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Gas Turbine
TRAINING PROGRAM - PHASE IIA

FOR
LNG PLANT at DAMIETTA
Gas Turbine
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As per the provision of the CONTRACT, SEGAS are permitted to the use of this
Product for reproduction and future reference only for SEGAS internal use. No
part of this Presentation may be reproduced in any form or resold for other
purposes without written permission from The Consortium.
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Contents
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Lesson 1 : Engine Design
Lesson 11 : Lube Oil Filters & Coolers
Lesson 2 : Operating Principles
Lesson 12 : Lube Oil Instrumentation
Lesson 3 : Engine Case Air Inlet
Lesson 13 : Hydraulic Oil System
Lesson 4 : Compressor Section
Lesson 14 : Trip Oil System
Lesson 5 : Diffuser & Combustion
Lesson 15 : Fuel Systems
Lesson 6 : Turbine & Exhaust
Lesson 16 : Fuel Gas Supply System
Lesson 7 : Ignition System
Lesson 17 : Fuel Gas Control System
Lesson 8 : Bearings & Seals
Lesson 18 : Liquid Fuel System
Lesson 9 : Lubrication & Lube Oil
Lesson 10 : Lube Oil Pumps
Lesson 20 : Pneumatic Starting
End Show
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Contents
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Lesson 21 : Hydraulic Starting
Lesson 29 : Lube Oil System
Lesson 22 : Diesel Starting
Lesson 30 : Generator Components
Lesson 23 : Enclosures
Lesson 31 : Generator Control
Lesson 24 : Fire Detection
Lesson 32 : Principle of Components
Lesson 25 : Gas Detection l
Lesson 33 : Compressor
Lesson 26 : Extinguisher System
Lesson 34 : Compressor Lube Oil
Lesson 27 : Principles of Power Gen

Lesson 28 : Generator Components
End Show
Lesson 35 : Compressor Cooling l

Lesson 36 : Compressor Control
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Lesson 1: Gas Turbine Engine Design
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Introduction
Gas turbines are designed for many
different purposes. In the petroleum
industry they are commonly used to
drive:
compressors for transporting gas through
pipelines
generators that produce electrical power
In this lesson, you will learn about the basic
design of gas turbine engines, their sections,
and how they operate.
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Engine Design : Sections

The purpose of a gas turbine engine is to create
energy to turn a shaft that drives other rotating
equipment such as compressors and generators.
The figure shows a two-shaft turbine engine.
However, this lesson discusses a single-shaft
turbine engine. The operation of the two types is
similar.
A gas turbine engine is divided into five

sections:
air inlet section
compressor section
combustion section
turbine section
exhaust section
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The sections of a gas turbine are contained in the engine case. The engine
case is a horizontal tube-like container that is open at both ends.
Each section of the gas turbine has a specific function.
Engine Design: Air Inlet & Compressors
Huge quantities of air enter the case through an opening at the front end
called the engine air inlet.
After passing through the engine air inlet, the air flows to the compressor
section. The compressor section contains the first moving part, the
compressor.
Compressor wheels increase the pressure of the incoming air.
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Engine Design:
Combustion
The compressed air flows to the
combustion section of the gas turbine
engine.
As the compressed air enters the
combustion chambers, fuel is added
through nozzles. The result is a mixture of
fuel and air.
The fuel and air mixture is ignited and
burns, creating hot gases. The hot,
expanding gases flow into the turbine
section of the engine.
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Engine Design: Turbine &

Exhaust
The turbine rotors get power from the flow of gases.
This flow of gases into the turbine section causes the
turbine rotors to turn.
A single shaft gas turbine has only one major moving
part - the rotor shaft.
The turbine rotors and the compressor are mounted
on opposite ends of the same rotor shaft. This allows
the turbine rotors and compressor to work as a unit.
When the gases leave the turbine section, they return
to the atmosphere through the exhaust section.
Information about how a basic gas turbine works is
presented next.
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Air Entry and Compression :

The engine case of the gas turbine is a
tube-like container that is open at both
ends and narrow in the center.
The front end of the case contains the
compressor. The compressor draws air
into the case and increases the air
pressure by compressing (or reducing) its
volume.
In the figure, the electric fan acts as a
compressor.
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Combustion
In the narrow section of the case, the air is
compressed.
Fuel gas is injected into the compressed air
through fuel nozzles. The fuel and air are
mixed together and ignited.
Burning the fuel and air mixture creates
hot combustion gases. The heat increases
the temperature and available energy of
the gases.
A turbine captures this energy and changes
it into mechanical energy.
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Turbine Rotation
The turbine in the rear of the engine case
extracts mechanical energy from the flow of
the gases acting on the blades.
The turbine rotates because of the pressure
and velocity of the hot expanding gases
acting on the blades of the turbine.
As the hot gases pass through the turbine,
the energy in the gas is reduced.
The gases exit the rear of the case and into
the atmosphere.
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Contents
Air Entry and Compression

The engine case of the gas turbine is a
tube-like container that is open at both
ends and narrow in the center.
The front end of the case contains the
compressor. The compressor draws air
into the case and increases the air
pressure by compressing (or reducing) its
volume.
In the figure, the electric fan acts as a
compressor.
End Show
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Combustion
In the narrow section of the case, the air
is compressed.
Fuel gas is injected into the compressed
air through fuel nozzles. The fuel and air
are mixed together and ignited.
Burning the fuel and air mixture creates
hot combustion gases. The heat increases
the temperature and available energy of
the gases.
A turbine captures this energy and
changes it into mechanical energy.
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Turbine Rotation
The turbine in the rear of the engine case
extracts mechanical energy from the flow of
the gases acting on the blades.
The turbine rotates because of the pressure
and velocity of the hot expanding gases
acting on the blades of the turbine.
As the hot gases pass through the turbine,
the energy in the gas is reduced.
The gases exit the rear of the case and into
the atmosphere.
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Gas Turbine
Turbine Rotor
The turbine uses energy from the
thrust force created by the
expanding gases.
This energy is changed into shaft
horsepower to drive the turbine
compressor, the engine
accessories, and the load. Most of
this energy is expended to drive
the turbine compressor.
(Contd.)
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The main parts of a turbine are :

rotor shaft
rotor disc
rotor blades
The rotor blades (sometimes called buckets) are attached to the rotor disc.
The rotor disc is mounted on the rotor shaft. The entire assembly of blades
and disc is often called a rotor.
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Gas Turbine
Basic Operation
The figure shows how all the components
of the gas turbine engine work together.
The fan has been replaced by a single set
of compressor blades.
The compressor creates the compressed
air that is needed for combustion.
Fuel gas is mixed with the compressed air
and is ignited. The burning mixture
creates a force in the rear of the engine
case. The force is changed into rotating
mechanical energy that turns the turbine.
(Contd. )
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The turbine turns the rotor shaft that is shared by the compressor and the
turbine.
The compressor and turbine are connected to the same rotor shaft. The
rotating force of the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
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Gas Turbine
Front and Rear Drive Gas

Turbines
Some of the rotating energy created by
the gas turbine can be used to drive a
gear box or generator connected to
either end of the rotor shaft.
Depending upon where the load is
connected to the rotor shaft, the gas
turbine is referred to as a
front end drive
rear end drive
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(Contd.)
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If the shaft is lengthened on the compressor end of the engine, it is a front

end drive or a cold end drive.
If the shaft is lengthened on the turbine end of the engine, it is a rear end
drive or a hot end drive.
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Multiple Stage Compressors

Gas turbine manufacturers may place more
than one set of compressor and turbine stages
in an engine as shown in the figure.
The additional stages in the compressor
section provide more compression of the air
before combustion.
More than one stage is used in the turbine
section to extract as much power as possible
from the hot, expanding gases.
The gas turbine in the figure is a two-stage
turbine driving a three-stage compressor.
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Lesson 2 : Operating Principles

Newton's First Law of
Motion
Consortium
Newton's first law explains why a force is

needed to make the gas turbine work.
In the figure, a ball on a level table will not
move until it is made to move by some
force such as the wind or pushing it by
hand.
Similarly, until the fuel and air mixture is
burned in the gas turbine, there is no force
for the turbine to use to turn the rotor
shaft.
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Newton's Second Law of Motion

Newton's Second Law explains why the air must be
compressed and accelerated to create a force.
In the figure, a hammer is used to drive a nail. The force
of hitting the nail is proportional to the mass (weight) of
the hammer multiplied by the velocity of the hammer
when it hits the nail.
If you also use a heavier hammer, it is even easier to
drive the nail into the wood.
Mass and acceleration directly affect the amount of force
created. The more compressed air (mass) that enters the
gas turbine, the more force created from the combustion
process.
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Newton's Third Law of

Motion
Newton's Third Law explains how the action of
creating a thrust force results in the reaction of
the turbine rotating.
In the figure, a boat is near the bank of a river.
The person steps from the boat toward the land.
As his body pushes forward, the boat is pushed
backward with the same amount of force.
In the gas turbine, the thrust force is the action.
This force is directed into the rear of the case
and on to the turbine blades. The blades of the
turbine react to the force and turn the rotor.
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Laws of
Thermodynamics
The laws of thermodynamics explain the effects
of heat in an engine.
The first law states that energy can be changed
but it cannot be destroyed.
In a gas turbine engine, heat energy is changed
to mechanical energy.
The second law of thermodynamics states that
heat cannot be transferred from a cooler body to
a hotter body.
In a gas turbine engine, heat is transferred from
the hotter engine to the cooler lube oil.
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Boyle's Law
Compressibility is an important factor in gas
turbine performance. Gas turbines use
compressed air for combustion.
Boyle's Law can be explained by placing a
quantity of gas in a cylinder that has a tightly
fitted piston.
When a force is applied to the piston, the gas
is compressed to a smaller volume.
When the force is doubled, the gas is
compressed to half its original volume.
The force exerted on the turbine blades
increases as the pressure of the combustion
air increases.
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Charles' Law
Charles' Law explains the expansion of gases
when heat is added by burning fuel in an engine.
Charles' Law is explained using the figure. The
first container holds a certain volume of air. If the
air in the container is heated, it expands and its
pressure increases.
The expanding air pushes against the container.
The higher the temperature, the greater the force
applied by the expanding volume of air.
In the gas turbine, the forces created by the hot,
expanding gases push against the blades of the
turbine and turn the rotor.
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Atmospheric Factors Affect

Performance
Atmospheric factors affect the performance
of gas turbines. Some of these factors are:
air density
contaminants
Temperature and water content affect the
density of the air. Because cold air is more
dense than hot air, it has more mass. The
more air in the gas turbine, the more force
created.
(Contd.)
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On a very cold day, a gas turbine can exceed its peak load. On a very hot
day, a gas turbine will produce much less power.
The atmosphere also contains foreign matter that is harmful to gas turbines,
such as pollen and dust. The contaminants reduce the efficiency of the
turbine and damage internal parts.
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Brayton Cycle
. Expansion
. Combustion
. Compression
The Brayton Cycle defines what takes place in
the gas turbine engine. These events are
controlled by the physical laws described on
the previous pages.
The events in the Brayton Cycle take
place in specific sections of the gas
turbine. These events are:
Compression
Combustion
Expansion
Exhaust
End Show
The Brayton Cycle is unique among

engine cycles because all the events in
the cycle take place at the same time
without interruption.
The exhaust event is the only part of the
cycle that does not take place in the
engine.
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Lesson 3: Engine Case & Air Inlet

Axial Flow Design
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The axial flow gas turbine is one of

the most common gas turbine engine
designs.
The figure shows the simplified
airflow through an axial flow gas
turbine.
As you can see from the red flow
lines, the air flows in a straight or
axial path from one end of the gas
turbine to the other.
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The purpose of the engine case in an

axial flow gas turbine engine is to
house and protect internal engine
parts.
The engine case usually consists of
two parts, a top half and a bottom
half.
This type of construction allows easy
access to the internal engine parts.
Note the similarity of the engine case
in this figure to the engine case
displayed in a previous lesson.
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Air Inlet System: Purpose

Another main component of a gas turbine engine is the air
inlet system.
Air is delivered to the gas turbine engine air inlet through
the air inlet system.
The purpose of the air inlet system is to carry clean, dry air
to the compressor with minimum turbulence and energy
loss.
The outside covering of the air inlet system is called
ducting and is usually made of galvanized or stainless steel.
The exterior of the ducting and the inlet support structure
should be painted to protect them from damage caused by
corrosion.
Salt air will quickly corrode any unprotected exterior
surfaces.
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Air Inlet System: Main Assemblies

The air inlet system controls the air quality and
directs a steady flow of air to the compressor air
inlet.
The amount and quality of air affects engine
performance and reliability.
The air inlet system has two main
assemblies:
filter assembly
inlet ducting assembly
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Filter Assembly
The first component of the air inlet
system is the filter assembly.
The filter assembly consists of the
following parts:
weather louvers
inlet screens
filters
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( Contd. )
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The filter assembly separates moisture and particles such as dirt, dust, and
insects from the inlet air. This prevents contamination and foreign object
damage to the compressor. Weather Louvers, Screens, & Filters
The purpose of the weather louvers is to prevent direct rainfall from entering
the air inlet system.
Inlet screens, usually constructed of wire mesh, are designed to prevent large
items and other contaminants from entering the compressor inlet.
The inlet screens are located behind the weather louvers.
Filters trap small particles of dust, dirt, and other contaminants to prevent
them from entering the compressor section.
Filters are constructed of materials which meet the specific operating and
climatic conditions of the gas turbine location.
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Air Inlet System: Main

Assemblies
The air inlet system controls the air quality and
directs a steady flow of air to the compressor
air inlet.
The amount and quality of air affects engine
performance and reliability.
The air inlet system has two main
assemblies:
filter assembly
inlet ducting assembly
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Inlet Ducting Assembly

The second main assembly in the air inlet system
is the inlet ducting assembly which consists of the
following parts:
bypass door(s)
inlet silencer
trash screens
air plenum
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Bypass Doors
Some air inlet systems have bypass
doors located just downstream of the air
filters.
The purpose of the bypass doors is to
protect the air inlet from excessive
differential pressure.
High differential pressure is usually
caused by excessively dirty air inlet
filters or some other abnormal blockage
of the air inlet system restricting airflow
through the filter.
( Contd. )
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Anytime the bypass doors are open during gas turbine operation, the
engine is unprotected and is operating with unfiltered air.
Operating under these conditions reduces engine reliability and operating
life.
Operators should take immediate action to determine why the bypass
doors are open and take corrective action.
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Trash Screens
The inlet silencer is a baffle arrangement
intended to quiet the noise vibration of the
compressor blading.
The trash screens are the next component
in the inlet ducting assembly. Trash
screens prevent foreign objects from
entering the compressor inlet.
Trash screens are installed downstream in
the ducting before the compressor inlet.
( Contd. )
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Access doors are provided to allow cleaning and servicing of the trash screens.
Trash screens are constructed of stainless steel and should not require
maintenance other than periodic cleaning and inspection.
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Air Plenum
The final component in the duct
assembly is the air plenum.
Air
Plenum
The purpose of the air plenum is to

provide equal distribution of ducted air to
the compressor inlet.
The air plenum is located just forward of
the compressor inlet.
One of the most common types of
compressor inlets is the bellmouth inlet.
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Bellmouth Compressor Inlet

The bellmouth inlet is a bell-shaped funnel
with rounded shoulders that reduce air
resistance. A bellmouth inlet is designed to
direct the outside air to the inlet guide vanes
of the compressor.
In some gas turbines, the inlets are fitted
with protective screens to prevent foreign
objects from entering the compressor.
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Silencers
Silencers are usually installed in both the
air inlet system and the exhaust section
of the gas turbine to reduce operating
noise.
Silencing is accomplished by baffles
covered with sound-absorbing material.
In some air inlet ducts, the interior walls
of the ducting and air plenum chambers
are also lined with this sound-absorbing
material.
( Contd. )
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Gas turbine operating noise is harmful to the human ear. Silencers help but
do not totally eliminate gas turbine noise. If you work near a gas turbine that
is operating, you should wear ear protection to avoid hearing loss.
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Lesson : 4 Compressor Section
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Introduction
The preceding lesson discussed the general
construction of an axial flow gas turbine
engine. It also described the engine case
and the components of the air inlet.
In this lesson you will learn about the
compressor section of an axial flow gas
turbine.
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Axial Flow Compressor: Purpose

The purpose of the compressor
section is to compress air for cooling
and combustion. The compressor
draws in atmospheric air through the
air inlet and increases its pressure
while reducing its volume.
In an axial flow compressor the air
flows axially. This means that the air
flows in a relatively straight path in
line with the axis of the gas turbine.
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The main components of an axial

flow compressor are the:
case
rotor
stator
The first component discussed is the
compressor case.
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Compressor Components: Case

The compressor case contains the rotor and
the stator. The case is divided into halves.
The upper half may be removed for
inspection or maintenance of the rotor and
stator blades while the bottom half remains
in place.
The case of an axial flow compressor

has the following functions:
support the stator vanes
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( Contd. )
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provide the outside wall for the axial path of airflow

provide a means for extracting compressed air
The next compressor section component is the rotor.
support the stator vanes
provide the outside wall for the axial path of airflow
provide a means for extracting compressed air
The next compressor section component is the rotor.
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Compressor Components: Rotor

The rotor is the rotating element of the
compressor. The rotor contains blades
fixed on a spindle, drum, or wheel.
These blades push air to the rear in the
same way a propeller does. The
movement of air is caused by the angle
and the shape of the blades.
When turning at high speed, the rotor takes in air at the compressor inlet,
increases the air pressure, and accelerates the air toward the rear of the
engine through a series of stages.
Energy is transferred from the compressor to the air as velocity energy
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Compressor Components:
Rotor Blades
Rotor blades are usually made of stainless
steel. They are usually fitted into the rotor
disks by either bulb-type, fir-tree type, or
dove-tail type roots.
The blades are then locked by means of
screws, spacers, pins, keys, lock wires, or
peening.
The clearance between rotating blades and
the outer case is critical.
Rotor blades are thinner at the tips than at the base. This design helps prevent
damage to the blade, stator vanes, or compressor housing if the blade
contacts the compressor housing.
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Rotor Blades
Compressor rotor blades are shorter at the
discharge than at the inlet.
This narrower working space is caused by the
decrease in casing diameter, by the increase in
rotor wheel diameter, or both.
Some compressor blades have knife-edge tips. At
ambient temperature, the compressor rotor fits
easily into the compressor case. However, as the
blades expand from compression heat, they
lengthen and reduce clearance between the case
and rotors.
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Rotor Blades
Tighter clearances increase the efficiency
of the axial flow compressor.
The compressor section component
discussed next is the stator.
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Stator
Stator vanes are the non-moving elements
of the compressor. They are located
between each rotor stage. Stator blades are
attached to the inner wall of the case.
Stator vanes receive high velocity air from
each preceding rotor stage of the
compressor.
Stator vanes direct airflow to the next stage
of compression at the desired angle. This
controlled direction provides increased
blade efficiency.
( Contd. )
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Stator vanes also act as diffusers, changing velocity to pressure.

