with
stalkers (www.ncvc.org, 2002).
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However, knowledge alone does not mean that we will be able to reduce
recidivism in stalkers, but it does mean we can understand them on a much
wider spectrum and help treat them accordingly (The Journal of the American
Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 2006). Through understanding a stalkers
motivation for intruding on their victims lives, it is concluded that we must
bypass the outer elements to their behaviour such as their obsessions and look
into their nucleus, such as their core drives, derived from their childhood. In
order to attempt to reduce recidivism in these stalkers we have discussed, we
must treat them appropriately according to their classifications (The Journal of
the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 2006). The risk management
of a predatory stalker who is motivated by a sexual nature is best managed in a
sex offender treatment programme, with an emphasis on a paraphilia nature,
known to be sex gratification from fantasy (Heffernan, 2014). The intimacy
stalker is best suited in a mental health treatment program for erotomania, along
with celebrity stalkers. Lastly, the rejected stalker needs a more thorough
probation and harsher parole condition, because they do not respond likely to
psychotherapy or pharmacological treatment. The object here is to protect the
victim because the risk of violence is extremely high.
Although we have understanding of the motivations behind stalkers
that can lead to better management of such offenders and perhaps one day
reduces recidivism, the motivations behind this new era of stalking are not as
hopeful in the management or hopes to reduce recidivism (Cyberstalking,
Stalking Risk Profile, 2011). Cyberstalking is defined as using the internet or
other electronic means as a way to harass, intimidate, threaten, monitor or make
unwanted advances towards another (Stalking Risk Profile, 2011). Seeking a
romantic relationship, revenge for actual or perceived wrong, hate, rejection, or
delusional attachment to the victim whether it be romantic or platonic, and more
commonly, randomly attacking, are all motivations of a cyberstalker (Stalking
Risk Profile, 2011). Cyberstalking is motivated by similar elements much like
face-to-face stalking. Cyberstalking has become increasingly common than faceto-face stalking because it does not entail physical contact (National Centre for
Cyberstalking Research). Again, one strength we have here is understanding the
motivation behind cyberstalking, but because they are online cyberstalkers, they
cannot be managed (Cyberstalking, Stalking Risk Profile, 2011). We have yet to
learn about why a cyberstalker chooses a completely random stranger and starts
terrorizing them. What are their motivations? This question has still not been
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assessed (Stalking Risk Profile, 2011). Research is still needed to contribute

direction and results (Boon and Sheridan, 2002).
In conclusion, after analysing the motivations of a stalker, it is
evident that, although we understand the motivations of a stalker, managing the
behaviour proves to be problematic. In every case, whether stalking or any other
crime, the motive is the key to starting the ignition. Love, rejection, and revenge
were the motivations of the stalkers which ignited the behaviour into an
obsession. When discussing how motivations help in the management of
stalkers and reducing recidivism, the evidence that was ascertained lead to the
belief that the role motivations play in stalking is the stepping stone to
identifying the type and characteristic of the stalker. Without the typology of the
stalker, psychiatrist and psychologist would not be able to understand how to
help such offenders. Understanding the motivations behind stalking helped to
implement therapeutic interventions and aid in the management of the
behaviour. Though much of the literature looks at the motivations, i.e the
obsessions, researchers have yet to gain knowledge of the person. It is evident
that not all stalkers share the same behaviours, why? Could the answer to not
only managing the behaviour of stalking, but reducing recidivism rely on the
stalkers childhood? Researchers have not yet placed emphasis on these posing
questions, but what is evident throughout the literature is understanding the
motivations of a stalker has lead to classifying the stalker thereby marginalizing
the characteristic behaviours of the stalker such as erotomania, love obsessional,
and simple obsessional. To reiterate, not perceiving a stalkers reason for
obsession will enable professionals to better educate themselves by learning the
methods to help the stalker overcome their specific deficiency, such as conflict
resolution, emotional regulation, and social and communication skills (McKenzie
and James, 2011). Looking ahead, more research needs to be conducted on
cyberstalking, because cyberstalking is becoming more prevalent then face-toface stalking. Consequently, further research is needed to delve into the realm
of the aspects that are related to recidivism and persistence. That can be
conducted through looking at the neurobiology of stalking. It is believed that in
the future, a greater understanding of the neurobiology of stalking, might
precede to the development of pharmacological treatments.