Stator vanes on the discharge end of the compressor are aligned to straighten
the airflow and reduce turbulence. These vanes are called straightening vanes,
outlet vane assemblies, or exit guide vanes.
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Stator Vanes
Stator vanes are usually made of corrosionresistant and erosion- resistant steel.
They may be mounted to the engine
case in several ways. For example:
They are frequently shrouded or enclosed
by a suitable band for fastening purposes.
(Contd. )
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The vanes may be welded into the shrouds. The shroud is secured to the
inner wall of the compressor case.
In some cases, individual blades are inserted into slots cut in the case.
Each component plays an important role in compressor operation, which is
our next topic.
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Axial Flow Compressor: Operation

When air enters the compressor through the
air inlet, incoming air passes through the
first row of vanes, called inlet guide vanes.
As the air enters the first set of rotating
blades, it is deflected in the direction of
blade rotation.
The air is then caught and turned as it
passes through a set of stator vanes. From
there, the air is picked up by another set of
rotating blades.
This process continues through the compressor. The pressure of the air
increases each time it passes through a rotor/stator blade set (called a stage).
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Axial Flow Compressor:

Operation
As pressure is increased by successive
rotor/stator blade sets, air volume is
decreased.
At the compressor exit, the diffusion
section finishes the compression process by
decreasing air velocity and increasing
pressure just before the air enters the
combustion section.
A major effect of an unstable compression
process is surging, which is discussed next.
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Compressor Surge
Compressor surge is a characteristic common to all types of gas turbines.
In general, surge is the result of unstable airflow in the compressor.
This unstable condition is often caused by air building up in the rear stages of
the compressor.
When a compressor is not operating at its optimum speed, the forward
compressor blades may provide more air than the downstream stages can
compress. The air then tends to reverse flow. The compressor surges.
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Compressor Surge
Surging causes the machine to vibrate excessively.
Several methods are used to control surging. For example, the two-shaft gas
turbine design reduces the possibility of surging.
Compressors with higher compression ratios have a greater tendency to
surge. Compression ratios are discussed next.
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Compression Ratio
Large, high-powered gas turbines require
greater efficiency and higher compression
than can be obtained with a single axial flow
compressor.
Single axial compressors usually have a
compression ratio of approximately 8:1.
Compression ratio is determined by the
discharge pressure (psia) divided by the
suction pressure (psia).
For example, a gas turbine with a compression ratio of 8:1 discharges 117.6
psia of discharge pressure for every 14.7 psia of suction pressure.
In two-shaft gas turbines, one or more turbine stages drive the compressor.
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Two-Shaft Axial Flow

Gas Turbine
A separate turbine section drives the
compressor.
Except for the airflow, the two rotor
systems (compressor and turbine)
operate independently.
Each compressor is driven at its own
speed by its own set of turbine
wheels, as shown in the figure.
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Coaxial Rotor Shaft

Two-shaft gas turbines use a coaxial rotor
shaft. A coaxial shaft consists of a hollow
outer shaft containing a solid inner shaft.
The inner shaft is mounted on bearings,
which allows each shaft to independently
rotate at different speeds.
The front compressor is the low pressure
compressor. The rear compressor is the
high pressure compressor.
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Two-Shaft Compressor
Two-shaft compressors can operate with
lower compression ratios. The lower
compression ratio helps reduce the
possibility of surging.
For example, if a gas turbine had a
compression requirement of 20:1, a twoshaft (dual compressor) would share the
load.
Each compressor, operating in series, may have only a 4:1 or 5:1 compression
ratio. The net compression ratio of the dual compressors is higher than that of
a single compressor.
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Two-Shaft Compressor Ratio

For the dual-compressor engine, compressor pressure ratio is usually given
for each compressor or as:
LP compressor 4:1
x
HP compressor 5:1
= Total compression of 20:1
The ratio of one compressor is multiplied by the other to give the total
compressor pressure ratio.
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Lesson : 5 Diffuser & Combustion
Consortium
Introduction
The previous lesson presented
information about the compressor section
of an axial flow gas turbine. This lesson
contains information about the diffuser
and the combustion section.
We will begin by discussing the purpose
of the diffuser.
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Diffuser: Purpose
The diffuser is located between the
compressor section and the main
components of the combustion section.
The purpose of the diffuser is to
prepare the air for entry into the
combustion section.
The front end of the diffuser is bolted
to the compressor case, and the back
end is attached to the combustion
section.
( Contd.)
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The diffuser has an expanding internal diameter that looks like an upside
down funnel. This provides additional space, like the air plenum, for the
compressed air to expand. In an operating gas turbine, the point of highest
pressure is in the diffuser exit.
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Diffuser Bleed Air Ports

Bleed air ports are usually built into the
diffuser case.
Some ports are opened and closed
automatically to aid in start-up and
shutdown.
The primary purpose of the ports is to
provide bleed air for:
cooling internal engine parts
operating engine sensors and controls
preventing compressor surge
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Diffuser: Airflow
The diffuser straightens the flow of
air into the combustion section and
provides equal distribution to each
chamber.
When the air leaves the diffuser, it
enters the next main section of the
gas turbine, the combustion section.
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Combustion Section: Purpose

The combustion section is located
between the compressor and turbine
sections.
The purpose of the combustion section is
to add heat energy to the flowing gases.
This addition of heat causes the gases to
expand and accelerate into the turbine
section.
The hot gases that are generated by
burning fuel in the combustion chambers
are used to power the turbine and the
load.
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Components: Combustion
Chamber
The main component of the combustion
section is the combustion chamber
(burner).
A basic combustion chamber consists of
the following:
outer case
perforated inner liner
fuel injectors
source of ignition
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The outer case forms the shell or chamber in which the combustion process
takes place.
The perforated inner liner, also called a combustion liner, is designed to
provide paths for compressed air and gases to flow through the chamber for
efficient combustion and expansion.
The fuel injectors are located at the inlet of the combustion chamber.
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Components: Combustion Chamber

The fuel system supplies clean, pressureregulated fuel to the combustion chamber
where it is mixed with the incoming
compressed air from the diffuser.
During start-up, the fuel and air mixture is
ignited by a spark plug (source of ignition).
After combustion occurs, the spark plug stops
firing.
The burning gases supply the heat energy
required to operate the turbine and load.
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Components:
Coaxial Arrangement
Combustion chambers are arranged
coaxially (common axis) with the
compressor and turbine to allow efficient
flow-through operation.
The figure shows a typical combustion
chamber arrangement.
Note the location of the spark plugs. Not all
combustion chambers have spark plugs.
Some are equipped with only crossfire
tubes.
( Contd.)
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To supply the needed source of ignition, the flame from the combustion
chamber is carried through a crossfire tube to the next chamber. It is then
used as the source of ignition for the next chamber. This process continues
until all chambers are ignited.
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Combustion Section: Operation

We turn now to the overall operation of
the combustion section.
Compressed air enters the combustion
chamber, fuel is injected, and the fuel/air
mixture is ignited and burned.
The burning or combustion gases expand
and travel toward a point of lower
pressure at the rear of the chambers.
Because high pressure compressed air
surrounds the burner on all sides except
the rear, the hot, expanding gases are
directed toward the turbine section.
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Operation: Airflow
To operate efficiently, a combustion
chamber must provide:
a means for proper mixing of air and
fuel
a way to cool the hot combustion
products to a temperature the turbine
section components can tolerate.
Contd.
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Operation: Airflow
To accomplish these actions, airflow
through the combustor is divided into two
air paths:
primary
secondary
The primary air is approximately 25% of the
total air that enters the chamber. Primary
air is sent to the fuel nozzle area for
combustion.
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Operation: Primary &

Secondary Air
About half of the primary air flows axially
through the front of the combustion liner
in the area of the fuel nozzles.
The rest of the primary air enters radially
through small holes in the front third of
the combustion liner.
All primary airflow supports combustion.
( Contd.)
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The remaining air that enters the chamber, approximately 75%, is

secondary air. Half of this air provides a cooling air blanket over the
inside and the outside surfaces of the combustion liner.
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Operation: Primary &

Secondary Air
Some of this airflow also centers the
flame and keeps it from contacting the
combustion liner.
The other half of the secondary air
enters the combustion liner toward the
rear.
This part of the airflow dilutes the
combustion gases to an acceptable
temperature to improve the turbine
components service life.
( Contd.)
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The combustion process is accomplished in the first third of the combustion

liner.
In the remaining two thirds of the combustion liner, combusted gas and air
mix to provide even heat distribution to the turbine nozzle.
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Lesson 6 : Turbine & Exhaust

Introduction
Consortium

information about the diffuser and
the combustion section of a gas
turbine engine.
The information in this lesson
focuses on the last two sections of
the gas turbine engine, the turbine
and the exhaust sections.
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Turbine Section: Purpose

The turbine section is located between
the combustion and the exhaust
sections of the engine.
The purpose of the turbine section is to
convert the energy of the expanding
gases into mechanical energy to drive
the compressor, the accessories, and
the load.
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Turbine Section: Components

Like the compressor section, the
turbine section consists of two
major components:
the stator or turbine nozzles
the rotor or turbine wheel
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Components: Stators &

Rotors
The stators and the rotors of the
turbine and compressor sections are
similar in their construction.
The primary difference is the angle at
which the vanes, nozzles, and blades
are positioned.
Their positioning is critical to efficient
engine operation.
Contd.
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Note the similarity of the elements of the turbine

nozzle to the compressor stator vanes discussed in an
earlier lesson.
We will now look at the purpose and operation of the
turbine nozzle vanes.
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Components: Turbine Nozzle

The turbine nozzle vanes have two
purposes:
prepare the combustion gases for driving
the turbine rotor
deflect the combustion gases in the
direction of the turbine rotation
To accomplish this, the shape and position of
the turbine nozzle vanes form passages for
expanding gas flow.
Contd.
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These passages:
change the direction of gas flow
increase gas velocity
reduce pressure and temperature of the gas
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Components: Turbine Rotor

The energy of the gases leaving the first
row of turbine nozzle vanes encounters the
next major component of the turbine
section, the rotor or turbine wheel.
The purpose of the turbine rotor is to
extract mechanical energy to operate the
compressor, accessories, and load.
The turbine rotor consists of the following:
shaft
disk
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Components: Turbine Rotor

Blades
The blades of the turbine wheel are
mounted to the disk in the same manner as
compressor blades are mounted to the rotor,
by either fir-tree, bulb, or dove-tail type
roots.
This rotor and disk assembly is attached to
the shaft.
As the turbine wheel rotates it transfers energy to the shaft, which is connected
to the compressor, the accessories, and/or the load.
The turbine section may be either single stage or multistage.
When the turbine has more than one stage, nozzle vanes are installed between
each stage.
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Components: Nozzle
Vane Assembly
Each set of stator vanes forms a nozzle
vane assembly for the following turbine
wheel.
Exit guide vanes straighten the gas
flow as it enters the exhaust section.
We have looked at the purpose,
function, and design features of the
two main components of the turbine
section, the stator and the rotor.
Our next focus is on the operation or
flow of gases through the turbine
section.
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Turbine Section:
Operation
( Contd.)
Hot, expanding gases from each
burner (or combustion chamber) flow
through a transition duct to turbine
nozzle vanes.
The nozzle vanes direct the expanding
gases into the turbine section.
As you recall, the components of the
compressor section convert energy by
increasing the airflow pressure.
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Turbine Section:
Operation
In contrast, the components of the
turbine section convert energy by
reducing the pressure of the flowing
gases.
Pressure is changed to velocity by the
shape and position of both the turbine
stator vanes and the rotor blades.
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Operation: Gas Flow

The shape of the vanes causes an
increase in velocity as the gases
pass between the vanes.
As the gases flow into the first set
of vanes, the gases accelerate
because the space between the
vanes is converging (a funnel effect
similar to the first half of the venturi
tube).
As Bernoulli's principle states:
an increase in velocity causes a
decrease in pressure
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Operation: Gas Flow

The gases leaving the nozzle vanes reach
their maximum velocity just before they hit
the first-stage turbine, causing it to rotate.
The shape of the rotor blades also
accelerates the gases.
At this point, the gases still have enough
energy to do work.
The turbine blades redirect the hot gases
into the second row of nozzle vanes.
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The gases are again accelerated between the nozzles.

The second set of nozzles generates additional gas velocity just before the
hot gases impinge on (hit) the second set of rotor blades.
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Operation: Gas Flow

The process continues through each
stage of the turbine section.
Exit vanes reduce turbulence before the
gases enter the exhaust section. This
reduces backpressure on the turbine
section.
Approximately two-thirds of the total
energy available for work in a gas turbine
is used to turn the compressor.
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The remaining energy available for work is used to drive the load.
The purpose and operation of the exhaust section are described next.
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Exhaust Section:
Purpose
When the gases exit the turbine
section they enter the last section of
the gas turbine, the exhaust section.
The exhaust section is located
directly behind the turbine section of
the engine.
The purpose of the exhaust section
is to discharge the spent gases to
the atmosphere.
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Exhaust Section:
Components (Contd.)
The exhaust section usually consists
of the following components:
outer housing
struts
inner housing
plenum
These components act as a diffuser,

to reduce the turbulence and velocity
of exhaust gases.
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The outer housing is fastened to the

rear flange of the turbine section.
The inner housing is connected to the
outer housing by struts and may be
fitted with a cone to help in the
diffusion process.
Struts also straighten the exhaust flow.
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Exhaust Section:
Components
The inner housing may contain the gas
turbine rear bearing assembly and
overspeed trip device.
The outer housing flange is used to
connect the exhaust collector or plenum
to the gas turbine exhaust section.
The diffusion process occurs in the
exhaust section as the volume is
increased.
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Exhaust Section: Operation

As the exhaust gases pass through the
exhaust section components:
the velocity is decreased
the pressure remains relatively constant
the turbulence is reduced
The exhaust gases enter the atmosphere
from the exhaust plenum.
Because exhaust gas temperatures normally exceed 700F, external areas are
covered with insulation or guards to protect personnel and to prevent fire.
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Lesson : 7 Ignition System
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Introduction
Subsystems and accessories are
separate from the main gas turbine
engine assembly.
This lesson presents information on
three gas turbine engine subsystems
and accessories:
ignition system
accessory drives (gearbox)
vibration monitoring system
Subsystems and accessories are essential for gas turbine engine operation.
The first subsystem discussed is the ignition system.
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Ignition System: Purpose

& Components
The purpose of the ignition system is to
supply a spark to ignite the fuel/air
mixture in the combustion chambers.
A typical ignition system consists of the
following components:
igniter plugs or spark plugs
transformers or ignition exciter
ignition leads
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G.E. Ignition System

Components
(Contd. )
Ignition system components and
operation differ among manufacturers.
However, the purpose of the system is
the same.
We will look at the components and
operation of typical ignition systems used
by General Electric (G.E.) and Solar.
We begin with the G.E. ignition system.
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The components used in a typical G.E.

ignition system are:
igniter plugs
transformers
ignition leads
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Components: Igniter
Plug & Transformer
An igniter plug is usually installed in
two of the combustion chambers.
When ignition occurs, a highintensity spark jumps across the air
gap of the ignitor plug. This spark
initiates combustion in the
combustion chamber.
The G.E. ignition system has two
transformer units and two leads to
the igniter plugs.
( Contd.)
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Components: Igniter
Plug & Transformer
The two transformer units may be
separate or housed in one unit.
After a normal start-up, ignition is no
longer needed and the ignition
system is deactivated.
After lightoff, the flame in the
combustor is the ignition source for
continuous combustion.
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Components: Igniter
Plugs
Gas turbine igniter plugs differ from
the spark plugs of reciprocating
engines.
The air gap at the igniter plug tip is
much wider, and the electrode is
designed for a much higher intensity
spark.
(Contd.)
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Components: Igniter Plugs

An igniter plug is less likely to foul because
the high energy spark removes carbon or
other deposits when the plug fires.
Igniter plug shells are made of high quality
alloy, and the center electrode may be
tungsten or iridium. These are all highly
wear-resistant materials.
Igniter plugs are usually much more
expensive than spark plugs.
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Components: Igniter Plugs

The hot end of the igniter plug is usually air
cooled to keep it 500F to 600F cooler than
the gas temperature.
This cooler temperature helps to prevent
corrosion.
Next we focus on the ignition system
components used by Solar.
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Solar Ignition System

Components
(Contd.)
Solar gas turbines use a torch ignition
system consisting of:
ignition exciter
shielded cable spark plug lead
spark plug
The ignition exciter is mounted in a box on
the gas turbine base.
The exciter is connected to the spark plug
by a cable or lead.
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Solar Ignition System Components

The exciter is operated by 24 volt DC power.
This power is changed to AC and then is
stepped up, which charges a storage capacitor.
When the capacitor charge reaches its
discharge value, the capacitor discharges
through the spark plug cable to the spark plug.
Exciter output is approximately 18,000 volts. Up
to fifteen sparks per second are produced as
long as the exciter is energized.
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Components: Igniter Torch

The spark plug is installed in the igniter
torch.
The igniter torch extends through the
combustor outer liner.
A small, controlled amount of gas is sent to
the tip of the spark plug electrode.
The spark jumps across the spark plug
electrode's air gap and ignites the gas,
creating a torch flame.
This torch flame flares into the combustion
liner to provide positive lightoff of the fuel/air
mixture in the combustor.
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Ignition System
Maintenance
Procedures
(Contd.)
In ignition systems, the term high
intensity means that the electrical
charge can be lethal.
Because the electrical charge can be
lethal, ignition systems require special
maintenance and handling according
to the manufacturer's instructions.
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Typical maintenance procedures

include the following:
Ensure that system power is locked out
before performing any maintenance on the
system.
To remove the igniter plug, disconnect the
transformer input lead, wait the time specified
by the manufacturer (usually 1 to 5 minutes),
then disconnect the igniter lead and ground
the center electrode to the engine to discharge
the capacitor.
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Ignition System
Maintenance
Procedures (Contd.)
Use caution when handling
damaged transformer units that
are hermetically sealed. Some
transformers contain radioactive
material.
Before performing a firing test
of igniters, ensure that the
combustor is free of fuel. A fire
or explosion could result.
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Ignition System Maintenance

Procedures
Do not energize the system for
troubleshooting when the igniter plugs are
removed. Transformer damage may occur.
Discard all igniter plugs that have been
dropped. Internal damage can occur that
is not detectable by inspection or testing.
Use a new gasket when the plug is
reinstalled. The gasket provides a good
current path to ground.
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Accessory Drives:
Purpose
The next topic discussed is accessory
drives. We will look at the typical
accessory drives for both G.E. and
Solar.
Gas turbine accessory drive systems
provide gear reduction and mounting
pads for accessories needed for
engine operation.
( Contd.)
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Accessory Drives: Purpose

Some of these accessories are the oil
pumps, hydraulic pump, fuel pump,
and starting means interface.
The primary purpose of the accessory
drive is to provide a means to drive
each accessory at the proper speed
and to connect and disconnect the
engine from its starting device.
The figure shows a typical G.E.
accessory drive assembly.
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G.E. Accessory Drive

The accessory drive gear is driven by a
shaft that meshes with a helical gear
driven by the main rotor shaft.
The gearbox is usually located at the
front (forward) or the rear (aft) of the
gas turbine engine, depending on the
engine inlet or exhaust arrangements.
G.E. describes its typical accessory
drive system as the main link between
the gas turbine and the drive
components of the starting system.
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G.E. Accessory Drive:

Function
The gear drives several accessory devices
that support gas turbine operation.
Each drive pad is a point of potential oil
leakage because of the shaft seal
arrangement.
Engine oil from the lube oil pump or the
hydraulic pump may leak into, or from,
the accessory drive assembly through the
drive shaft seal.
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G.E. Accessory Drive:

Function
The G.E. accessory gear also provides a
mount for the turbine overspeed trip bolt
mechanism.
The trip bolt mechanism is mounted on the
exterior case of the accessory gear.
The actual overspeed trip bolt is mounted
in the main or number one gear shaft. This
is covered in more detail in a later lesson.
The Solar accessory drive is discussed next.
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Solar Accessory Drive:

Function
(Contd.)
On Solar gas turbines, the accessory
drive is attached to the air inlet
assembly.
The accessory housing contains the
accessory drive gears, pinion gears, and
the necessary shafts and bearings.
Mounting pads and gear drives are
provided for the starter, lube oil pump,
hydraulic oil pump, speed governor, seal
oil pump, and other accessories.
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Solar Accessory Drive: Function

If a particular accessory is not used, a cover
plate is installed on the mounting pad.
During the starting cycle, the Solar
accessory gear is driven by the starter
assembly.
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Solar Accessory Drive:

Function
A starter disengaging jaw clutch and
accessory drive adapter connect the
starter to a spur gear and shaft.
During the start cycle, the gas turbine
compressor is driven by the gear.
After the starter jaw clutch disconnects,
the compressor shaft drives the gear.
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Vibration Monitoring
System: Purpose (Contd.)
The last topic discussed in this lesson is the
vibration monitoring system. The purpose
of the vibration monitoring system is to
help in preventing abnormal operating
conditions.
The rotating shafts of any machine or
gearbox have a tendency to move axially or
radially as a result of speed, loads, worn
internal parts, unbalance, or other reasons.
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Vibration Monitoring System: Purpose

Axial and radial shaft movement is called
vibration. Vibration is a continuing periodic change
in a displacement from a fixed reference.
Excessive vibration is an abnormal operating
condition that can result in equipment damage.
Excessive vibration is a symptom of other
abnormal conditions.
A bent shaft or improper shaft alignment could be
the source of vibration.
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Several protective systems are used to alert
operators to abnormal operating conditions
that could result in damage to the turbine or
other equipment.
Vibration is one of the critical operating
parameters that is monitored by a protection
system.
A vibration monitoring system is usually a part of the gas turbine's programmable
logic control and operator terminal.
The figure shows typical vibration detector locations in relation to the rotor.
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Shaft Movement
Vibration monitoring systems are
installed on gas turbines and driven
equipment to monitor and sometimes
record axial and radial shaft
movement.
Shaft movement is monitored in either
displacement (mils), velocity
(length/unit-time), or acceleration
(g's).
(Contd.)
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One mil equals 0.001 of an inch. A shaft movement of 5 mils could

generate an electrical impulse of one volt. Either of these measurements
may be used as setpoints to initiate an alarm or shutdown.
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Probes
(Contd.)
In the gas turbine, vibration probes are
installed in the bearing housings near
the shaft.
The probe tips operate on 24-volt DC
power to establish a magnetic field
between the probe tip and a burnished
area on the shaft.
As the distance between the probe tip
and the shaft changes, the strength of
the magnetic field changes.
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The probe senses fluctuations in

the magnetic field, and the
monitoring systems uses this
information.
The figure illustrates a typical
single and double radial probe
installation in a bearing.
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Probes: Function
In the figure, four probes monitor the
radial movement of a gas turbine
shaft and two probes monitor the
shaft axial location.
Axial position probes 1 and 2 monitor
shaft axial movement in two places at
the thrust collar.
Probes 3Y and 4X measure radial
movement at the low pressure end of
the compressor.
(Contd.)
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Probes 5Y and 6X measure radial

movement at the high pressure end of the
compressor.
The probes are placed 90 degrees apart
to monitor relatively both horizontal and
vertical radial movement.
One probe monitors the X axis, and the
other monitors the Y axis.
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Vibration Monitoring Probes:

Function
Axial movement is usually monitored
by two probes, as shown in the
figure.
One probe is mounted at the end of
the shaft, and the other is mounted
at the thrust collar.
During operation, any of the
vibration monitors can usually be
read on the PLC display.
(Contd.)
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At some preset vibration limit (3

mils, for example), the vibration
monitoring system will initiate an
alarm.
If vibration increases to the high
limit (5 mils, for example), another
alarm is initiated and the vibration
monitoring system will initiate a
TRIP signal to shut the unit down
before damage occurs.
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Lesson 8 : Bearings & Seals
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Introduction
This lesson presents information
about bearings and oil seals
commonly used in gas turbine
engines.
The main bearings of a gas turbine
engine are mounted in a bearing
housing.
Most bearing housings contain seals
to prevent oil leakage into the gas
path.
In this lesson, bearings are discussed first, followed by oil seals.
The lesson begins with the purpose of bearings.
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Bearings: Purpose
Bearings have several purposes. They:
support engine parts
minimize friction
minimize wear
allow freedom of movement
carry loads
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( Contd. )
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The primary loads that act on main

bearings are:
weight of the rotating mass
(compressor, turbine, etc.)
axial forces of power or load change
compression and tension loads
between stationary parts and rotating
parts caused by thermal expansion and
misalignment
vibration
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Types: Plain
There are several types of bearings
used in gas turbines:
plain or sleeve
ball and roller
Plain bearings are the simplest type of
bearing.
Plain bearings are used in minor load
locations, such as engine accessories.
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Types: Plain Bearing

Assembly
A plain bearing assembly
consists of the:
bearing support or bracket
bearing housing or container
plain or sleeve bearing
During engine operation, pressurized
lube oil is injected into the bearing
through oil passages.
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This oil forms a film between the

bearing and the surface that is being
supported to prevent metal-to-metal
contact.
The rotating part moves on a film of
lube oil instead of on the surface of
the bearing.
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Types: Ball & Roller

Bearings
Ball bearings and roller bearings are called
antifriction bearings because the balls and
rollers minimize friction. Ball and roller
bearings are commonly used because they:
offer little resistance to rotation

provide precise alignment of rotating parts
are relatively inexpensive
can withstand momentary overloads
are easy to lubricate
work with both radial and axial loads
can endure elevated temperatures
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Types: Ball Bearings

The main disadvantages of ball
and roller bearings are that they:
are easily damaged by foreign matter
fail with very little warning
A ball bearing consists of the
following components:
an inner and an outer race
a set of polished steel balls
a ball retainer
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Types: Roller Bearings

Roller bearings also have an inner
and an outer race, but use rollers
rather than balls.
Roller bearings are made in different
shapes and sizes for both radial and
thrust loads.
Straight roller bearings primarily
support radial loads. Tapered roller
bearings support both radial and
thrust loads.
(Contd.)
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In roller bearings, the roller is

located between an inner and an
outer race.
When a roller is tapered, it rolls on
an angled outer race.
The inner races of ball and roller
bearings are closely fitted to the
rotor shafts to prevent movement of
the shaft. Bearings designed to
resist thrust in one direction have a
heavier race on the side that
supports the thrust.
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Types: Hydrodynamic
Bearings
Hydrodynamic bearings use an oil
wedge for support and to reduce
friction.
There are two types of
hydrodynamic bearings:
radial oil-wedge
thrust oil-wedge
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Hydrodynamic Bearings:
Radial Oil-Wedge
A radial oil-wedge bearing resembles
a plain bearing except the bearing or
bushing is divided into several
sections, or pads. Each pad is able to
tilt or lean.
When the shaft rotates in the
bearing, the pads tilt to allow
wedges of oil to form between the
pad and the shaft.
( Contd.)
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Oil wedges support the shaft as it rotates

and cannot be squeezed out of the
bearing housing when a heavy load is
imposed.
The axial movement of a gas turbine
rotor shaft is controlled by thrust
bearings.
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A typical thrust oil-wedge

bearing consists of:
a bearing housing
thrust shoes
a thrust collar attached to the rotating
shaft
The shaft is held in position by oil
pressure acting against the thrust collar.
If the shaft moves, the thrust collar
loading increases to prevent further
movement.
Hydrodynamic Bearings: Radial OilWedge
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The thrust oil-wedge bearing

operates on the same principle as a
radial oil-wedge bearing.
In a thrust oil-wedge bearing, the
thrust shoes are positioned against
leveling plates.
As the thrust shoes pivot during gas
turbine operation, oil wedges form
between the thrust collar and the
shoes.
The oil wedges limit axial thrust of
the rotor shaft.
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Bearing assemblies must be well

supported and strong enough to support
the loads imposed by the rotating rotor.
Lube oil is delivered to the bearings to
provide support.
Information about seals is presented next.
Hydrodynamic Bearings: Radial OilWedge
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Seals: Purpose & Types

To prevent leakage of oil from a
narrow flow path, bearing assemblies
usually contain oil seals.
The purpose of oil seals is to prevent
oil from leaking from the bearing
housing.
There are two types of oil seals, they
are labyrinth or carbon. Both types are
often used in the same seal assembly.
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Types: Labyrinth Seal

The labyrinth seal is a controlledleakage device that allows minimal
leakage across the seal.
It also controls compressed air from the
compressor section and hot gases from
the turbine section that leak along the
shaft.
Air from the gas path outside the
bearing housing bleeds inward through
the grooves in the labyrinth seal.
A labyrinth seal assembly consists of grooves in the seal and, in some cases,
teeth in the shaft. Also provided is a vent and a drain for removal of gas and
liquids.
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Types: Labyrinth Seal in

Bearing Housing
Seal dams formed by the teeth and
grooves in the labyrinth seal allow a
metered amount of air from the engine
gas path to flow inward.
The figure shows a typical compressor
rear bearing housing arrangement.
Lube oil enters at the top of the bearing
housing and drains out the bottom.
( Contd.)
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Labyrinth seals are installed in both ends

of the bearing housing with bleed air
pressure against the outer surfaces of
the seals.
The air flows between the teeth and
grooves of the seals into the bearing
housing. This prevents lube oil from
leaking through the seals.
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Types: Labyrinth Air-oil

Seal
This figure shows a labyrinth air-oil seal
arrangement with a dual labyrinth seal
located on each side of the bearings.
The bearing housing is contained in a
cavity. The space between the bearing
housing and the walls of the cavity is
pressurized with bleed air from the
engine compression section.
This type of arrangement takes advantage of controlled bleed air
across the seals.
The bearing housing is vented to the atmosphere.
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Types: Labyrinth Air-Oil Seal

The controlled leakage of air into the
bearing housing prevents oil leakage.
Pressurized air that leaks outward
along the shaft prevents gases from
leaking into the bearing housing.
This type of air-oil seal prevents the
introduction of oil into the gas path.
Oil leaking into high velocity
combustion gases will damage turbine
parts.
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Types: Carbon Seals

Carbon seals are a blend of carbon
and graphite.
Carbon seals perform the same
function as labyrinth seals.
The carbon seal rides on a surface
while the labyrinth seal has an air
space.
Carbon seals are usually spring loaded
and sometimes pressurized with air.
This causes a preload pressure on the carbon segment and provides
a tighter seal.
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Types: Carbon Seals

Carbon seals are used for greater
control of the airflow entering the
bearing housing.
Carbon surfaces are usually stationary.
A highly polished mating surface, called
the seal land, is attached to the main
rotor shaft.
In some engines, a full contact seal is
required to hold back oil that tends to
puddle before it drains from the bearing
housing.
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Lesson 9 : Lubrication & Lube Oil

Introduction
Consortium
This lesson is the first in a series on the

lubricating oil system of a gas turbine engine.
It describes the system as a complete unit.
Lessons presented later in this series describe
the major components of the system:
reservoir and pumps
filters and coolers
instrumentation and controls
This lesson begins by describing the purposes
of the lube oil system.
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Lube Oil: Purpose &

Functions
The purpose of a gas turbine lubricating
oil system is to provide clean and cool
oil to engine parts that are subject to
friction.
Lube oil:
reduces friction
cushions
cools
cleans
seals
End Show
(Contd.)
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The primary purpose of any

lubricant is to reduce friction
between moving parts.
A lubricating oil system provides oil
films as surface coatings on moving
parts.
The oil films slide against each
other to prevent metal-to-metal
contact.
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Function: Reducing
Friction
When the oil film is unbroken,
friction in the engine is fluid
friction instead of metal-to metal
friction.
For example, oil pressure will
actually lift the journal of a shaft
off the bearing on which it is
resting.
As the shaft rotates, a layer of oil
prevents the journal from
physically touching the bearing.
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Lube oil acts as a cushion between moving parts.

The oil:
prevents metal-to-metal contact
absorbs shock, for example shock imposed on gear teeth as they mesh
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Function: Cooling &

Cleaning
One of the laws of thermodynamics
states that heat is transferred from a
hot substance to a cooler substance.
Lube oil cools the internal parts of an
engine by absorbing heat. The oil
carries this heat away from the
engine.
The heat is removed from the oil
when the oil goes through the oil
cooler. Oil also cleans internal engine
parts.
(Contd. )
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As the oil flows through the engine, it collects foreign matter and carries it
away with the oil returning to the lube oil reservoir. Foreign matter is
removed in the lube oil filter.
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Function: Seal
Formation
Lube oil is also used to form seals.
Mechanical seals are installed in an
engine between the moving and
nonmoving parts.
A very small space exists between
the two parts of a seal. This space is
sometimes filled with lube oil.
A thin film of oil between sealing surfaces makes a mechanical seal
more leak resistant.
To perform these functions lube oil must meet certain requirements.
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Requirements: Viscosity
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To function properly, lube oil must have

a certain thickness, or viscosity.
Viscosity is a measurement of the
resistance of a fluid to flow.
For example, water has low viscosity
because it flows easily. Honey has high
viscosity because it flows slowly.
If lube oil is too viscous (thick), it may
not pass through the small spaces at the
required flow rate.
If the oil is not viscous enough (too thin), the oil film could be
broken, causing the moving parts to wear rapidly.
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Requirements: Synthetic
Oil & Testing
The viscosity requirements of oil for gas turbine
engines are often met by high quality synthetic
lubricants.
When synthetic lubricants are used in gas turbine
engines, they must meet manufacturer's specifications.
After a period of time, lube oil (synthetic or petroleum
based) will begin to break down.
To maintain the quality of lube oil, it must be tested
periodically for contaminants.
Contaminants are a good indication of engine wear. Oil
samples are taken from a sediment-free area in the
lube oil reservoir. The oil sample is submitted for
testing.
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The sample is tested by spectrometric

oil analysis.
Consortium
A spectrometer measures silicon (dirt)

and wear metal levels in parts per
million (ppm).
It analyzes the color and measures the
intensity of brightness that result when
oil is burned in a specific light
spectrum.
The result of the analysis is used to
monitor gas turbine internal wear. This
allows the operator to take corrective
actions to avoid costly repair or loss of
equipment.
End Show
The gas turbine may require

maintenance as indicated by oil
analysis results.
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Lube Oil System:

Service Procedures
When servicing the lube oil system,
the following procedures should be
followed:
Maintain cleanliness.
Do not allow foreign matter to enter
the system.
Use a 10-micron or smaller filter
when servicing with bulk oil.
Contd.
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.If a hand pump is used to service lube oil, use that pump for one specific lube
oil only.
Do not mix incompatible lubricants. This can result in improper lubrication of
the engine.
Record the amount of oil serviced.
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Lube Oil System:

Service Procedures
Wear proper protective clothing and
gloves because all lubricating oils
contain additives that are irritating to
the skin, toxic, or both.
The last part of this lesson focuses on
the operation of a lube oil system as
a complete system.
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Lube Oil System: Operation

The lube oil supply is stored in the lube oil
reservoir.
Main, auxiliary, and pre/postlube oil pumps
draw oil from the lube oil reservoir under
pressure, to the lube oil system.
The temperature control valve regulates the
oil temperature.
The oil then flows from the pump to the lube oil filter.
The oil filter removes contaminant particles that are suspended in the
oil.
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Lube Oil System: Operation

After passing through the filter, the oil
flows to the oil feed manifold.
An oil pressure gauge, temperature
indicator, alarm switch, and shutdown
switch monitor oil temperature and
pressure in the oil supply manifold.
From the oil supply manifold, lube oil is
distributed to the turbine rotor bearings,
the hydraulic pump, the reduction gear
bearings, and the generator bearings.
Contd.
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After lubricating the bearings and gears, the lube oil is returned to the
lube oil reservoir.
Lube oil system operation will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer,
but the components are basically the same.
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Lube Oil System:

Components
A typical gas turbine lube oil system
consists of the following components:
lube oil reservoir
oil pumps
oil filters
oil coolers
control devices
instruments and alarms
Information about each of these
components is presented in the
following lessons.
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Lesson 10 : Lube Oil Pumps

Introduction
Consortium

information about the purpose,
functions, and requirements of a gas
turbine lube oil system.
This lesson contains information
about the lube oil reservoir and
pumps.
The figure shows a typical gas turbine
lube oil reservoir and basic lube oil
system components. A lube oil
reservoir is normally located below
the gas turbine in the base frame.
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Reservoir: Purpose
The purpose of the lube oil
reservoir is to contain an ample
supply of lubricant for the gas
turbine, accessory drive
systems, gearbox, and driven
equipment.
The lube oil reservoir also
provides the oil for starting,
control, positioning inlet guide
vanes, and trip oil circuits.
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Reservoir: Component
Functions
Lube oil temperature is usually

measured in the reservoir. Proper
lube oil temperature is necessary for
most gas turbines.
Low oil pressure, low oil level, and
high oil temperature will initiate
shutdowns of most gas turbine
engines.
Reservoirs may have both a level sight glass and a level indicator to indicate oil
level.
A sealed float device operates level transmitters (LT), indicators (LI), and
switches.
The switches activate high (LSH) and low (LSL) level alarms and shutdowns.
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Reservoir: Component
Functions
The lube oil reservoir is vented to

the atmosphere to maintain an even
pressure in the tank.
A flame arrestor is often installed in
the vent to prevent a source of
ignition from entering the reservoir.
The purpose of the pressure
regulator (PCV) is to control the
lube oil system pressure by
returning excess lube oil to the
reservoir.
End Show
System protection is provided by a

pressure relief valve (PSV) located
at the discharge of each pump.
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Lube Oil Pumps:

Purpose & Types
This section explains the most
common types of pumps used in the
lube oil system.
The purpose of lube oil pumps is to
provide lube oil under pressure for
lubrication of the engine and
associated equipment.
The lube oil pumps take suction
from the oil reservoir and discharge
into a common header.
Contd.
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Lube oil system pumps are classified as:

main
auxiliary
emergency
All three types use oil from the lube oil reservoir.
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Lube Oil Pumps: Types

The three most common types of lube
oil system main pumps are the
following:
vane
gerotor
gear
These pumps are positive
displacement pumps because they
send a fixed quantity or constant
volume of oil to the pump outlet
during each revolution.
End Show
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Sliding Vane Pump

Pumping action in the sliding vane
lube oil pump takes place as the
rotor drive shaft and the eccentric
rotor drive the sliding vanes.
The space between each pair of
sliding vanes fills with oil as the oil
passes the oil inlet port.
This oil is carried to the outlet port
as the rotors turn.
When the spaces between the vanes, the eccentric rotor, and the
inner walls of the pump case reduce to minimum clearance, the oil is
forced out of the pump.
End Show
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Gerotor Pump Components

The figure shows the pumping element of
a gerotor pump.
The gerotor pump operates on a principle
similar to that of the vane pump.
The gerotor pump uses a lobe shaped
drive gear inside an elliptically shaped idler
gear to move oil from an intake to a
discharge port.
The right side of the figure shows a complete pumping element.
Several elements can be mounted on a single shaft inside the pump
case.
End Show
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Gerotor Pump Operation

Gerotor pump operation is shown in the
lower portion of the figure.
From 0 to 180 of pump rotation, the
space between the lobes and the
openings increases from a minimum to
a maximum volume.
As the space reaches maximum
volume, it is closed to the intake port
and is in position to open to the
discharge port.
(Contd.)
End Show
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At the 270 point of rotation, the

space decreases in volume, forcing oil
out the discharge port.
At 360 again, the space reaches
minimum volume. The space is closed
to discharge and begins to open to the
intake port, repeating the cycle as
rotation continues.
This action takes place in each of the
seven interlobal spaces between the
inner six-lobe gerotor and the outer
seven-lobe gerotor.
End Show
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Gerotor Pump Operation

The inner drive gear in the figure has six
lobes (teeth).
The outer idler gear has seven openings.
This extra lobe allows oil to fill the one open
space as it passes the intake port.
The oil moves through the pump as the
pump rotates, until a minimum clearance
forces the oil out through the discharge
port.
End Show
The most commonly used lube oil

pump is the gear pump shown in
the figure on the following page.
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Gear Pump Components

& Operation
A gear pump usually consists of two
close-fitting gears, the drive and idler
gears, that rotate in a pump case.
The pump case provides minimum
space between the gear teeth and the
inner walls of the case.
The gear lube oil pump is usually
engine driven by the accessory gears.
( Contd.)
End Show
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When the pump is rotating, the

gears take in oil.
The gears rotate in a direction that
forces the oil to move between the
gear teeth and the pump inner case
until the oil is delivered to the pump
outlet port.
The idler gear seals the pump inlet
from the outlet and prevents the oil
from reversing flow.
End Show
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Gear Pump Components &

Operation
A gear pump usually consists of two
close-fitting gears, the drive and idler
gears, that rotate in a pump case.
The pump case provides minimum space
between the gear teeth and the inner
walls of the case.
The gear lube oil pump is usually engine
driven by the accessory gears.
When the pump is rotating, the gears
take in oil.
Contd.
End Show
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The gears rotate in a direction that forces

the oil to move between the gear teeth
and the pump inner case until the oil is
delivered to the pump outlet port.
The idler gear seals the pump inlet from
the outlet and prevents the oil from
reversing flow.
End Show
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Gas Turbine
Auxiliary Pump:
Purpose & Function
The purpose of an auxiliary lube oil
pump is to supply lube oil:
during gas turbine startup
during gas turbine shutdown or cool
down
anytime the main lube oil pump
cannot supply lubricating oil
End Show
Contd.
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When gas turbine engine start-up begins,

oil is delivered to the lube oil system by
the AC-powered auxiliary lube oil pump.
The auxiliary oil pump operates for a
preset time before the starter engages.
The auxiliary lube oil pump operates until
the gas turbine engine accelerates to
approximately 90% of its normal
operating speed.
End Show
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Auxiliary Pump:
Purpose & Function
During gas turbine engine shutdown,
the auxiliary lube oil pump is again
started by the control system when
engine speed slows to approximately
80% speed.
The auxiliary oil pump continues to
operate throughout the shutdown and
cool-down cycles.
The figure shows a typical vertical,
centrifugal pump.
Contd.
End Show
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Unlike the pumps discussed up to this

point, centrifugal pumps are not positive
displacement pumps.
This type of pump uses an impeller to
move the oil through the system.
A vertical, centrifugal pump is sometimes
used as an auxiliary and an emergency
lube oil pump.
End Show
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Emergency Pump:
Purpose & Function
The purpose of an emergency lube
oil pump is to supply lube oil during
an emergency shutdown if the
auxiliary lube oil pump is inoperative
or is unable to maintain sufficient
lube oil pressure.
The emergency lube oil pump is
similar to the auxiliary oil pump. The
main difference is that the auxiliary
lube oil pump is operated by an AC
motor and the emergency lube oil
pump is operated by a DC motor.
End Show
The next topic discusses how these

pumps function within the
operation of a typical lube oil
system.
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Lube Oil Pumps: Operation

The figure shows a basic gas turbine
lube oil system.
The main lubricating oil pump takes
suction from the lube oil tank and
supplies oil under pressure to the
temperature control valve, filter and
supply manifold.
After lubricating engine parts, the
lube oil is returned to the oil
reservoir.
Contd.
End Show
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An auxiliary oil pump, or

pre/postlube oil pump, supplies lube
oil under pressure during the engine
start and shutdown cycles.
After lube oil pressure has been
established, the engine begins to
rotate.
When the engine reaches sufficient
speed for the main (engine driven)
oil pump to provide adequate lube
oil pressure, the pre/postlube oil
pump is automatically shut down.
End Show
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Lube Oil Pumps: Operation

This pump draws oil from the reservoir
and sends it to the lube oil filter and oil
supply manifold for distribution to the
lubrication points.
Oil pressure is regulated by the relief
valve (PSV) during pre/postlube auxiliary
oil pump operation.
At engine shutdown, the postlube oil
pump is activated by the control system.
The postlube oil pump operates for a preset time after shutdown to
provide postlubrication and to cool the engine.
End Show
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Lesson 11 : Lube Oil Filters & Coolers

Introduction
Consortium
The preceding lesson discussed the lube oil system

reservoir and pumps.
This lesson provides information about the lube oil
system filters and coolers.
Filters and coolers are both important in maintaining the
quality of lube oil.
Filters keep the lube oil clean by removing
contaminating particles from the oil. But heat can also
cause rapid oil breakdown. Therefore, lube oil
temperature is carefully regulated by oil coolers.
Information about lube oil filters is presented first.
End Show
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Lube Oil Filters: Purpose
The purpose of lube oil filters is
to remove particles that collect
in the oil.
These particles can lodge in the
close spaces between bearings
and seals.
Contaminants in lube oil will
increase the friction between
moving parts, resulting in
excessive wear and bearing
failure.
End Show
Contd.
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Lube oil is pumped through oil

filters to remove contaminant
particles that collect in the oil.
Gas turbine engine lube oil filters
have micron ratings.
A micron represents a size or
distance equal to one millionth of a
meter, or approximately .000039 of
an inch.
End Show
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Lube Oil System:

Contaminant Sources
Contaminants in lube oil systems are
primarily from the following sources:
small particles of carbon from the
breakdown of oil
metallic particles from engine wear
and corrosion
airborne contaminants entering
through bearing seals
dirt and other foreign matter
introduced into the reservoir during
servicing
End Show
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Lube Oil Filters: Types

The most common types of lube oil
system oil filters are the disposable filter
and the cleanable screen filter (wire
mesh).
Disposable filters are smaller than
cleanable screen (wire mesh) filters.
Disposable filters are capable of filtering
particles as small as 5 microns.
Disposable filters are heavily pleated.
( Contd.)
End Show
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The purpose of these pleats is to provide a maximum surface area for

filtration.
The figure shows a typical disposable filter assembly.
Cleanable screen filters can be removed, cleaned, and reinstalled.
End Show
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Lube Oil Filters: Types

of Assemblies
Two types of lube oil filter assemblies
are used in gas turbine lube oil
systems:
simplex
duplex
The simplex has only one filter case.
The duplex has two filter cases.
When a simplex oil filter is used, the
engine must be shut down to replace
the filter elements.
( Contd.)
End Show
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When a duplex oil filter is used, oil

flow can be diverted to the second
filter and the engine does not have to
be shut down to replace a filter.
End Show
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Lube Oil Filters:

Simplex Assembly
A simplex lube oil filter assembly
usually consists of the following:
filter case
plumbing
differential pressure gauge
differential pressure alarm switch
The filter case is shaped like a

cylinder and contains replaceable
filter elements.
End Show
Each filter element is a pleated paper

cartridge designed to filter particles
that are larger than 5 microns.
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Lube Oil Filters:

Protection System
During gas turbine engine operation, the
filter elements become clogged with
contaminants in the lube oil.
When this occurs, the lube oil pressure
between the oil pump and the filter begins
to rise and the pressure between the filter
and the lube oil header or manifold
decreases.
This difference in pressure, indicated on the differential pressure gauge, helps detect a
clogged filter.
Many lube oil systems contain a differential pressure switch that initiates an alarm when
differential pressure reaches the setpoint.
The alarm sounds at the local control panel and often at the DCS.
End Show
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Lube Oil Filters: Duplex

Filter Assembly
Many gas turbine engines have a
duplex lube oil filter assembly instead
of a simplex oil filter.
The operation of the lube oil system is
the same except that the engine does
not need to be shut down to replace a
dirty filter element. The oil flow can be
diverted to the clean filter case.
The duplex oil filter has two filter
cases. Each case contains replaceable
filter elements.
Contd.
End Show
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Smaller filter cases may contain only

one filter element, while large filter
cases may contain nine elements in
sets of three each.
Only one filter case is used at a
time. A manual selector (transfer)
valve is positioned to direct lube oil
flow to either filter case.
End Show
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Lube Oil Filters: Duplex

Filter Assembly
A typical duplex lube oil filter design
is shown in the figure.
Lube oil under pressure enters one
of the two filter units through the
transfer valve.
Turning the transfer valve from one
filter to the other positions a valve at
both the inlet and the outlet of the
filter element.
( Contd.)
End Show
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This position ensures maximum oil flow through the

selected filter. It also traps lube oil under pressure in
the filter element removed from service.
All pressure must be bled from the unused filter case
before it is opened.
End Show
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Lube Oil Coolers:

Purpose & Types
Consortium
The purpose of the lube oil system oil

coolers is to maintain a specified lube oil
temperature.
The specified temperature must be
maintained under differing oil heat loads
that take place with differing operating
conditions.
One of the laws of thermodynamics
states that heat can only be transferred
from a hot surface to a colder surface.
Oil coolers are heat exchangers. The two most common types of oil coolers are:
oil-to-water
oil-to-air
End Show
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Lube Oil Coolers: Oilto-Water Cooler

The oil-to-water cooler uses water to
cool the oil. The oil-to-air cooler uses air
to cool the oil. The oil-to-water cooler is
discussed first.
The figure shows an oil-to-water cooler.
The heat exchanger transfers heat from
the lube oil to the water and keeps the
oil at the proper temperature.
Lube oil coolers require minimal operating checks and maintenance.
They should be inspected for oil and water leaks during each routine and off-line
maintenance inspection.
End Show
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Lube Oil Coolers: Flow
High bearing header lube oil temperature

may indicate that the oil cooler tubes are
fouled and in need of cleaning.
Lube oil coolers can be damaged by thermal
shock, overpressure, and hydraulic hammer.
Thermal shock is prevented by starting the
flow of cooling water through the oil cooler
before the hot lube oil flow is started.
If the lube oil system has been down for maintenance, the system must be
gradually filled with fluids as air is vented from the system. Pulsations of fluids
through oil coolers can cause vibrations that may damage the cooler and
shorten its operating life.
End Show
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Lube Oil Coolers: Oil-toAir Cooler

The oil-to-air cooler and thermostatic
valve arrangement is similar to the oilto-water cooler. The primary difference
is that the actual heat exchanger
resembles the radiator cooler used for
water cooled reciprocating engines.
An oil-to-air lube oil cooler keeps lube
oil temperature within operating limits
by using an oil-to-air heat exchanger
with an electrically operated fan.
(Contd.)
End Show
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During normal operation the fan

blows air upward through the
cooler.
Lube oil enters the cooler assembly
and flows through passages in the
radiator core before exiting the
cooler.
End Show
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Lube Oil Coolers: Oilto-Air Cooler

Honeycomb type passages through
the core allow airflow when the fan
is operating.
Heat is exchanged from the hot lube
oil to the cooler air through the walls
of the radiator core.
Oil-to-air lube oil coolers may be
either high ambient temperature or
low ambient temperature.
Contd.
End Show
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High ambient temperatures require

greater core size for a larger
surface area.
A larger surface area distributes
heat over a wider area and
exchanges heat faster.
Oil-to-air cooler subsystem
operation is discussed next.
End Show
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Lube Oil Coolers:

Operation
The figure shows a diagram of an
oil-to-air cooler subsystem.
Lube oil under pressure from the oil
pump either bypasses the oil
coolers or enters one of the coolers
through the transfer valve.
If the oil temperature is less than
approximately 60F, the
temperature control valve will open
port B to port A and the oil will
bypass the oil coolers.
Contd.
End Show
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As the oil heats up, the

thermostatic control valve begins
to open port C and close port B.
This closes off bypass flow and
forces oil flow through the oil
coolers.
End Show
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Lube Oil Coolers: Operation

The transfer valve directs oil flow into the
coolers.
As shown in the figure, the transfer valve is
controlled by a flow control valve and control
system.
Under high oil temperature conditions, the
transfer valve can direct oil flow into both oil
coolers.
The control system automatically starts the fan
motor on the oil cooler.
The vent valve and the drain valve must both be
opened to drain oil from the oil cooler.
End Show
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Lube Oil Coolers: Operation

When returning an oil cooler to
service, all the air in the cooler must be
bled through the vent valve.
Lube oil from the coolers flows through
the temperature control valve to the oil
filter.
Local temperature gauges are located
upstream and downstream from the
temperature control valve.
The first indication that the lube oil cooler is malfunctioning is an increase in oil
temperature.
The second indication of oil cooler trouble is the high oil temperature alarm.
The last indication of oil cooler problems is the lube oil high temperature trip.
End Show
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Lesson 12 : Lube Oil Instrumentation
Consortium
Introduction
The preceding lessons in this series

discussed the lube oil system, its operation,
and individual components of the system.
This lesson provides information about lube
oil system pressure and temperature
controls, instruments, and alarms.
Proper lubrication of gas turbine engines is
critical to engine performance and operating
life.
Proper lubrication depends on oil pressure
and oil temperature.
High oil pressure can damage lube oil
system components. Low oil pressure can
prevent oil from reaching internal engine
parts.
End Show
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Introduction
Proper lubrication also depends on

oil viscosity, which is affected by oil
temperature.
Cold oil is more viscous than hot oil.
Cold oil also produces higher oil
pressure at the pump discharge.
Hot oil loses film strength because of
reduced viscosity.
Information about the devices used
to control lube oil pressure and
temperature begins the lesson.
End Show
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Pressure Control
Devices: Purpose
The purpose of pressure control devices
is to regulate lube oil pressure. Excessive
pressure in the lube oil system is
prevented by relief valves.
The following lube oil system pressure
control devices are discussed:
pump relief valve
pressure relief valve
diaphragm operated control valve
End Show
The figure illustrates typical lube

oil system protection devices.
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Relief Valves
Lube oil pumps are protected by a relief
valve. If the oil pressure at the pump
discharge outlet is high, the valve is lifted off
its seat and some of the excess oil is returned
to the pump inlet. Some systems return the
oil to the reservoir.
A lube oil system pressure relief valve relieves
excessive oil pressure.
Like the pump relief valve, this valve opens
when oil pressure overcomes spring pressure,
and excess oil is returned to the reservoir.
The pressure relief valve can be adjusted by increasing or decreasing

spring tension.
End Show
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Diaphragm Valve
A diaphragm valve regulates lube oil
pressure within a very narrow range. A
diaphragm valve senses lube oil pressure in
the bearing header and opens or closes to
maintain the pressure in the correct
operating range.
As mentioned at the beginning of this lesson,
oil pressure and oil temperature are closely
related.
Information about temperature control
devices is presented next.
End Show
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Temperature Control
Devices: Purpose
The purpose of temperature control
devices is to regulate lube oil
temperature.
Such devices include:
oil cooler
thermostat
lube oil regulator assembly (thermal
bypass valve and pressure regulator)
End Show
The figure illustrates a typical oil

cooler arrangement. Lube oil
always flows through an oil filter,
but it does not always flow
through an oil cooler.
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Oil Coolers & Thermostat

The figure illustrates two watercooled oil coolers. The oil cooler at
the top of the figure shows the oil
temperature control valve in the cool
oil mode. The oil cooler at the bottom
of the figure shows the oil
temperature control valve in the hot
oil mode.
In the cool oil mode the valve is
partially open. Most of the oil flowing
through the valve completely
bypasses the cooler.
Contd.
End Show
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The oil that flows through the oil

cooler is mixed with the bypassed
oil at the control valve outlet.
The lube oil temperature control
valve is an oil temperature
thermostat.
The thermostat uses a heat
sensitive spring to position the
valve.
End Show
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Oil Coolers & Thermostat

In the hot oil mode, the thermostat
spring expands to hold the valve against
the valve seat and stop the flow of oil
through the bypass part of the valve.
When the thermostat is cold, the spring
retracts to lift the valve off its seat.
This position allows the oil to flow
through the valve and bypass the oil
cooler.
As the thermostat warms, it begins to
close the temperature control valve to
force more flow through the oil cooler.
End Show
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Lube Oil Regulator Assembly
A typical lube oil regulator
assembly contains:
two thermal bypass valves
a pressure regulating unloading
valve
The figure shows these components
and the flow of the oil through the
lube oil regulator assembly.
(Contd.)
End Show
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The thermal bypass valves

located inside the lube oil
regulator assembly serve two
purposes:
control the lube oil temperature
protect the oil cooler against high
oil pressure during a cold weather
start
If lube oil temperature is below
60F, the thermal bypass valves are
fully open and lube oil bypasses the
oil coolers.
End Show
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Lube Oil Regulator

Assembly
When oil temperature exceeds 60F, the
valves begin to close and are fully closed
at 140F. At that point, all oil flows
through the oil cooler.
This assembly also protects the oil cooler
against high oil pressure during cold
weather starts.
When the differential pressure across the
bypass valves exceeds 50 psig, the valves
are opened wide enough to maintain 50
( Contd.)
psig differential pressure.
End Show
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Another component of the

lube oil regulator assembly is
the pressure regulating
unloading valve.
This valve is pilot operated
and spring closed. The valve
also has a center passage with
an oil metering opening.
End Show
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Lube Oil Regulator

Assembly
During operation, pressurized pilot oil flows through
the opening to the back side of the regulating valve
and assists the spring in keeping the valve closed.
Oil pressure is adjusted by means of the externally
adjusted pilot oil pressure relief valve. Pressurized pilot
oil comes from the lube oil filter outlet.
As the engine-driven lube oil pump pressure increases
with engine speed, the unloading valve opens to
maintain a constant lube oil system pressure.
Lube oil system instruments and alarms are discussed
next.
End Show
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Instruments & Alarms

Instruments provide information on the
operation of the lube oil system. They monitor
conditions such as oil level in the reservoir and
oil pressure and temperature throughout the
system.
Alarms alert the operator to out-of-limit
conditions that must be corrected to ensure
safe operations.
The lube oil system instruments and alarms
used by G.E. and Solar perform the same basic
functions. However, the schematics used by the
two companies are different.
Schematics for both companies are included in
this lesson.
End Show
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G. E.: Level Indicator

The figure shows a typical G.E. lube oil system
schematic. The devices explained are highlighted.
The letter "L" in a circle represents the lube oil
reservoir level indicator.
As drawn in the schematic, the level indicator is a
local gauge. It also signals lube oil level
information to the gas turbine control panel and
to the distributed control system (DCS).
Various lube oil levels are listed to the right of the
level indicator. When the oil level is 12 inches
below the top of the tank, the lube oil reservoir is
considered full.
End Show
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G. E.: Level Indicator

When the level is 10 inches or less from the
top of the reservoir, the high lube oil level
alarm is initiated by the high level switch
71QH-1.
The level gauge indicates EMPTY when the
oil level is 16 inches below the top of the
tank.
If the oil level is 17 inches below the top of
the tank, level switch 71QL-1 initiates the
low lube oil level alarm and shutdown.
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G. E.: Temperature
Indicator & Relief
Valve
The temperature indicator gauge is
identified by the letter "T" in a circle.
This gauge indicates the temperature
of the lube oil in the reservoir.
The relief valve VR1 regulates the
discharge pressure of the main
engine-driven lube oil pump, which is
discussed next.
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G. E.: Pressure Indicator

In the figure, the main lube oil pump is a
shaft-driven gear pump.
This pump is attached to the accessory
gearbox of the gas turbine.
Following the discharge line from the bottom
of the main lube oil pump, the first
instrument encountered is a pressure
indicator identified by the letters "PI" in a
circle.
Follow the pump discharge line almost to the
oil cooler where another pressure indicator is
located.
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G. E.: Pressure
Indicator & Switch
Low lube oil pressure switch 63QA-1 is located
to the right of this indicator. During the
shutdown sequence or whenever the main oil
supply pressure decreases to approximately 75
psig, oil pressure switch 63QA-1 actuates. This
action starts the auxiliary lube oil pump.
The auxiliary lube oil pump, identified as 88QA
in the figure, is a motor-driven pump. A
pressure indicator and another pressure switch
are located between the pump and the check
valve.
The pressure switch, identifed as 63QP, signals
the control system when the auxiliary lube oil
pump is operating.
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& Switch
The emergency lube oil pump is identified as
88QE.
An emergency lube oil pump is started when AC
power is lost or the auxiliary lube oil pump fails.
The emergency lube oil pump is started by
actuating a low lube oil pressure switch located
on the gas turbine bearing header. This pump
also has a pressure indicator and a "run" switch
located between the pump and the check valve.
Pressure switch 63QE sends a "pump running"
signal to the gas turbine control system when the
emergency lube oil pump is operating.
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& Switch
In the G.E. lube oil system, a pressure
indicator is installed in the discharge of
each pump.
The indicator may be local, it may have a
transmitter to signal the pressure
information to the DCS, or both.
G.E. uses a pressure switch at the
discharge of each motor-operated pump
to initiate a "pump running" signal to the
DCS.
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G. E.: Differential
Pressure Indicator
In the figure, lube oil flows from the pumps to

the oil coolers, oil filters, and the bearing header.
Lube oil for the generator is discharged from the
main lube oil header.
The differential pressure indicator (PDI) is
connected across the lube oil filter inlet and
outlet lines.
The purpose of the differential pressure indicator
is to monitor the pressure drop across the lube oil
filter that is in operation.
The device identified as 63QQ-1 is the main lube oil filter differential pressure alarm
switch.
This switch initiates an alarm when the differential pressure reaches the setpoint.
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G.E.: Bearing Header

Pressure Regulator
The bearing header pressure
regulator (VPR2) is located between
the generator lube oil line and the
gas turbine bearing header.
A diaphragm in the regulator senses
the oil pressure in the bearing
header and opens or closes the
control valve to maintain set
pressure.
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G. E.: Emergency Pump Start Switch

To the left of the bearing header is the low lube oil pressure emergency pump
start switch, 63QL.
On the right side of the gas turbine bearing header are three outgoing lines
labeled hydraulic supply.
Lube oil from the bearing header provides oil to the hydraulic pumps which
provides hydraulic pressure for starting, inlet guide vane operation, and fuel
gas control valves.
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G. E.: Temperature Switches

High lube oil temperature may indicate fouled lube oil
cooler tubes.
A temperature indicator and several switches are
located to the right of the hydraulic supply lines.
The temperature indicator is a local instrument as
drawn. When used with a transmitter, this temperature
can be signaled to the DCS.
The devices identified as 26QT are related temperature
switches. If lube oil temperature in the bearing header
increases to approximately 165F, a high lube oil
temperature alarm is initiated. If corrective action is
not taken and lube oil temperature increases to 175F,
temperature switches 26QT-1A and 26QT-1B will trip
the gas turbine.
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G. E.: Thermocouples
The device labeled LT-TH-1A,B represents
thermocouples located in the bearing header.
These thermocouples provide high
temperature alarms and trip signals to the
control system.
To trip the unit, the trip temperature must be
sensed by at least two thermocouples.
This concludes the information about oil
instruments and alarms in the G.E lube oil
system.
The Solar lube oil system will be discussed
next.
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Solar Instruments
& Alarms
The figure shows a
typical Solar lube oil
schematic.
Information about
Solar lube oil system
begins on the next
page with the level
indicator.
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Solar: Level Indicator &

Switches
The figure shows a float type oil level indicator
on the left side of the reservoir.
This is drawn as a local instrument, but if used
with a transmitter, it sends lube oil level
information to the local control panel and the
DCS.
The right side of the lube oil tank has a low
level alarm switch and a low level shutdown
switch.
If the oil level in the tank decreases to the low
level alarm setpoint, the switch initiates the low
oil level alarm. If the oil level decreases to the
low level shutdown switch setpoint, this switch
will initiate a shutdown of the gas turbine.
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Solar: Pressure Gauges

During normal operation, the main enginedriven lube oil pump takes suction from the
lube oil tank.
Lube oil under pressure flows through the
lube oil cooler to the oil filter.
A filter inlet pressure gauge is located near
the lube oil filter inlet.
The oil filter outlet oil pressure gauge is
shown just below the oil supply manifold.
The difference in pressure between these
two gauges is the differential pressure across
the lube oil filter.
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Solar: Differential
Pressure Switch
The oil filter differential pressure switch will
initiate an alarm when a pressure drop across
the filter reaches the switch setpoint of
approximately 30 psig.
The ultimate relief valve protects the complete
lube oil system against overpressurization. The
valve opens at approximately 150 psig to return
excess oil to the lube oil tank.
Oil flows from the oil supply manifold to the lube
oil regulator assembly where oil pressure is
regulated.
Several oil pressure switches are installed on the
line to the pressure regulating unloading valve.
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Solar: Low Oil Pressure

Alarm Switch
The purpose of the low oil pressure alarm
switch is to initiate an alarm when lube oil
pressure decreases to the setpoint of the
switch. This alarm does not shut down the
engine.
If lube oil pressure decreases to or below
the minimum setpoint, the low oil pressure
switch signals the protective system circuit.
This will shut down the engine and initiate
the low oil pressure malfunction indication
at the DCS.
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Solar: Prelube Oil Pressure

Switch
The prelube oil pressure switch has
several functions. If the prelube oil pump
fails to deliver pressure or if oil pressure
decreases below the minimum setpoint
during the start sequence, this switch
terminates start-up and initiates a
malfunction indicator at the DCS.
If oil pressure decreases below minimum
setpoint during the postlube cycle after
engine shutdown, this switch initiates an
alarm.
Contd.
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The prelube oil pressure switch also shuts down the prelube oil pump.
During the start cycle, as main lube oil pump pressure exceeds the prelube oil
pump pressure, the prelube oil pressure switch actuates at the increasing oil
pressure setpoint. This shuts down the prelube oil pump.
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Solar: Temperature
Gauge & Switches
A temperature gauge and two temperature
switches are shown on the left side of the oil
supply manifold in the figure.
High lube oil temperature, and sometimes low
lube oil pressure, are indications of lube oil
cooler problems.
The high oil temperature alarm switch actuates
if engine inlet oil temperature reaches the
setpoint.
The switch will actuate the alarm, but the
engine will not shut down.
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Solar: Temperature
Gauge & Switches
A temperature gauge and two temperature
switches are shown on the left side of the
oil supply manifold in the figure.
High lube oil temperature, and sometimes
low lube oil pressure, are indications of
lube oil cooler problems.
The high oil temperature alarm switch
actuates if engine inlet oil temperature
reaches the setpoint.
The switch will actuate the alarm, but the
engine will not shut down.
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Lesson:13 Hydraulic Oil System
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Introduction
The preceding lessons provided
information about the lubrication oil
system, its components, and operation.
This lesson presents information about
the hydraulic oil system.
The Solar gas turbine engine servo oil
system and a typical G.E. gas turbine
hydraulic system are used as examples.
The figure shows a schematic of a typical
hydraulic oil system used by Solar.
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Hydraulic Oil System: Purpose

The purpose of a hydraulic system is to
distribute fluid forces to various moving
parts.
This fluid is required for the operation of
gas turbine electrohydraulic control
system components, the fuel system,
variable inlet guide vane mechanisms,
and the hydraulic components of some
starting systems.
The lesson begins with information
about Solar hydraulic oil systems.
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Solar: Subsystem of Lube

Oil System
Solar gas turbines have two separate
hydraulic oil systems:
subsystem of the lube oil system
separate servo oil system
In the subsystem of the lube oil system, oil
is taken from the oil supply manifold by
lube oil pump pressure. It is then routed to
the variable vane control valve and to the
actuator to move the vanes to the
maximum open position.
The Solar gas turbine servo oil system is an electrohydraulic system that operates as a
separate, closed-circuit hydraulic oil system.
Information about this system is presented next.
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Solar Servo Oil System

The servo oil system shares the lube
oil reservoir with the lube oil system.
The purpose of the servo oil system
is to operate the main fuel valve
electrohydraulic servo actuator.
The actuator is operated by servo oil
pressure and is controlled by the
engine control system. This system is
closely related to the lube oil system
shown in the figure.
Contd.
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The servo oil system consists of the following:

pump element
servo oil filter
servo relief valve
During engine operation, servo oil pressure is provided by the
servo pump element that works with the two-element, enginedriven lube oil pump.
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Gas Turbine
Solar Servo Oil System

Oil is drawn from the lube oil reservoir
through the oil line common to all three
pump elements.
High-pressure servo oil flows from the
servo pump outlet port through the
servo oil filter to the inlet port of the
servo actuator. A servo relief valve is
located downstream of the servo oil
pump.
The servo oil filter is between the servo
oil pump and the servo actuator.
(Contd. )
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The oil filter removes particles from the servo oil that are 25 microns or
larger.
The purpose of the relief valve is to protect the pump and other
components in the servo oil system against excessive oil pressure.
Information about a G.E. hydraulic oil system is presented next.
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G. E.: Hydraulic Oil

Main Pump
In a G.E. hydraulic oil system, gas turbines
use bearing header oil at 25 psig. This oil
has been cooled and filtered as supply oil
for the hydraulic system.
The main hydraulic pump is driven by the
main shaft in the accessory gear. This pump
increases the 25 psig oil supply pressure to
1500 psig for hydraulic control of fuel valve
and inlet guide vane actuators.
Both the main hydraulic pump and the
auxiliary hydraulic pump contain pressure
compensators to control discharge
pressures at approximately 1500 psig.
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G. E.: Hydraulic Oil Main

Pump
In a G.E. hydraulic oil system, gas turbines
use bearing header oil at 25 psig. This oil
has been cooled and filtered as supply oil
for the hydraulic system.
The main hydraulic pump is driven by the
main shaft in the accessory gear. This
pump increases the 25 psig oil supply
pressure to 1500 psig for hydraulic control
of fuel valve and inlet guide vane
actuators.
Both the main hydraulic pump and the auxiliary hydraulic pump contain pressure
compensators to control discharge pressures at approximately 1500 psig.
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G. E. Components
& Operation
Check valves, located between
the two manifolds, keep the
lines full when the turbine is
down.
Each manifold also has a
pressure relief valve. One relief
valve aids in controlling auxiliary
pump output pressure. The
other protects the main
hydraulic pump circuit from
damage if the main pump
pressure compensator fails.
Contd.
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Hydraulic oil at 1500 psig leaves the manifold through a manual filter transfer
valve to enter one of two filter manifolds. Each filter is equipped with a
differential pressure switch. An alarm is initiated if the differential pressure
increases to 60 psig.
Hydraulic oil leaving the filter system discharges to the inlet guide vanes and
the fuel control system.
Hydraulic accumulators are located upstream of these systems.
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G. E. Hydraulic Oil System

Accumulators
The purpose of the accumulator is to absorb
any transient shocks that may occur when
the hydraulic pumps are started or equipment
is actuated.
The accumulators must be precharged with
nitrogen before the hydraulic system is
activated.
Each accumulator contains a sliding piston
with o-ring seals located in approximately the
center of the cylinder.
(Contd. )
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Cavities are located above and below the piston.

The top cavity is precharged with 750 lbs. of dry nitrogen. The hydraulic
system pressure forces the piston up against the nitrogen pressure until
equilibrium is attained at 1500 lbs.
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G. E. Hydraulic Oil
System
At this point the accumulator
functions as a shock absorber. A
sudden surge or drop in pressure will
be compensated for by the
accumulator piston movement.
A fill device and a disc safety valve
are located on the top end cap.
Block valves and bleed valves are
provided for maintenance and
service.
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G. E. Variable Inlet
Guide Vane System
Hydraulic oil pressure at 1500 psig flows to the
variable inlet guide vane system (IGV), the fuel
gas system, and to one side of the hydraulic
dump valve.
The purpose of variable compressor inlet guide
vanes is to provide compressor pulsation
protection during start-up and shutdown. They
are also used during operation under partial load
conditions when waste heat recovery is installed.
The variable inlet guide vane actuator is a
hydraulically actuated assembly used to control
the angle of the guide vanes.
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G. E. Variable Inlet Guide

Vane System
Hydraulic oil pressure at 1500 psig flows to
the variable inlet guide vane system (IGV),
the fuel gas system, and to one side of the
hydraulic dump valve.
The purpose of variable compressor inlet
guide vanes is to provide compressor
pulsation protection during start-up and
shutdown. They are also used during
operation under partial load conditions when
waste heat recovery is installed.
The variable inlet guide vane actuator is a
hydraulically actuated assembly used to
control the angle of the guide vanes.
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G. E. Guide Vane
System Operation
For a normal shutdown, inlet guide
vanes move to the closed position.
In reference to inlet guide vanes, the
term fully closed means that the
vanes have moved to the minimum
open ("closed") position.
Inlet guide vanes do not close
completely like a door or a control
valve. There is some airflow through
the guide vanes during all phases of
Contd.
gas turbine operation.
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In case of a turbine trip, the bleed valves open and the inlet guide vanes
move to their "closed" position.
Inlet guide vanes are automatically positioned during start-up and
shutdown sequences to avoid gas turbine compressor surge.
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Lesson 14 : Trip Oil System

Introduction
Consortium
The preceding lesson presented

information about the hydraulic oil
system. This lesson focuses on the trip
oil system, which is one of the most
critical of the lube oil subsystems.
The purpose of the trip oil system is to
provide protection for the gas turbine.
A brief summary of lube oil functions is
presented because of the interaction
between the trip oil system and other
lube oil functions.
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Lube Oil System

Functions
Lube oil is pressurized to 100
psig by the main shaft-driven
pump. The following systems are
supplied from the lube oil flow:
pressure reducing valve
trip oil
overspeed bolt trip assembly
(Contd.)
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The pressure reducing valve decreases the 100 psig lube oil supply
to 25 psig for the following systems:
bearing lubrication
accessory gear lubrication
hydraulic pump supply pressure
starting means control fluid and lubrication
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Lube Oil System

Functions
The hydraulic pumps take the 25
psig supply pressure and increase
the pressure to 1500 psig for
hydraulic control oil to the following
systems:
inlet guide vanes
fuel control valves
The lube oil at various pressures
lubricates the turbine and generator,
protects the machine, starts the engine
indirectly, and controls fuel gas and the
inlet guide vanes.
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Trip Oil System:

Protective Devices
Electronic protective devices located
throughout the gas turbine activate the
control system. The trip oil is
pressurized to run, depressurized to
trip.
A mechanical or manual trip protective
device is mounted on the accessory
gear.
A manual trip is also located on the
gauge cabinet in the accessory
compartment.
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Trip Oil System: Overspeed

Trip Device
An overspeed bolt assembly is shown in the
figure. The trip oil protection system is located
between the control system and the actuators
(fuel control and inlet guide vane actuators).
Both the fuel valves and the inlet guide vane
servovalves are controlled by hydraulic pressure
at 1500 psig. These are electrohydraulicoperated valves.
An electronic signal from the control system
allows hydraulic oil to either enter or exit a
hydraulic cylinder, which positions the control
valves.
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Trip Oil System: Dump

Valve
Before the 1500 psig oil can reach a control
valve, a dump valve must be closed port,
which is activated by 100 psig trip oil.
The dump solenoid valve and the fuel gas
stop solenoid valve are solenoid-operated
trip oil dump valves.
They are activated by the control system.
When these valves dump, the loss of trip
oil pressure causes other pressureoperated trip valves to dump or close.
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Trip Oil System: Dump

Valve
Closing the fuel control valve shuts
down the turbine.
If the overspeed bolt assembly is
tripped, either manually or
mechanically, trip oil is dumped to
the lube oil reservoir.
Loss of trip oil pressure also causes
control oil pressure to dump,
resulting in an engine shutdown.
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Trip Oil System:

Governor Operation
During normal operation, the governor controls
engine speed through varying load demands.
If the load is removed, the engine starts to
accelerate, the governor closes the throttle
valve, and the engine slows to setpoint speed.
If the load is increased, the engine starts to slow
down, the governor opens the throttle valve,
and the engine accelerates to setpoint speed.
If a large load were suddenly removed (such as
a generator breaker trip), the governor might
not act quickly enough. The engine could
overspeed and destroy the unit.
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Trip Oil System:

Emergency Trip Device
To prevent an uncontrolled overspeed, turbines
are equipped with an emergency overspeed trip
device. If engine speed reaches 112% rated
speed, the trip bolt triggers the dump valve, or
trip valve, which releases control oil pressure
and stops the flow of fuel. The trip bolt is held in
place by a spring at all speeds below trip speed.
As the shaft rotates, centrifugal force tends to
push the weighted bolt head out of the shaft,
but the force of the spring holds the bolt in
place.
If the shaft overspeeds, centrifugal force
overcomes the spring force and the bolt moves
out of the shaft and strikes the trip lever.
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Trip Oil System: Trip

Device Operation
During normal operation, trip oil
pressure compresses spring B and
holds the trip valve open.
If the shaft overspeeds, the trip bolt
strikes the trip lever, releasing the
trip latch.
Spring A moves the hydraulic piston
to the rear, closes the oil inlet line,
Contd.
and opens the trip oil dump line.
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The loss of trip oil pressure allows spring B to extend, closing the valve
plug in the trip valve. Hydraulic oil pressure is released, the fuel flow is
shut off, and the turbine stops.
After a turbine trip, the trip valve must be manually reset and the cause
of the trip corrected before normal operation resumes.
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Lesson 15 : Fuel Systems
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Introduction
This lesson is the first in a series on
fuel gas and liquid fuel systems.
This lesson provides introductory
information on gas turbine fuel
systems.
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Gas Turbine Fuel

Systems: Purpose
The purpose of a fuel system is to supply an
exact amount of clean fuel to the engine under
all operating conditions.
The amount of fuel is based on turbine speed
and load requirements.
The fuel pressure required for a gas turbine is
primarily a function of the compression ratio of
the compressor section.
For example, the lower the compression ratio,
the lower the fuel pressure requirement; the
higher the compression ratio, the higher the
fuel pressure requirement.
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Gas Turbine Fuel

Systems: Purpose
Almost any combustible fluid, either gaseous
or liquid, can be used for turbine fuel.
Some gas turbines operate on both liquid fuel
and fuel gas.
Both fuel gas and liquid fuel must be clean for
efficient turbine operations. However, fuel
requirement specifications differ among
manufacturers.
The following information on fuel gas and
liquid fuel requirements is provided to
illustrate the differences in specifications.
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Fuel Gas
Requirements
The figure lists typical fuel
gas requirements for gas
turbine engines. These
requirements are:
lower heating value
supply pressure
gas temperature
fuel quality
The following page shows

specifications for liquid fuel.
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Liquid Fuel
Requirements
The figure lists typical liquid fuel
requirements for gas turbine
engines. These requirements are:
fuel temperature
fuel viscosity
pour point
fuel quality
NOTE: Always check the turbine manufacturer's fuel specifications to ensure that the fuel
meets the specifications for the gas turbine you are operating.
The main components of a fuel gas system and liquid fuel system are given next. We will
begin with the fuel gas system.
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Fuel Gas System:

Components
The main components of a typical
gas turbine fuel gas system are as
follows:
fuel shutoff valve (SOV)
vent valve
pressure control valve (PCV)
pressure indicator controller (PIC)
pressure safety valve(s) (PSV)
filter separators
control system
fuel gas heater (optional depending on
gas dew point)
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Liquid Fuel System:

Components
The main components of a
typical liquid fuel system
are:
manifold
nozzles
pumps
filters
pressure switches
fuel control valves
solenoid-operating valves
Contd.
control system
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NOTE: Nozzles are not shown in the figure.

The components for both of these fuel systems are discussed in detail
along with their operation in later lessons.
The main difference between the two systems is that the liquid fuel
system has a storage tank and fuel pumps, whereas a fuel gas system
does not.
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Lesson : 16 Fuel Gas Supply System

Fuel Gas Supply
System: Purpose
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The purpose of the gas turbine fuel

gas supply system is to provide the
correct amount of clean, dry fuel
gas to the engine under all
operating conditions.
Each component of the fuel gas
supply system is important to its
overall operating efficiency. The
information on the following page
highlights the seven main
components in a typical fuel gas
supply system.
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Components & Operation

The main components of a typical
fuel gas supply system are as
follows:
fuel shutoff valve (SOV)

vent valve
pressure control valve (PCV)
pressure indicator controller (PIC)
pressure safety valve(s) (PSV)
filter separator
control system
The purpose and operation of these

components are discussed next.
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Fuel Shutoff & Vent Valve

The purpose of the fuel shutoff valve
is to allow, or prevent, the flow of
fuel to the gas turbine fuel system.
The purpose of the vent valve is to
release the pressure of trapped gas in
the fuel lines.
The position of both valves is
controlled by actuators, which are
operated by instrument air or control
oil.
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In the figure, a hand switch controls a four-way air valve to send

instrument air pressure to either side of the shutoff valve actuator piston.
In some cases actuator piston movement is controlled by hydraulic
control oil ported through a servo valve.
The actuator is operated by the hand switch or by the fire detection
system by means of an interlock. This operation is discussed next.
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Fuel Shutoff & Vent Valve

The hand switch opens or closes the
fuel shutoff valve through the control
system. The switch may be located at
the local control panel, the DCS, or
both locations. In some systems, the
shutoff valve is electrically operated.
The fire detection system sends a
signal through the interlock when an
engine fire is detected. The interlock
closes the fuel shutoff valve and
opens the vent valve.
Contd.
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The interlock receives signals from the hand switch and the fire
detection system to change the positions of the fuel shutoff valve and
the vent valve.
When the fuel shutoff valve is closed, the vent valve must be open. The
interlock is usually a part of the control system logic that closes the vent
valve before the fuel shutoff valve opens.
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PCV & PIC Valve

The figure shows fuel gas flow when the
fuel shutoff valve is open. The first
device located downstream of the shutoff
valve is the pressure control valve (PCV).
In the figure, the pressure control valve
regulates fuel gas pressure to the turbine
according to instrument air signals from
the pressure indicator controller (PIC).
The pressure indicator controller
measures the fuel gas pressure,
compares this pressure to the setpoint,
and modulates the pressure control valve
to maintain setpoint pressure.
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Pressure Safety Valve

In the figure, a pressure safety valve
(PSV) is located between the
pressure control valve and the
pressure indicator controller. The
purpose of the pressure safety valve
is to vent excessive fuel gas pressure
to the flare should the PCV
malfunction.
Two other instruments receive fuel
gas pressure from the same
instrument line as the pressure
indicator controller: the local
pressure indicator (PI) and the
pressure transmitter (PT).
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The pressure transmitter signals gas pressure information to the DCS

pressure indicator (PI), low pressure alarm (PAL), and high pressure alarm
(PAH).
The fuel gas pressure can be read from the turbine control system CRT and
from the DCS.
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Filter Separators
The purpose of the filter separators in the fuel
gas supply system is to provide filtration and
separation of the fuel gas before it enters the
fuel control system.
The fuel gas should be relatively clean and dry
by the time it reaches this part of the system.
Operators should monitor the filter separator
sight glass (LG) during routine operating checks.
Any liquid accumulation must be drained off. If
liquid levels in the filter separator become
excessively high, the high level switch (LSH)
signals the DCS high liquid level alarm (LAH) and
an alarm is initiated.
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Filter Separators
Like the lube oil and some hydraulic oil filters,
the filter separators are equipped with
differential pressure indicators and alarms. The
system shown in the figure contains a high
differential pressure indicator switch (PDISH)
and a DCS differential pressure alarm (PDAH).
The differential pressure initiates the high
differential pressure alarm when the high
differential pressure setpoint is reached.
Operators should place the standby filter in
operation and service the operating filter before
the high differential pressure alarm is initiated.
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Gas Turbine
Control System
Fuel gas flows from the filter to
the gas turbine fuel system which
is controlled by the turbine control
system.
Several measuring devices are
located between the filter
separator and the gas turbine:
pressure transmitter (PT)
flow transmitter (FT) - optional
temperature measuring elements
(TE)
Contd.
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These devices provide fuel gas supply information to the control system
instruments.
This information may be used for pressure indicators, pressure recorders,
pressure alarms, flow indicators, totalizers, recorders, temperature indicators,
and temperature recorders.
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Control System
The information is also analyzed and
computed by the control system to
schedule fuel flow to the engine as
needed for speed and load
requirements.
The control system is discussed in
more detail in the next lesson.
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Lesson:17 Fuel Gas Control System

Introduction
Consortium
The preceding lesson discussed the

components of a gas turbine fuel gas
system. It also explained the operation of
those components.
The focus of the preceding lesson was the

operation of a fuel gas system before the
fuel supply enters the gas turbine
package.
This lesson focuses on the control of a
fuel gas system in relation to gas turbine
operation.
The figure shows a simplified gas turbine
package fuel gas system. It represents
the system on the gas turbine being
controlled.
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Fuel Gas Control

System: Purpose
The purpose of a fuel gas control system is
to provide required fuel flow and pressure
to the engine. It uses specially designed
components to accomplish this function.
A simplified view of the fuel gas control
system is shown in the figure.
The diagram on the following page shows a
complete fuel gas control system with the
main components highlighted. Each of the
highlighted components and its operation
are discussed in the following pages.
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Fuel Gas Control

System: Components
The main components of the fuel
gas control system are:
strainer
gas supply pressure switch
stop/speed ratio valve assembly
(stop/ratio valve and gas control valve)
fuel gas pressure transducer
fuel vent solenoid valve
four linear variable differential
transformers (LVDT) position sensors
two electrohydraulic servo valves
three gas pressure gauges
Speedtronic controls
The strainer is discussed first.
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Strainer
The purpose of the strainer is to remove
foreign particles from the fuel gas before it
enters the stop/speed ratio valve assembly.
A blowdown connection on the bottom of the
strainer body is used for periodic cleaning of
the strainer screen.
The next fuel gas control system component
discussed is the supply pressure switch.
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Gas Supply Pressure Switch

The gas supply pressure switch is installed
in the gas piping upstream of the
stop/speed ratio valve.
This switch initiates an alarm when fuel gas
pressure decreases below the setpoint.
Downstream of the gas supply pressure
switch is the stop/speed ratio valve and gas
control valve assembly. This assembly is
discussed next.
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Stop/Speed Ratio & Gas

Control Valve
The combination stop/speed ratio and gas control
valve assembly contains the following
independent valves:
stop/speed ratio valve
gas control valve
Both of these valves are actuated by hydraulic
pressure through servos which receive the signal
from the Speedtronic control system (discussed
later in this lesson).
The stop/speed ratio valve has two functions:
a stop valve
gas pressure regulation
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Stop/Speed Ratio Valve

As a stop valve, the stop/speed ratio
valve shuts off fuel gas flow during
normal and emergency shutdowns.
The hydraulic dump valve, control oil, and
servo valves control the action of the
stop/speed ratio valve as a stop valve.
The hydraulic dump valve is located
between the electrohydraulic servo valve
and the actuating cylinder.
(Contd.)
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When control oil pressure is low, a spring moves an internal spool to the
"dump" position.
When hydraulic pressure is removed, a closing spring on the stop/speed ratio
valve plug closes the valve.
Fuel gas flow to the gas control valve and gas turbine is stopped.
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As a pressure regulator, the stop/ speed
ratio valve regulates the gas pressure to
the gas control valve.
The stop/speed ratio valve is positioned by
the actuating cylinder and servo valve
according to FSR (Fuel Stroke Reference)
signals from the stop/speed ratio valve
control.
(Contd.)
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The stop/speed ratio valve has two control loops:

position control of the valve
gas pressure control to the inlet of the gas control valve referenced to the
speed of the turbine
The stop/speed ratio valve position control loop functions by comparing an
FSR signal with a valve position signal generated by the LVDTs (position
sensors).
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Pressure Transducer
The pressure control loop senses the fuel
gas pressure exiting the stop/speed ratio
valve. The pressure transducer changes the
gas pressure input signal to a DC voltage
output signal. The output signal is relayed
to the stop/speed ratio valve Speedtronic
control.
The Speedtronic control compares the
signals received from the intervalve
pressure, position control loop, and turbine
speed. The control system then adjusts the
stop/speed ratio valve to maintain fuel gas
pressure requirements.
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Gas Control Valve

The purpose of the gas control valve is to
meter or supply fuel gas to the turbine based
on turbine speed and requirements of the load
or driven equipment. The valve is activated by
an electronic signal from the GCV segment of
Speedtronic control system.
The gas control valve position is detected by
the LVDTs. The sensors signal the valve's
position to the GCV Speedtronic control, which
changes the signal to a DC signal.
The DC signal is compared with the FSR input
signal.
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Gas Control Valve

If the feedback signal is in error (differs) with
the FSR, the control system signals the hydraulic
servo valve to adjust the gas control valve in a
direction to decrease the error.
This adjustment maintains a relationship
between valve position and FSR.
The gas control valve then meters the correct
fuel flow.
Located between the stop/speed ratio valve and
gas control valve is the vent solenoid valve, the
component discussed next.
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Vent Solenoid Valve

The purpose of the fuel vent solenoid valve is to vent fuel
gas from the line between the stop/speed ratio and gas
control valve when the gas turbine is shut down and prior
to firing the machine during startup.
This venting prevents gas pressure buildup between the
valves and fuel gas leakage through the gas control
valve.
The solenoid valve vents the gas line when the solenoid is
de-energized.
When the master control/protection circuit is energized,
the solenoid is energized and the vent valve is closed.
When a turbine start signal is initiated, the vent valve is
closed and remains closed until the turbine is shut down.
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LVDTs (Position
Sensors)
Linear variable differential
transformers (LVDTs) are position
sensors attached to the valve stems.
A fuel gas control system contains
four LVDTs:
two sense the position of the
two sense the position of the gas
control valve
( Contd.)
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LVDTs sense the position of the SRV and the GCV and transmit signals to
the appropriate Speedtronic control system segment.
Here the signals are changed into DC signals, which are compared to the
FSR.
This signal is then transmitted to the servo valves, which regulate the flow
of oil to the actuator cylinder, repositioning the SRV and the GCV.
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Servo Valves
The electrohydraulic servo valves are two-stage,
four-way flow control devices.
They provide directional and proportional
hydraulic flow control in response to a low
power DC input signal from the Speedtronic
control system.
The servo valves control the direction and rate
of movement of the pistons in the stop/speed
ratio valve and gas control valve actuating
cylinders.
The first-stage valve changes the small electric
signal into a hydraulic force that precisely
positions the piston of the second-stage valve.
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Servo Valves
The second-stage valve meters
hydraulic pressure to and from the
actuating cylinder. Movement of the
single-acting piston actuator is
opposed by a spring in the gas control
valve.
The last two components in the fuel
gas control system are the pressure
gauges and Speedtronic control
system. The pressure gauges are
discussed next.
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Pressure Gauges
Three gas pressure gauges are installed in
the fuel gas supply line.
The upstream gauge measures fuel gas
pressure entering the stop/speed ratio
valve.
The middle gauge measures fuel gas
pressure between the stop/speed ratio
valve and the gas control valve.
The downstream gauge measures the
pressure of the gas that has been metered
to the fuel gas manifold and fuel nozzles.
Next we will discuss the Speedtronic
control system as a component of the
overall fuel gas control system.
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Speedtronic Control
System
The positions of the stop/speed ratio valve and
gas control valve are controlled by an electrical
signal from the Speedtronic control system.
The signal causes the electro-hydraulic servo
valve to send oil to or release oil from the
hydraulic cylinder that actuates the stop/speed
ratio valve and gas control valve.
A signal from the position sensors (LVDTs) tells
the Speedtronic control system that the valve is
in the correct position or that a position change
is needed.
We will now take a more in-depth

look at the components of the
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Speedtronic Control
Components
The Speedtronic control system is a
microcomputer control system that
provides analog and digital signals
to control and protect gas turbine
operation.
The primary operating parameters
of a gas turbine are start-up,
temperature, and speed. All are
controlled by regulating fuel flow to
the engine.
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Turbine operations are sensed and used as feedback signals to the

The Speedtronic control system is also equipped with protective devices as a
backup to the main system.
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Control Loops
The Speedtronic control
system consists of three major
control loops:
start-up and shutdown
speed
temperature
The output of these control loops
is connected to a minimum value
select logic circuit.
Contd.
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The minimum value select logic circuit interfaces the speed, temperature,
and start-up control output signals to FSR for fuel control.
Only the control segment (e.g., start-up, speed, or temperature) calling for
the lowest voltage output is allowed to pass the gate to the fuel control
system as controlling FSR voltage. FSR control is the command signal for
fuel.
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Start-Up & Shutdown

Control Loops
Proper speed sensing is an
important part of the start-up and
shutdown sequence control of the
turbine.
The graphic shows the speed
sensors used on G.E. gas
turbines:
zero-speed detector
minimum-speed relay detector
accelerating relay speed detector
Contd.
high-speed relay detector
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The following is a basic description of how these sensors function.

If speed is zero, permissive logic allows clutch engagement and the cranking
sequence for turbine start-up is initiated.
The zero-speed detector provides a signal when the turbine shaft starts
rotating.
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Start-Up & Shutdown

Control Loops
During the shutdown cycle, the zero-speed
detector provides a signal to permit the
ratchet gear, or turning device, to be placed
in service in the cool-down sequence.
A minimum speed detector indicates that
the turbine has reached the minimum firing
speed before ignition.
The acceleration speed relay indicates that the turbine has reached approximately 40%
to 50% speed in the acceleration cycle.
The high-speed sensor indicates that the turbine is at operating speed and that the
accelerating sequence is complete.
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Temperature Control
Loop
The next main component
discussed is the temperature
control loop.
The purpose of the temperature
control loop is to limit the turbine
firing temperature by regulating
fuel flow.
The actual firing temperature is
most difficult to measure and
Contd.
generally is not measured.
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Exhaust temperature is measurable and is proportional to the firing

temperature.
Thermocouples mounted in the exhaust provide temperature feedback
proportional to the firing temperature.
Air is more dense on cool days, causing the firing temperature to increase for
a given speed.
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Gas Turbine
Protective System
The increased firing temperature
improves turbine efficiency, but the
control system must prevent
overfiring the machine. This is
accomplished by the control system
lowering the temperature control
point.
Protection systems are also provided
to prevent abnormal conditions that
can damage the turbine.
Contd.
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These control and protective systems are independent systems that back up
the primary control systems.
The protective systems will trip the machine when overspeed or overtemperature trip conditions occur.
The over-temperature system protects the gas turbine against possible
damage caused by overfiring. It is a backup system that operates only after
failure of the temperature control loops.
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Supertonic Control:
Basic Function
The basic function of the
Speedtronic control system is
described next.
Under normal operating conditions,
the temperature control system
limits increases in fuel flow when
the firing temperature limit is
reached.
Contd.
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If the system malfunctions, exhaust temperature can exceed control limits. If

a malfunction occurs, the over-temperature protection system provides an
over-temperature alarm before it trips the gas turbine.
Speed control software changes the FSR based on the difference between the
actual turbine generator speed/load and the speed/load reference set point.
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Speedtronic Control:
Basic Function
When the generator breaker is closed, on a
power grid, speed is held relatively constant,
or synchronous. Fuel flow in excess of that
necessary to maintain full speed/no load will
increase power generator output capabilities
instead of increasing turbine speed.
Isochronous controls hold turbine speed
steady during load changes.
When there is a difference between turbine
speed and setpoint, the electronic controls
increase or decrease the FSR until there are no
error signals.
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Liquid Fuel System: Purpose

The purpose of a liquid fuel system is to
deliver metered quantities of fuel, at the
correct pressure, to the engine.
Gas turbine liquid fuels are liquid
hydrocarbons similar to kerosene. Almost
any combustible fluid can be used for
turbine fuel, although high viscosity fuels
present special problems.
The figure shows a typical liquid fuel
system. Liquid fuel, or fuel oil, is stored
in a storage vessel and routed to the gas
turbine.
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Liquid Fuel System

Components
typical liquid fuel system are as
follows:
fuel storage tank
fuel oil pumps
pressure switches
fuel filters
manifold
nozzles
fuel control valve
solenoid-operated valves
control system
A fuel storage tank is discussed first.
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Fuel Tank Storage &

PSV
The purpose of a fuel storage tank is to store fuel
oil received from an outside source. Storage
tanks usually store enough fuel for 24 hours of
gas turbine operation. They are sometimes called
day tanks.
Fuel storage tanks are often equipped with the
following devices:
relief valve
pressure controls
pressure indicator
temperature indicator
level indicators
level controls and/or alarms
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The relief valve (PSV) is a safety device

designed to prevent excessive pressure in
the tank.
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Pressure, Temperature,
& Level Controls
In the figure, the storage tank is protected against
overpressurization by pressure controls. These
controls consist of a pressure transmitter (PT),
controller (PIC), actuator (PY), and control valve
(PV).
Operators can monitor the fuel oil storage tank
pressure at local pressure indicators (PI).
A local temperature indicator (TI) and a level
gauge (LG) are also provided.
Another level gauge, usually a sight glass, is
installed on the boot of the tank.
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Level Control & Shutoff

Valve
A level transmitter (LT) signals fuel level
information to the DCS level indicator (LI). The
level indicator contains alarms for high level, low
level, and low-low level. The low-low level alarm
is usually accompanied by a unit shutdown.
In the figure, the storage tank shutoff valve
(MOV) is motor operated. The valve is opened or
closed by a hand switch (HS).
The next components discussed are the fuel oil
pumps.
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Fuel Oil Pumps & Hand

Switches
The purpose of fuel oil pumps is to
deliver fuel oil, under pressure, to
the gas turbine fuel control system.
Fuel oil pumps are started and
stopped by a local HOA hand switch
(HS). HOA means
hand/off/automatic.
When the hand switch is in the H
position, the fuel oil pump is under
manual control. When in the O
position, the pump is off. (Contd.)
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When both pump switches are placed in the A position, the running pump
becomes the lead pump and the other pump is in auto standby.
If the lead pump fails when operating with both pumps in auto, the
standby pump will start automatically with no interruption in fuel supply.
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Fuel Boost Inlet Pump

There are two types of liquid fuel
system pumps:
fuel boost inlet
high pressure fuel
The purpose of a fuel boost inlet
pump is to raise the inlet fuel
pressure to the pressure that is
required for proper fuel system
operation.
(Contd.)
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The boost pump is installed upstream from the low pressure duplex fuel
filters.
An electric boost pump is a rotary, positive-displacement, gear, motor-driven
pump. The pump takes fuel from the low pressure liquid fuel supply and
delivers it to the fuel system inlet at the required pressure.
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Hp Fuel Pump, Pressure

Switch, & Gauge
The high pressure fuel pump is a geartype, positive displacement pump and
may either be engine-driven or electric
motor-driven.
The low fuel pressure switch senses fuel
pressure to the high pressure fuel pump.
This switch initiates engine shutdown if
fuel pressure decreases below the
setpoint. A pressure gauge, with the
switch, indicates the inlet fuel pressure.
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Fuel Filters
Fuel oil flows from the fuel oil pump to the gas
turbine via the pump discharge header. In the
figure, a filter removes solid particles from the
fuel oil.
In a liquid fuel system, filters are of two
types:
low pressure duplex filters
high pressure fuel filter
The duplex filter assembly incorporates two
parallel-mounted filters equipped with a
selector valve, filter check valves, and a
differential pressure switch.
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Fuel Filters
Each filter contains two replaceable
filter elements with a 10-micron
nominal rating, connected to the
fuel system through the control
valve so that fuel flow may be
directed through either filter. This
arrangement serves two purposes:
servicing of the inactive filter
during engine operation
manual transfer to the clean filter
without engine shutdown (Contd.)
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The high pressure fuel filter is installed in the fuel line between the high
pressure fuel pump and the fuel control valve. It contains a replaceable
filter element rated at 40 microns nominal.
The fuel manifold is discussed next.
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Fuel Manifold
The purpose of a fuel manifold is to divide a
single fuel supply into several outlet streams.
A liquid fuel manifold usually has an inlet and
outlet orifice called a boss. There is an inlet
boss and an outlet boss for each fuel nozzle.
Injector tube assemblies are connected to the
fuel outlet bosses and carry the fuel to the fuel
nozzle.
A liquid fuel manifold is sometimes called a fuel
flow divider manifold. It incorporates inlet and
outlet fuel connections for manifold-to-injector
tube assemblies that carry the liquid fuel to the
fuel nozzles.
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Fuel Manifold
Solar gas turbines may also have an air
assist manifold. Air assist manifold-toinjector tube assemblies carry fuelatomizing air to the fuel nozzles.
The fuel and air mixture ratio is the
weight of combustor primary air in
relation to the weight of the fuel. A
specific proportion of air is needed for
efficient operation.
Liquid fuel flows from the fuel manifold to
the fuel nozzles, which are discussed
next.
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Fuel Nozzles
Fuel nozzles are located in the inlet of
the combustor.
The purpose of fuel nozzles is to
deliver highly atomized fuel in a
controlled spray pattern in the
combustors.
Fuel nozzles are of three types:
simplex
duplex
air blast
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Simplex Fuel Nozzle

The simplex fuel nozzle has a small
orifice that provides one spray
pattern.
The simplex nozzle has a set of vanes,
called flutes, that give a swirling
motion to the fuel. This motion
reduces the axial velocity of the fuel
and provides better mixing of fuel and
air.
Duplex fuel nozzles are:

single line
dual line
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Single Line Duplex Fuel

Nozzle
The single line duplex fuel nozzle
receives fuel at one inlet port.
A flow divider in the nozzle distributes
fuel through two spray orifices. The
inner orifice sprays at a wide angle.
The outer orifice opens at a preset
pressure and sprays the primary fuel.
(Contd.)
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The higher volume and higher pressure fuel flow from the outer orifice
narrows the spray pattern so that fuel does not touch the combustion liner.
Single line nozzles also use a spin chamber for each orifice. This chamber
provides efficient fuel mixing and fuel-air residence time over different fuel
pressures.
The head of the fuel nozzle usually has air holes that provide some primary
air for combustion. This air also cools and cleans the nozzle head and spray
orifices.
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Dual Line Duplex Fuel

Nozzle
The dual line duplex fuel nozzle is
similar to the single line except it does
not have a flow divider to separate
primary and secondary fuel.
The duplex fuel nozzle has a fuel inlet
port for each spray orifice. The dual line
duplex nozzle contains flutes and
cooling air orifices.
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Air Blast Fuel Nozzle

The air blast fuel nozzle enhances the
atomization process and produces finer
fuel droplets. This nozzle is more
effective during start-up when low fuel
pressure causes atomization problems.
By using a high velocity airflow, air
blast nozzles atomize the fuel more
completely than can be accomplished
by only pressurized fuel.
(Contd.)
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A cone-shaped, atomized spray pattern provides a large fuel surface of

very fine fuel droplets. This pattern optimizes mixing of fuel and air and
ensures the highest heat release from the fuel for more complete
combustion.
The most desirable flame pattern occurs at higher compressor discharge
pressures. During start-up and other off-rated speeds, flame length
increases because of low compression.
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Compression Ratio
Recall from a previous lesson that a gas
turbine engine must maintain its rated
compression ratio for efficient operation.
Compression ratio is the amount of discharge
pressure in pounds per square inch absolute
(psia) over suction pressure in psia.
As compressor discharge pressure increases,
fuel pressure to the engine also increases. As
the engine nears rated speed, fuel flow is
regulated according to load requirements.
Fuel flow as it controls turbine

speed is discussed next.
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Fuel Control Valve:

Purpose & Components
Turbine speed is controlled by the fuel control valve.
The purpose of a fuel control valve is to:
provide the correct air/fuel ratio to the combustion
section
regulate fuel flow to control engine speed and
exhaust temperature
The main components of a liquid fuel control
valve are:
fuel metering valve
fuel topping actuator solenoid
Pcd bleed valve
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Solenoid Operation
Valves
The fuel valve assembly is mounted on the
fuel control assembly. The assembly is an
explosion-proof junction box, on which are
mounted four solenoid-operated valves.
These valves and their functions are
described next.
The two-way, normally closed bypass valve
connects fuel flow from the fuel control
valve to a return line leading to the fuel
filter inlet.
The valve remains closed during start-up
and operation. Upon engine shutdown, the
bypass valve opens.
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Two-Way Fuel Valve

The two-way, normally closed fuel
valve operates in conjunction with
the bypass valve during the startup cycle and normal engine
operation.
The fuel valve opens during the
start-up sequence when the
bypass valve closes. This directs
metered fuel flow to the fuel
nozzles.
During engine shutdown, the valve
closes.
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Torch & Purge Valves

The two-way, normally closed torch valve
functions for only a short time during engine
start-up.
Ten seconds after the engine reaches 15%
speed, the valve opens, fuel is directed to the
igniter torch assembly, and ignition occurs.
At a predetermined engine temperature, the
valve closes and combustion is self-sustained.
The normally closed purge valve is a two-way
valve connecting the fuel supply line to the
fuel nozzles and to a return line.
During start-up, the valve opens. The purge
valve closes when the engine reaches 15%
speed.
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Fuel Valve Linkage

Assembly
On engine shutdown, the purge valve again opens

to permit drainage (purging) of the liquid fuel lines.
The valve closes as engine speed drops below 15%
speed.
The linkage assembly is the interconnecting device
between the fuel control valve and the
electrohydraulic servo actuator.
The assembly consists of a linkage rod and rod
ends. One end of the rod is attached to the servo
actuator output shaft, and the opposite end is
connected to the fuel control valve fuel metering
lever.
Movement of the servo actuator results in
repositioning the fuel metering valve.
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Fuel Topping Actuator

Solenoid
The fuel topping actuator solenoid
operates on input signals from the
electrical control system to decrease
fuel flow during the start-up cycle if
turbine temperature exceeds a preset
limit.
When energized, the fuel topping
actuator solenoid reduces the metering
valve open position.
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Pcd Bleed Valve

The Pcd bleed valve is a solenoidactuated, normally open, three-way
valve mounted on the liquid fuel control
valve housing.
The Pcd bleed valve operates on input
signals from the electrical control
system.
The purpose of the Pcd bleed valve is to
receive or vent Pcd from or to the
acceleration limiter.
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Pcd & Turbine Speed

Measurement
During engine operation, the valve closes and Pcd is
admitted to the acceleration limiter through an orifice.
Upon engine shutdown, the valve opens and vents the
acceleration limiter.
An increase or decrease in the turbine load causes a
corresponding change in the turbine speed.
Turbine speed can be measured by the following
means:
flyweight governor
magnetic sensors
The flyweight governor is discussed next.
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Flyweight Governor
A flyweight governor consists of a pair
of weights, called flyweights, a tension
spring, and a governor rod.
The governor rod rotates, and
centrifugal force moves the flyweights
apart.
Movement in the flyweight position
also repositions the governor rod. The
rod connects the action of the
flyweights to the throttle valve, which
controls fuel flow.
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Magnetic Sensors &

Main Fuel Actuator
Magnetic or pickup sensors consist of
a permanent magnet, wrapped with a
coil in a sealed case. The sensors are
mounted around a gear wheel on the
gas turbine rotor shaft.
Each sensor generates an electrical
signal proportional to engine speed. A
signal is sent each time a gear tooth
passes under the sensor.
( Contd.)
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Modern gas turbines use an electric or electronically controlled main fuel

actuator to control turbine speed.
The main fuel actuator controller can be programmed to maintain a constant
gas producer turbine speed, a constant power turbine speed, or a constant
compressor discharge pressure, depending on the requirements of the
system.
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Probes & Sensors

The controller receives signals from
the:
magnetic proximity probes or sensors
exhaust gas temperature sensors
Shaft speed may be monitored by magnetic
proximity probes positioned near the shaft.
These are called "key phasors." These probes
emit an electromagnetic field that fluctuates
each time the key phasor slot passes the
probe. One fluctuation in the circuit equals one
revolution of the shaft.
(Contd.)
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Shaft rpm is compared with speed setpoints by the main fuel actuator
controller. The controller then increases or decreases fuel flow until the
desired speed is reached.
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Temperature Sensors
Exhaust gas temperature is the most
critical of all gas turbine engine operating
parameters. Exhaust gas temperature
sensors send signals to the main fuel
actuator controller. The exhaust gas
temperature is monitored by several
thermocouples, which signal temperature
information to the engine temperature
controller.
(Contd.)
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Several different terms are used to describe exhaust gas

temperatures:
Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT): temperature is monitored upstream of
the turbine wheel(s)
Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT): temperature is taken at an
intermediate position between multiple turbine wheels
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT), or Turbine Outlet Temperature (TOT) is
taken downstream of the turbine wheel(s)
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Lesson : 19 Liquid Fuel System Ops
Consortium
Introduction
The preceding lesson explained liquid
fuel system components and their
function.
This last lesson on gas turbine fuel
systems provides information about the
operation of a liquid fuel system as a
complete system.
A Solar gas turbine liquid fuel system is
used as an example.
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Liquid Fuel System:

Purpose
The purpose of a liquid fuel system is to
deliver clean liquid fuel to the engine in
correct volumes at the correct pressure.
The delivery of the fuel is controlled by a
microcomputer control system. This
system monitors all phases of engine
operation, from start-up through
shutdown.
(Contd.)
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The rest of this lesson describes the operation of a typical liquid fuel system
during start-up, run, and shutdown sequences.
Operation of the liquid fuel system during the start-up sequence is described
first.
NOTE: The start-up operation is for a local, manual initiation after all pre-start
conditions have been satisfied.
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System Operation:
Start-up Sequence
1) The start-up sequence of the fuel system is
initiated when the start switch is pressed.
2) The load/speed sensing control unit (governor)
is energized.
3) A signal is transmitted to the electrohydraulic
servo actuator. The actuator retracts and moves
the fuel control linkage toward the maximum fuel
position when servo oil pressure builds up.
This action moves the metering valve lever from
the minimum fuel stop position. This also allows
the acceleration limiter to progressively enrich
the fuel and air mixture in accordance with the
acceleration schedule.
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System Operation:
Start-Up Sequence
Engine temperature control is offset during
start-up. The impending high temperature
alarm and high turbine temperature shutdown
setpoints are temporarily increased
approximately 50F.
During the start-up sequence when the
engine is operating between 0% and 15%
speed, the liquid fuel purge solenoid valve is
energized and remains open until 10 seconds
after 15% engine speed is reached.
The electric liquid fuel boost pumps are
energized, if used.
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System Operation:
Start-Up Sequence
The air assist solenoid-operated shutoff
valve is energized (opened). As the
engine accelerates, the fuel pressure,
Pcd, and engine oil pressure increases.
If 15% engine speed is not reached in
30 seconds after starters begin to crank,
engine shutdown is initiated and FAIL TO
CRANK malfunction is indicated.
The run sequence of fuel system
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System Operation: Run

Sequence
At 15% engine speed plus 10 seconds:
1) The Pcd bleed valve opens and begins

to act on the acceleration limiter.
2) The purge valve closes.
3) The torch valve and the fuel valve open.
4) The electric motor-driven main fuel
pump starts, if used.
5) The ignition relay and ignition exciter
are energized. Spark plug starts firing.
6) Fuel flows through the torch valve to the
torch.
(Contd.)
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System Operation: Run Sequence

7) Torch fuel is atomized by air assist pressure
and is ignited in combustion air.
8) Metered fuel from the fuel control valve flows
through the fuel valve and the torch bias relief
valve to the fuel nozzles.
This fuel flow is then atomized by air assist
pressure.
The torch flame ignites the fuel and air mixture
from the fuel nozzles, beginning combustion.
The engine continues to accelerate. When engine
temperature reaches setpoint, approximately
350F, the torch valve and ignition are deenergized.
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Sequence
If turbine temperature has not reached
the setpoint in 25 seconds after attaining
15% engine speed, engine shutdown is
initiated and IGNITION FAIL malfunction
is indicated.
If high pressure fuel pump suction
pressure is lower than the setpoint of the
low fuel pressure switch, approximately 7
psig, 25 seconds after attaining 15%
engine speed, engine shutdown is
initiated and LOW FUEL PRESS
malfunction is indicated.
(Contd.)
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After light-off occurs, turbine temperature increases rapidly. If temperature

exceeds setpoint while accelerating to 90% engine speed, engine
temperature control warning IMPENDING HIGH ENGINE TEMPERATURE is
initiated.
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Sequence
Fuel topping solenoid valve is energized.
Fuel flow is reduced to topping flow until
turbine temperature decreases to normal.
The fuel topping solenoid is then deenergized.
The fuel topping solenoid operates with onoff action if the over-temperature condition
persists until 90% engine speed is attained.
If the temperature topping circuit
malfunctions, a further temperature increase
will activate a backup shutdown circuit.
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Sequence
When engine speed reaches 66%,
the engine start system and the
atomizing air assist shutoff valve are
both de-energized.
Fuel atomizing air is then supplied by
Pcd.
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Sequence
When engine speed reaches
90%:
1)
The electronic load/speed controller

(governor) takes control of the
electrohydraulic servo actuator and
positions the fuel control linkage to
accelerate to operating speed.
2) Offset setpoints are transferred to
normal operating values for engine
temperature control.
(Contd.)
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Sequence
3) The topping control circuit is deenergized.
4) The temperature shutdown timer is
armed.
5) Fuel is metered to the engine
according to the demand of the
electronic control system, basedon load,
speed, or temperature.
(Contd.)
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6) Engine speed increases to operating speed.

7) The following events take place if a turbine over-temperature condition
occurs when the engine is operating above 90% speed:
8) At approximately 1,155F, the engine shutdown timer is de-energized.
9) After a 5-second delay, allowing for transient over-temperatures, HIGH
ENG TEMP alarm is indicated.
10) At approximately 1200F, engine shutdown is immediate and HIGH ENG
TEMP is indicated and engine shutdown is initiated.
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System Operation:
Shutdown Sequence
Shutdown of the fuel system operation
occurs in sequence when the stop switch
or emergency stop switch (Local Panel) is
pressed.
When start/run relays are deenergized:
1) The postlube timer relay begins to time
out.
(Contd.)
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2) The pre/postlube pump motor is energized.

3) The purge valve opens to purge the fuel system until engine speed
decreases below 15%.
4) The fuel bypass valve opens to the filter outlet line.
5) The Pcd bleed valve opens to cutoff Pcd air and vent the fuel control
valve.
6) Fuel valve closes to fuel injectors.
7) Control power to the electronic load/speed sensing control is stopped, and
the governor is deactivated.
(Contd.)
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8) Main electric fuel pump, if used,

and fuel boost pump are both deenergized.
9) When the fuel supply to the
engine is cut off, combustion stops
and the engine begins to
decelerate.
10) When engine speed
decreasesbelow 15%, the purge
valve and the fuel bypass valve
close.
11) The engine coasts to a stop.
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System Operation:
Shutdown Sequence
55 minutes after the stop switch is
pressed:
1) The postlube timer relay times out.
2) The pre/postlube oil pump is deenergized.
3) The postlube cycle is complete.
4) The master control switch can be turned
off and the engine is ready for restart.
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Lesson: 20 Pneumatic Starting System

Introduction
Preceding lessons have discussed gas
turbine engine components and
operation, oil systems, and fuel
systems. This series of lessons will
describe gas turbine engine starting
systems.
This lesson presents information about
a pneumatic starting system, its
components, and operation. A Solar
Centaur pneumatic starting system is
used as an example.
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Pneumatic Starting
System: Purpose
The purpose of a gas turbine engine
starting system is to provide power to:
rotate the turbine shaft to starting speed
assist the turbine to self-sustaining speed after
combustion occurs
Most gas turbine engines are started by starter
power input to the main accessory gearbox. The
gearbox is connected to the turbine rotor and
compressor.
Any gas under pressure may be used as a power
source for a pneumatic starting system.
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Starting System: Components

Natural gas must meet the manufacturer's
specifications. A typical pneumatic starting
system requires approximately 2600 scfm.
The main components of a Solar

Centaur starting system are as
follows:
gas inlet strainer
pilot gas filter

solenoid-operated pilot valve
starter motor shutoff valve
lubricator
starter motors
The gas inlet strainer is discussed first.
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Starting System: Gas

Inlet Strainer
The gas inlet strainer is located at the gas
turbine skid upstream of the shutoff valve.
A shutoff valve is located downstream of the
strainer to shut off the gas supply to the starter
motor.
The strainer is a Y-shaped fitting that houses a
removable cylindrical "strainer" screen.
A pilot supply line branches off from the main
gas supply to the starting system. This line
provides pneumatic pressure to the solenoidactivated pilot valve.
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Starting System: Pilot

Gas Filter
A pilot gas filter assembly, consisting of a
10-micron filter and a pressure-reducing
orifice, is installed in the pilot supply line
upstream of the pilot valve.
The filter prevents foreign matter from
entering the solenoid-operated pilot valve.
The pressure-reducing orifice creates a
pressure drop in the pilot supply line. This
pressure drop ensures that the pilot valve
will operate properly in the event of
excessive gas pressure.
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Starting System: Pilot

Valve
The pilot valve is a three-way, solenoid-operated
valve that is powered by 24-volt DC from the
electrical system and actuated by the control
system.
The pilot valve opens and closes the starter motor
shutoff valve.
When the solenoid is de-energized, pilot gas
pressure closes the starter motor shutoff valve.
When the solenoid is energized, pilot gas pressure
is vented, allowing the shutoff valve to open.
A pilot relief valve protects the filter and pilot valve
from excessive pressure.
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Starting System: Starter

Shutoff Valve
The pilot-actuated starter motor
shutoff valve controls gas flow from
the supply line to the two starter
motors.
The starter motor shutoff valve is
installed upstream of the lubricator.
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Starting System: Lubricator

A lubricator, located downstream of
the starter motor shutoff valve,
injects lubricating oil into the gas
flow.
The purpose of the lubricator is to
provide atomized lubricating oil to
the starter motor vanes.
A sight dome is used to check oil
flow. In addition, the lubricator bowl
has an oil level sight glass.
(Contd.)
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On Solar Centaur gas turbines, two vane-type, pneumatically operated starter

motors are mounted on the starter adapter housing, located on the reduction
gear.
The motors transmit starting power to the engine through a common
overrunning clutch and shaft.
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Starting System: Starter

Motor
The figure shows a starter motor and the
clutch, called a sprag or sprag clutch
assembly. The clutch in this installation is
in the housing that is mounted on the
engine gearbox drive.
The pawls , driving or holding links of a
ratchet that permit motion in one direction
only, are forced inward by small springs to
engage the sprag clutch ratchet. At a
preset engine speed, the pawls are thrown
(Contd.)
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outward, disengaging the drive shaft

assembly from the sprag clutch
ratchet. The sprag clutch ratchet and
starter gear train coast to a stop and
the drive shaft assembly containing
the pawls continues to rotate at
engine gearbox speed.
The operation of the pneumatic
starting system is explained next.
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Starting System: Operation

The operation of the pneumatic starting system is
automatically actuated by the gas turbine control
system panel.
The control system provides automatic starting
and sequencing as the gas turbine is accelerated
to operating speed.
During acceleration and operation, the control
system monitors the gas turbine and driven
equipment, such as a generator or compressor.
If an operating malfunction occurs, the control
system identifies the nature of the trouble and
may initiate an emergency shutdown.
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System Operation: Start Sequence

The following start sequence is not a
start-up checklist. Before a gas turbine
start is attempted:
A thorough prestart inspection must have
been completed.
Prestart conditions must be satisfied.
When the operator presses the START
pushbutton:
The RUN indicator lamp illuminates.
Start/run control system relays are energized,
and the start circuit is initiated.
The pre/postlube pump starts, and
prelubrication begins.
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System Operation: Start Plus

15 Seconds
The following events occur 15 seconds
after the START button is pressed:
The prelube timer times out, and the
start relay remains energized up to
66% of engine speed.
The solenoid-operated pilot valve is
energized, and the starter motor
shutoff valve opens.
Starter motors begin to crank and
accelerate the gas turbine.
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System Operation: Turbine At

15% Speed
When gas turbine speed reaches
15%:
Purge timer relay inhibits fuel while purging
the machine.
Ignition begins when fuel is admitted 10
seconds after 15% speed. (Purge timer
times out.)
Lightoff occurs and combustion begins.
The engine continues to accelerate with
assistance from the starter motors.
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System Operation:
Temperature @ 350F
When engine turbine
temperature reaches 350F:
Ignition system is shut off.
Pre/postlube pumps stop when
engine-driven lube oil pump
pressure reaches 35 psig.
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System Operation: Engine

Speed @ 66%
When engine speed reaches
approximately 66% or self-sustaining
speed:
The starter clutch overruns.
The start-relay and start circuits are deenergized.
The solenoid-operated pilot valve is deenergized.
The starter motor shutoff valve is closed by pilot
pressure.
Acceleration continues.
The start cycle is complete at approximately 66%
engine speed.
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Lesson : 21 Hydraulic Starting System
Consortium
Hydraulic Starting System:

Purpose
The purpose of a hydraulic starting
system is to supply high pressure
hydraulic fluid to a hydraulic starter
motor. This motor is mounted on
the accessory gearbox.
The hydraulic starting system
module and its associated piping,
valving, and instrumentation is
mounted on a self-contained skid.
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Components
hydraulic starting system are as
follows:
electric motor
hydraulic pump
hydraulic fluid reservoir
hydraulic starter motor (engine
mounted)
filter elements
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Electric Motor
The purpose of the electric motor is to drive
the hydraulic pump.
The size of the electric motor depends on
the capacity of the hydraulic start module.
Larger engines require greater starting
power.
A typical 55 gpm hydraulic starting system
that operates at 5000 psig uses a 200
horsepower electric motor.
The motor normally operates on 480 volt, 3phase AC and rotates at 1800 rpm on 60 hz
or at 1500 rpm on 50 Hz.
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Hydraulic Pump
The hydraulic pump is an axial-piston,
variable-displacement or variable-volume
pump. This type of pump automatically
increases or decreases the volume of fluid
flow to limit output pressure.
A small charge pump is mounted on the
head of the hydraulic pump.
The purpose of the charge pump is to
prime the system and to ensure that air is
purged from the system.
The charge pump is driven through the
main hydraulic pump.
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Axial-Piston Pump
An axial-piston pump consists of several
small reciprocating pumps in a common
cylinder block and housing.
The head, which contains an inlet port and
an outlet port, is attached to one end of
the pump housing.
The cylinder block contains an odd
number of cylinders (usually seven)
equally spaced from the center.
Three cylinders are always connected to
the inlet port, and three cylinders are
always connected to the outlet port. One
cylinder is located between the ports.
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Axial-Piston Pump
The cylinder block and pistons rotate
inside the pump housing.
The pistons have connecting rods that
are fastened to a swash plate by ball
joints.
The drive shaft of the axial-piston pump
rotates the swash plate and cylinder
block so that the pistons move back and
forth in the cylinder block, creating the
pumping action.
Piston movement is almost overlapping,
which results in a constant flow of
hydraulic fluid.
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Hydraulic Pump: Pumping

Action
The figure shows the pumping
action of one piston as the
cylinder block makes one
revolution inside the pump
housing.
When the piston is at point 1, it
has just started its inward
movement and is only partly
open to the inlet port.
(Contd.)
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At points 2 and 3, the piston is

moving inward and the space
in the cylinder is being filled
with hydraulic fluid.
At point 4, the piston is at the
bottom of its stroke and it is
not connected to either port at
this time. This movement from
point 1 to point 4 represents
the first half of a revolution.
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Hydraulic Pump:
Pumping Action
During the last half of the
revolution, the piston moves
outward toward the head.
The hydraulic fluid that filled
the cylinder during the first half
of the revolution is now forced
out through the outlet port as
the piston returns to point 1 to
start another cycle.
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Variable Displacement Piston

Pump
A variable-displacement piston-type
pump provides a means for varying
the length of the pumping stroke.
The length of the pumping stroke
determines the volume of hydraulic
fluid that is discharged to the
system.
Pump stroke length is varied by
changing the angle of the swash
plate.
( Contd.)
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The angle of the swash plate is controlled by two different means:

A solenoid selects high or low flow operation.
An internal compensator limits output pressure to 5000 psig by reducing
the swash plate angle to reduce cylinder displacement.
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Operation
The typical hydraulic start system is
a closed loop system with all return
lines to the hydraulic fluid reservoir.
The reservoir usually stores 40 to
50 gallons of hydraulic fluid.
Automatic temperature controls
maintain hydraulic oil temperature
between 50F and 60F.
( Contd. )
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Alarms and shutdown switches are provided for high and low hydraulic oil
temperatures and low liquid levels.
During starting system operation, the charge pump takes suction from the
hydraulic fluid reservoir through a suction strainer.
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Operation
Fluid from the charge pump flows
through a charge pump discharge filter
and then to the main hydraulic pump.
The charge pump provides over 300 psig
to the main pump suction.
The main hydraulic pump provides up to
55 gpm at 5000 psig to the hydraulic
starter motor.
High pressure fluid lines are installed
between the starting system module and
the hydraulic starter motor.
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Operation
The hydraulic starter motor is
similar to the hydraulic pump.
The motor is variable displacement
with a swash plate. The power
cylinders are arranged axially
around a shaft. The angle of the
swash plate on the shaft is
controlled by a speed-sensing
mechanism.
( Contd. )
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At speeds up to 2500 rpm, the swash plate is held at its maximum angle,
and the pistons are working through their full stroke.
At speeds over 2500 rpm, the swash plate angle decreases. At about 4500
rpm, the swash plate is almost square to the shaft.
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Operation
The flow through the motor is equal
to cylinder displacement times rpm.
The flow gradually increases as the
motor speed increases up to 2500
rpm. Flow then remains more or less
constant up to cut-out speed (speed
increasing, displacement decreasing).
The starter converts high pressure
fluid energy to shaft torque, which
rotates the engine.
( Contd. )
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The fluid discharges from the starter to the low pressure side of the system
(about 150 psig) and returns through a filter to the supply pump inlet.
Solenoid control valves are sequenced and controlled by the main unit control
panel.
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Operation
When a start is initiated, the
system accelerates the gas
generator from static conditions to
self-sustaining idle speed.
The hydraulic starter motor has
an overrunning clutch, which
disconnects the starter shaft from
the gas turbine during engine
operation.
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Lesson: 22 Diesel Starting System
Consortium
Introduction
This lesson is the last in the series
about gas turbine starting systems.
Previous lessons provided important
information about pneumatic and
hydraulic starting systems.
This lesson focuses on the diesel
starting system, its components, and
operation.
The figure represents a typical diesel
starting system.
The lesson begins with the purpose of
a diesel starting system.
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Diesel Starting System:

Purpose
The purpose of a diesel starting system is to
provide power to start the turbine axial flow
compressor.
A diesel starting system performs three primary
functions during the start cycle:
start the turbine roll (breakaway from
standstill)
accelerate the gas turbine to firing speed
assist the gas turbine to self-sustaining speed
A diesel starting system has three main
components. Each is described in the
information that follows.
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Components
The main components of a diesel
starting system are:
diesel engine
torque converter
hydraulic ratchet system
The three components are graphically
represented in the figure. The diesel
engine is discussed first.
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Diesel Engine
A diesel engine is the primary component

of a gas turbine diesel starting system. It
is used to rotate (crank) the gas turbine
for start-up.
A diesel engine is an internal combustion
engine that converts the heat of fuel into
work in the cylinders of the engine.
Diesel engine operation is based on the
reciprocating (upward and downward)
movement (stroke) of a piston in a
cylinder.
( Contd.)
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In a two-cycle engine, the combustion cycle is completed in each cylinder

during one revolution of the crankshaft, which is one piston stroke.
The diesel starting engine for G.E. Frame 5 gas turbines is a 12 cylinder,
two-cycle engine rated at 2300 rpm.
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Two-Cycle Diesel Engine

In a two-cycle engine, four events occur
during one piston stroke. The events
are:
scavenging (air intake)

compression (fuel injected)
power (fuel ignition)
exhaust
The action taking place during each of these

events is shown in the figure.
The next component discussed is the torque
converter.
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Torque Converter
The torque converter is a hydraulic
device that transmits the torque
(turning force) of the diesel engine to
the gas turbine through the ratchet
jaw clutch.
The hydraulic ratchet's jaw clutch
couples and uncouples the torque
converter and diesel engine from the
gas turbine.
Rotation of the hydraulic turbine causes the output shaft of the torque converter to rotate.
This turning force (torque) is transmitted to the gas turbine through a starting clutch.
The third component of the diesel starting system is the hydraulic ratchet assembly. The
purpose of this component is discussed next.
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Hydraulic Ratchet
Assembly
The purpose of the hydraulic

ratchet assembly is to assist the
starting device to begin the
rotation of a gas turbine rotor at
breakaway.
The ratchet system also rotates the gas turbine rotor during the cooldown cycle, after gas
turbine shutdown.
The ratchet is controlled partially by the starting control system.
The diesel starting system has several auxiliary systems that are essential to its operation.
These auxiliary systems are discussed next.
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Auxiliary Systems
A diesel engine has the
following auxiliary systems:
cooling
lube oil
air
fuel
starter control
The first system discussed is the

cooling system.
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Cooling Systems
A diesel engine uses one of two
types of cooling systems:
radiator and fan
heat exchanger
Both systems use a centrifugal water
pump to circulate coolant and a
thermostat to maintain operating
temperature.
The radiator and fan cooling system is
discussed first.
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Cooling Systems: Radiator

& Fan
In a radiator and fan cooling system, the
coolant is drawn from the lower section of
the radiator by the water pump.
The coolant is then forced through the lube
oil cooler, into the cylinder block, and up
through the cylinder heads.
When the engine is at normal operating temperature, the coolant passes through the
thermostat housings into the top part of the radiator.
In the radiator, coolant temperature is reduced by heat exchange with the airflow through
the radiator created by the fan.
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Cooling Systems: Radiator

& Fan
When starting a cold engine or when
the coolant is below operating
temperature, coolant flow is restricted
by the thermostat.
A bypass tube permits water
recirculation in the engine during
warm-up.
The heat exchanger cooling system is
discussed next.
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Cooling Systems: Heat

Exchanger
In a heat exchanger cooling system, the
coolant is pumped through the heat
exchanger by the water pump. The
coolant then passes through the engine
oil cooler, cylinder block, cylinder heads,
exhaust manifolds, and thermostat
housings.
A bypass tube permits coolant recirculation when the thermostat is closed. When the
thermostat is open, coolant returns to the heat exchanger for cooling and recirculation.
As coolant passes through the core of the heat exchanger, the coolant temperature is
lowered by heat exchange with raw water. Raw water is supplied by a raw water pump
from an outside source
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Lube Oil System

The diesel engine lube oil system
ensures positive lubrication at all
times.
This lube oil system has the same
purpose and components as other
lube oil systems discussed in previous
lessons.
Diesel engine lube oil provides full
pressure lubrication for all main,
connecting rod, and camshaft
bearings; piston pins; gear train; and
drive gear. Lube oil also cools the
piston.
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Air System
The purpose of a diesel engine air
system is to provide air for
scavenging (removing) exhaust
gases from the engine cylinders and
for combustion.
In a two-cycle diesel, a charge of air
is forced into the cylinders by the
blower(s). Each cylinder is filled with
fresh, clean air.
( Contd.)
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The air charge thoroughly sweeps all of the burned gases out through the
exhaust valve ports.
The air helps to cool internal engine parts, particularly the exhaust valves.
The diesel starting fuel system is discussed next.
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Fuel System
The main components of the diesel
engine fuel system are:
diesel fuel tank

fuel charge pump
canister tank
main fuel pump
filters
fuel header
fuel injectors
(Contd. )
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A diesel fuel tank is built into the base of the gas turbine.
The fuel charge pump is driven by the diesel engine camshaft. This pump
supplies fuel from the base tank to a small canister tank mounted on the
side of the engine.
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Fuel System
The main fuel pump takes suction from
the canister tank. It pumps the fuel under
pressure through the fuel filter to the fuel
header.
The main fuel pump is a positive
displacement gear pump that is attached
to the blower.
The fuel header delivers fuel to the fuel
injectors. The fuel is filtered through filter
elements in the injectors and then
atomized through small spray tip orifices
into the combustion chamber of each
cylinder.
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Control System
This section discusses the starter
control system.
The primary diesel controls are:
starter
speed control system
stop mechanism
electronic logic
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Control System
The starter is a DC electric starter motor. The
starter motor is attached to the diesel engine
block.
Lead-acid storage batteries provide electric
power for starting.
Diesel engine speed is controlled by the
variable speed governor. A hydraulic actuator
positions the governor speed control lever. A
small, engine-driven pump supplies engine oil
for actuator operation.
When the accelerating solenoid is energized,
the governor lever is driven to the high
operating speed position.
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Control System
When the solenoid is de-energized, the
lever is returned to the idle position.
The diesel engine stop mechanism is a
solenoid connected to the governor.
When the stop solenoid is energized, it
activates the shutdown mechanism,
shutting off fuel and stopping the
engine.
Electronic logic in the gas turbine control panel provides automatic sequencing of
the starter and control solenoids for normal diesel engine start-up, for normal
and emergency engine shutdown, and for exercising and testing the engine.
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Control System
To protect the diesel engine, electronic logic
also monitors the starting clutch position,
the engine lube oil pressure and the engine
speed.
Alarms and emergency shutdowns are
initiated for out-of-limit operating conditions.
If the diesel engine is tripped when the throttle
is in the full open position, the throttle does not
reset.
The next diesel engine restart will be made with the throttle set at full power. The throttle lever
should be manually reset before the next start attempt.
The next section discusses the operation of a diesel starting system.
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Operation
The following describes the operation of a
diesel starting system. The procedure
assumes the gas turbine is off cooldown,
in a ready to start condition with all prestart-up checks complete.
When START is selected:
starting clutch is engaged
starting motor is energized to start the
diesel engine
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The diesel engine idles through a 2-minute warm-up cycle.

The acceleration solenoid is energized to accelerate the diesel engine to max
speed for gas turbine breakaway with hydraulic ratchet assistance.
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Operation
Following gas turbine breakaway:
acceleration solenoid is de-energized and
the diesel engine slows to approximately
1900 rpm
acceleration stop solenoid controls diesel
engine speed until the gas turbine is
sequenced through the warm-up cycle
acceleration stop solenoid is de-energized
acceleration solenoid is energized to
accelerate the diesel engine to maximum
rpm for acceleration of the gas turbine
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Operation
At diesel engine speed of 3000 to
3400 rpm:
clutch automatically disengages
acceleration solenoid is deenergized
At this time, the diesel engine:
returns to idle speed
idles through a cooldown period
stops when the stop solenoid is
energized
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Lesson : 23 Enclosure
Introduction
Previous lessons discussed gas turbine

components and operation. This lesson
provides information on the enclosures
that house the gas turbine and its
driven and auxiliary equipment.
A gas turbine/generator set is used as
an example through out the lesson.
A basic gas turbine/generator set
consists of the gas turbine, gearbox,
and generator with complete selfcontained operating systems.
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Enclosure: Purpose
The purpose of an enclosure is to
protect the gas turbine/generator
set from environmental elements,
to improve appearances, and to
reduce noise, to meet local area
classifications, and to provide an
easier means for fire protection
and containment.
The enclosure discussed in this lesson is designed for outdoor installation and high wind
loads.
The enclosure is divided into compartments by bulkheads (walls).
Each compartment contains lighting, access doors, and, when needed, removable panels
for inspection and maintenance.
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Ventilation System: Purpose

A ventilation system is provided when a
gas turbine/generator set is enclosed.
The purpose of an enclosure ventilation
system is to minimize temperatures in
the turbine and generator
compartments.
Enclosure ventilation systems

include:
air inlet
airflow
exhaust
Information about the air inlet system is
presented first.
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Ventilation System: Air Inlet

The purpose of an enclosure air
inlet system is to:
take in air for ventilation of the
enclosure
treat the quality of inlet air to
make it suitable for turbine use
The main components of an
enclosure air inlet system
are:
inlet screens
weather louvers
filters
ducting
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Ventilation System:
Air Inlet Components
Inlet screens are installed
upstream of the weather louvers
toprevent entry of birds, leaves,
twigs, paper, and similar
objects. The screens must be
kept free from the accumulation
of this debris to ensure free
airflow.
( Contd.)
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Incoming air passes through weather louvers where moisture is removed.

These louvers provide a moisture "trap" using the inertia of the water
droplets as the means of separating the droplets from the incoming air.
The filters remove foreign particles from incoming air. Filters should be
checked regularly. Dirty filters can result in overheating of the equipment in
the enclosure.
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Some enclosures have an air

inlet. Others take ventilation air
from the gas turbine air inlet
system.
The duct exterior walls and inlet
support structure are either
stainless steel or carbon steel
with multiple coats of protective
paint.
Information about an enclosure's
airflow system is next.
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Ventilation System: Airflow

Components
The purpose of an enclosure
airflow system is to:
minimize temperature in the
enclosure compartments
minimize hazards in the event of a
fuel system failure
enclosure airflow system are as
follows:
dampers
fans
End Show
The purpose of dampers is to control the airflow

in the enclosure. Air inlet and outlet dampers are
normally open. They are closed by gravity to
provide an airtight enclosure when the fire
protection system is activated.
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Ventilation System:
Airflow Components
Inlet dampers are opened by airflow
when the compartment fan is
operating.
Outlet dampers are held open by
pressure-operated latches. The
latches must be manually reset after
the damper is released.
Fans provide ventilation by drawing air through the air intake and exhausting it
to the atmosphere. The purpose of fans is to increase circulation in the
enclosure. Fans may be installed in either the inlet or the exhaust duct.
An enclosure exhaust system is discussed next.
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Ventilation System: Exhaust

Components
The purpose of an enclosure exhaust
system is to return the heated air to the
atmosphere.
enclosure exhaust subsystem are as
follows:
fans
dampers
screens
louvers
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Some enclosures have a cooling air fan

installed in the exhaust or outlet duct. The
outlet dampers are the fire dampers. One or
more screens is installed in the outlet
ducting to prevent entry of foreign matter.
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Ventilation System:
Exhaust Components
The exhaust ducting for some
enclosures contains manual dampers
that are adjusted to control ventilating
airflow through the enclosure.
Louvers may also be installed to
prevent the entry of moisture when the
unit is shut down.
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Lesson : 24 Fire Detection
Consortium
Fire Detection System:

Purpose
The purpose of a fire/rate-of-rise detection
system is to detect a fire or serious heat
conditions in the gas turbine/generator set
enclosure.
An enclosure fire/rate-of-rise detection
system must have the following
characteristics:
reliable detectors in the correct locations
means to test the system
effective maintenance and testing
procedures
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Requirements
Fire/rate-of-rise detection systems
should meet the following
requirements:
initiate an immediate alarm on fire
or excessive conditions
provide an indication that a fire has
been extinguished and another
indication if the fire re-ignites
( Contd. )
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be durable and able to resist environmental damage

incorporate an accurate and effective testing system to ensure system
integrity
operate without special electrical equipment and require a minimum of power
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Types
The following types of fire/rateof-rise detection systems are
discussed in this lesson:
thermal switches
thermocouples
thermistors
pneumatic circuits
optical detectors
gas detectors
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Thermal Switches
Thermal switches are either:
single wire
two wire
The single-wire thermal switch
fire/rate-of-rise detection system has
heat-sensitive thermal switches
located at points in the enclosure
where temperatures are likely to be
highest.
The switches contain a pair of contact points that

are normally open. The contact points close at a
preset temperature.
When the switch heats up, the heat-sensitive arms
with the contact points expand. The expansion is
in the direction opposite the electrical terminal.
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Thermal Switches
The sliding piston moves to the
end of the switch, the points
close, and the thermal switch
completes an electric circuit for
the alarm switch.
When the circuit is complete,
the alarm switch initiates an
alarm signal. The switch
automatically resets when it has
cooled.
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Thermal Switch: Single

Wire Circuit
The figure shows a single-wire circuit in
which 24V DC is applied to both paths
of the circuit. If an overheat
temperature or a fire occurs which
closes one of the five thermal switches,
a path to ground is completed through
the circuit.
With this type of loop arrangement, an
open circuit can occur and the system
The test circuit tests the entire loop and will
will still provide protection at each of
indicate an open circuit in the power input lead
the five surveillance points.
of the loop. A short circuit in the loop will cause
a false fire warning indication.
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Two-Wire Thermal
Switch
The two-wire thermal switch fire/rateof-rise detection system remains
functional with either an open or a
short circuit.
The two-wire bi-metallic thermal
switch operates the same way that
the single-wire thermal switch does.
The only difference is that an electrical
lead is connected to both arms of the
thermal switch.
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Thermocouples
Thermocouples are
temperature sensing
devices, primarily used
in temperature indicating
systems, such as
exhaust gas temperature
or turbine outlet
temperature.
(Contd.)
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A thermocouple is the junction of two dissimilar metals that generate a small

electrical current that varies with the difference between the temperature of
the hot junction and the cold junction.
The dissimilar metals can be any combination of metals or alloys that will
produce the required results such as iron-constantan (Type J) or ChromelAlumel (Type K).
The complete thermocouple circuit consists of a "cold" junction, a "hot"
junction, electrical leads made from the same material as the thermocouple,
and a galvanometer-type indicating instrument
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Thermocouples
The point where the two
dissimilar metals are
joined that will be most
exposed to the heat of a
fire is called the hot
junction.
The cold junction,
sometimes called the
reference junction, is
enclosed in dead air
space between insulation
blocks.
( Contd. )
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A metal cage or sheath protects the thermocouple without hindering free

movement of air to the hot junction.
Some thermocouple element wires are surrounded with magnesium oxide to
prevent vibration damage to the wires. Magnesium oxide also enhances heat
transfer between the medium being measured and the measuring junction
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Thermocouples
A typical thermocouple is
installed in a protective
well or cage. Other
thermocouple cages have
several passages that
allow air (or gas) to enter
the protective cage and
surround the elements.
A thermocouple fire
detection system has a
different response to the
thermal switch system.
(Contd.)
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In a thermocouple system:
If the temperature increases rapidly, the thermocouple produces a voltage
because of the temperature difference between the hot junction and the
cold junction.
If both junctions are heated at the same rate, no voltage is generated and
no alarm signal is initiated.
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Thermistor
A thermistor (thermal resistor) is a
resistive circuit component. When
cool, a thermistor has high
resistance to current flow. As the
temperature of a thermistor
increases, its resistance decreases.
A thermistor fire/rate-of-rise
detection system is a continuous
loop system that usually surrounds
the surveillance area.
(Contd.)
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Single-wire and two-wire systems are commonly used on large gas turbines.
In the single-wire system, the outer case provides the ground potential. In
the two-wire system, the second wire provides the ground.
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Thermistor
In both systems, the power lead is insulated
from ground. The single-wire system uses an
insulator of ceramic beads that are coated with
a substance called eutectic salt. The two-wire
system uses a thermistor material to insulate
the wires.
Each of these materials loses electrical
resistance when heated.
In the fire/rate-of-rise circuit diagram shown in
the figure, 24V DC is supplied to the hot lead
through an alarm relay coil.
When cool, the insulation does not allow
current flow between the hot lead and ground.
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Thermistor
When a fire condition heats the
insulator material, it loses electrical
resistance and a path is complete
from the hot lead to ground.
The thermistor system, like the
thermal switch systems,
automatically resets when cooled.
A pneumatic fire detection system is
discussed next.
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Pneumatic Fire
Detection System
The pneumatic fire detection system uses a
gas-filled tube as a detector. The detector is
produced in various sensor tube lengths and
alarm temperatures.
The gas expands when heated. When
setpoint temperature is reached, the gas
pressure is sufficient to overcome the check
valve and gas flows from the detector tube
to the right side of the diaphragm.
This flow forces the diaphragm contacts to
the left onto the alarm contacts, which
energizes the alarm circuit.
End Show
The gas returns to a low pressure after the heat source

is removed.
The check valve arrangement and diaphragm force the
gas back into the tube, ready for another operation.
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Optical Fire Detection

System
The detection systems
discussed so far detect
temperature increases. The
optical system detects changes
in the light spectrum inside of
the enclosure.
Optical flame detectors use
infrared and ultraviolet
detectors to receive direct or
reflected rays from a source of
flame or heat.
( Contd.)
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When a fire or hot object is detected in a compartment, the detector signals

the controller, which powers the fire alarm. A fire signal is generated only
when a fire is detected by both sensors.
Three optical fire detectors are shown in the figure, two in the turbine
compartment and one in the generator compartment.
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Optical Fire
Detection System
When two optical detectors are
installed in one compartment,
they are usually cross-zoned or
use a voting system.
Both detectors must agree that a
fire condition exists before the
fire monitoring system will
initiate action
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Gas Detection
System
The gas detection system should

prevent the possibility of a gasfueled fire, which is considered
potentially the most likely and
the most dangerous. However,
should a fire occur it will be
detected by one or more of the
sensors.
Enclosure fire detection system
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Fire Detection
System: Operation
When fire is detected by any of
the sensors, the fire control
system performs the following
functions:
The alarmed zone is indicated.
All ventilation is shut down.
An audible alarm is initiated,
specifying the zone.
(Contd.)
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External audible and visual alarms are initiated.

An emergency shutdown signal is relayed to the gas turbine/generator
control system.
Generally, but not always, after a time delay to allow personnel to evacuate
the enclosure (usually 10 seconds), the fire extinguisher agent is
discharged.
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Fire Detection
System: Operation
The alarms will continue until
they are manually switched off.
The fire extinguishing agent
must be recharged and the
detection/protection system
reset before the gas turbine can
be restarted.
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Lesson : 25 Gas Detection
Consortium
Gas Detection: Purpose

& Components
The purpose of a gas detection
system is to detect the presence
of combustible gas in a gas
turbine/generator set enclosure.
The main components of a gas
detection system are as follows:
sensors
detection circuit
protection system
Sensors are discussed first.
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Sensors
Two or more sensors are installed in the gas
turbine compartment and one or more in the
generator compartment near the divider wall
where the drive shaft or coupling penetrates
the wall.
Two sensing elements are used in a sensor.
One element is calibrated to detect a low
combustible gas concentration of 15% or
20% L.E.L. L.E.L. is the lower explosive
limit.
The other element is calibrated to detect a
high combustible gas concentration of 60%
L.E.L.
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Sensors
The sensors detect the combustible
gas concentration with air at the
lower explosive limits (L.E.L.).
A 5% methane concentration with
air is the lowest concentration that
can be ignited. A 15% methane
concentration is the highest
concentration that can be ignited.
Lower or higher concentrations
cannot be ignited.
The 5% methane concentration with air

is 100% of the L.E.L. An alarm that
occurs at 20% L.E.L. actually indicates
a combustible gas concentration of 1%.
The detection circuit is discussed next.
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Detection Circuit
Most gas detection systems are calibrated to
initiate an alarm when the gas concentration in
the enclosure reaches 15% to 20% L.E.L.
This is the low L.E.L. alarm.
For a low L.E.L. alarm, the combustible gas
detection system usually initiates both an audible
and a visual alarm.
Enclosure ventilation fans that are not already
running are started.
The fans continue to operate until the gas
detection/protection system is reset and the
alarm indication is cleared by the operator.
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Detection Circuit
The gas detection system is normally
provided with readout indicators.
These indicators allow the operator to
observe the presence and
concentration level of any
combustible gas that may be inside
the enclosure.
The protection system is discussed
next.
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Protection System
A high L.E.L. alarm is initiated at 60%
L.E.L. A 60% L.E.L. is a 3%
combustible gas concentration. On
some gas turbine/generator sets, a
60% L.E.L. alarm initiates the following
actions:
immediate gas turbine/generator
shutdown, if operating
immediate shutdown of all operating
enclosure ventilation fans
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immediate closing of all ventilation/isolation dampers

immediate activation of the audible warning device inside and outside the
enclosure
After a short time delay, usually 10 seconds to allow personnel to exit the
enclosure, fire extinguishing agent discharges in both the gas turbine and
generator compartments.
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Lesson : 26 Extinguisher Systems

Extinguisher Systems:
Purpose
Consortium
The purpose of a fire extinguishing system

is to discharge concentrations of fire
extinguishing agents into the enclosure
compartments.
The two systems discussed in this lesson
use either Halon or CO2 as the
extinguishing agent.
A Halon fire extinguisher system is
discussed first.
NOTE: Halon is being phased out
worldwide. New systems will use CO2.
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Halon Extinguisher
System
Halon is a colorless, odorless, noncorrosive, and electrically non-conductive
gas. After discharge, it leaves no residue
and does not require clean-up.
Halon is a chemical compound that
inhibits combustion by reacting with
oxygen in the air, so that oxygen is
suppressed and no longer able to support
combustion.
The figure represents a typical halon
extinguisher system.
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Halon Extinguisher
System: Components
The main components of a Halon
fire extinguisher system are as
follows:
cylinders
valve assembly
pressure switches
discharge pipes and nozzles
heat (thermal) and fire (optical)
detectors
audible alarm (horn)
monitor controller
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Cylinders
Halon is stored in cylinders, on or
near the gas turbine/generator
package. The number of Halon
cylinders in a system depends on
the volume of the protected area.
A minimum of two cylinders is
required. One cylinder supplies the
initial discharge, and the other
provides the extended discharge.
Any signal which initiates Halon
discharge also trips the turbine.
(Contd. )
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When Halon is discharged into a compartment, the initial discharge is at a

rapid rate The reason for a rapid rate during initial discharge is to build an
extinguishing concentration as quickly as possible.
This is followed by an extended discharge at a slower rate to maintain the
extinguishing concentration and minimize the possibility of re-ignition of
combustibles exposed to hot metal surfaces.
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Cylinders
Halon cylinders are manufactured in
different sizes from 18 to 600 pounds.
The cylinders are purged with nitrogen
and then filled with Halon.
Halon cylinders are held in the upright
position by mounting brackets.
The cylinders should be located in an
area that does not receive direct
sunlight because Halon is extremely
temperature sensitive. Halon cylinders
should not be exposed to
temperatures above 130F.
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Cylinder Valve
Assembly
A valve assembly is an integral part
of each Halon cylinder. The valve is
made of brass, which makes it
corrosion resistant.
The valve usually contains a
differential piston. Differential
piston operation allows the valve to
discharge Halon when actuated
manually, electrically, or
pneumatically.
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Cylinder Valve
Assembly Operation
Halon pressure from the cylinder
enters the valve assembly and
rises through a bleed port that
contains a ball check valve.
Halon pressure acts on both
sides of the piston with equal
pressure in areas A and B in the
figure. This pressure keeps the
Halon in the cylinder because
the piston seals off the discharge
port.
( Contd.)
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When the vent valve is actuated, there is a large pressure difference between
the top (B) and bottom (A) areas of the valve. When the ball check valve
closes the bleed port, Halon cannot flow to the top of the piston and the
pressure in areas A and B are no longer equal
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Cylinder Valve
Assembly Operation
The valve is actuated by venting
pressure from the top of the piston
through the vent valve.
When the pressure is vented, there
is no downward force acting on the
piston. The piston moves upward,
the discharge port is opened, and
Halon is released into the system.
The release of Halon is initiated by
valve actuators. The valve actuators
are described next.
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Types of Cylinder
Valve Actuators
Different types of valve actuators are
used to initiate Halon discharge,
depending on the environmental and
system design. They are:
electrical/latching
pneumatic
manual-local override
manual-cable pull
The figure shows various types of valve

actuators. Each is described in the
information that follows.
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Electrical & Pneumatic

Valve Actuators
The electrical/latching valve actuator is
installed on top of the Halon valve
assembly. The actuator contains a metal
pin that pushes the vent valve off its seat
when actuated. The electrical/latching
valve actuator operates as an electric
solenoid.
The pneumatic valve actuator may be
mounted on the vent fitting of the Halon
valve assembly or on an electrical valve
actuator.
( Contd. )
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When mounted on the Halon valve vent fitting, the pneumatic valve actuator
provides direct actuation of the vent valve.
When mounted on an electrical actuator, the pneumatic actuator closes a
switch that causes the electrical actuator to operate.
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Manual-Local Override Actuator

The manual-local override actuator is installed
when the system requires manual Halon
release at the cylinder. This actuator is
mounted either directly on the valve assembly
vent fitting or indirectly on an electrical
actuator. A pneumatic actuator is
incorporated so that the manual-local
override also functions as a pneumatic
actuator.
The manual-local override actuator is
operated by pulling the ring pin and
depressing the palm button or by providing a
minimum of 30 psi pneumatic pressure to the
inlet port.
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Manual-Cable Pull Actuator

The manual-cable pull actuator, mounted on the
valve assembly, can be used as the primary
means of Halon release or as an alternate type
of manual-local override.
The manual-cable pull actuator is connected to a
remote manual pull station by a wire rope.
If the ring pin is removed from the manual-cable
pull actuator, pulling the handle of the remote
manual-pull station actuates the cable pull
actuator to release Halon from the cylinder.
The next component discussed is pressure
switches.
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Pressure Switches
Pressure switches are installed in Halon fire
extinguisher systems to monitor the pressure in
the storage cylinders and in the discharge
piping.
In the figure, low pressure switches (PSL)
monitor the pressure in the two Halon
cylinders. If the pressure in a cylinder
decreases to 185 psig, the switch iniates an
alarm.
The high pressure switch is identified as PSH in
the figure. When the Halon pressure in the
discharge manifold reaches 150 psig, the high
pressure switch signals the control system that
a cylinder has discharged.
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Pressure Switches
Most fire extinguisher control
systems are programmed to
discharge another cylinder if the
high pressure signal has not been
transmitted within a certain period,
usually 5 seconds.
The components used to discharge
the extinguishing agent are
discussed next.
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Discharge Pipes &

Nozzles
Discharge pipes and nozzles are used
to discharge extinguishing agents.
Discharge pipes carry the fire
extinguishing agent from the storage
cylinders to the discharge nozzles.
The nozzles discharge the agent into
the protected zones. The nozzles are
placed to ensure a concentrated
discharge in all parts of the protected
zone.
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Detectors & Alarm

Heat and fire detectors were
explained in the two preceding
lessons. If an overheat or fire
condition is detected in a gas
turbine/generator enclosure, the
detectors initiate an alarm signal
to the control system.
The thermal (heat) and fire
(optical) detectors are shown in
the figure.
( Contd.)
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An audible alarm (horn) is installed at each enclosure fire-protected zone, or

one horn for each major piece of equipment. This alarm, along with a
flashing red light or beacon, is activated by the control system when a fire is
detected in the enclosure.
When an alarm is activated, it will continue until it is manually switched off
by the operator.
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Monitor Controller
The last component discussed in the Halon fire
extinguishing system is the fire monitor controller.
This controller works in conjunction with other gas
turbine control systems. The controller uses a
microprocessor system to monitor signals from
sensors installed in the enclosure.
An example of a monitor controller is shown in the
figure. The controller illustrated is typical of a
monitor controller for an optical fire detection
system with two independent types of detectors. A
signal is sent to the controller only when both
detectors sense a fire simultaneously.
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Monitor Controller
The controller monitors up to eight zones. One
LED (light emitting diode) is provided for each
zone. An LED blinks when a fire is present in the
corresponding zone.
One LED is also provided for each voting zone. A
lit LED signals that the voting zone is actuated.
The Test/Accept push-button disables an
energized alarm or initiates a manual test of a
selected detector.
The inhibit LED is illuminated in the Test or Reset
mode to indicate that the controller outputs are
inhibited.
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Monitor Controller
When the lamp test switch is depressed, all LEDs
and digital displays illuminate. In the reset mode,
the lamp test switch indicates a complete system
reset.
The mode switch is used to select Normal, Reset,
or Test mode. The power LED illuminates when
power is applied to the fire detection system.
The fault LED illuminates on fire detection system
malfunction or when the controller is in the Reset
or Test mode.
The system status display provides a numerical
code to report the system status.
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Monitor Controller
The zone digital display identifies the zone
and the fire detection system conditions in
that zone.
The select push-button selects the desired
detector for testing.
Halon and CO2 fire extinguisher systems
are very similar. A brief discussion of the
CO2 system follows.
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CO2 Extinguisher
System: Description
A CO2 fire extinguisher system has the
same basic components as the Halon
system. The CO2 components are
shown in the figure. A CO2 system also
operates in the same manner as a
Halon system.
CO2 (carbon dioxide) fire protection
systems extinguish fires by reducing the
oxygen content of the air in the
compartment.
( Contd. )
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The oxygen content is reduced from an atmospheric normal of 21% to less

than 15%, an amount that will not support combustion.
To reduce the oxygen content, a quantity of CO2 equal to or greater than
34% of the compartment volume is discharged into the compartment in 1
minute.
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CO2 Extinguisher System:
Description
A CO2 fire protection system supplies
CO2 from either low pressure storage
tanks or high pressure cylinders to a
distribution system.
This system transfers the CO2 to
discharge nozzles located in the various
compartments of the gas turbine
package.
Low pressure storage tanks maintain
saturated liquid CO2 at 300 psig and
0F with a refrigeration system.
( Contd.)
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Actuator Arrangement
A CO2 system may be actuated by several
different methods.
Pilot-operated selector valves in the CO2
discharge valve are opened when solenoid
valves are energized, when the pull lever is
actuated, or when another cylinder is
discharged.
The solenoid valves are actuated by an
electric signal from the fire detectors. The
system may also be manually actuated by
switches located on the electrical control
cabinet or by manual valves located in the
control cabinet.
End Show
Actuation of the system, either automatically

or manually, will trip the turbine.
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Discharge Systems:
Initial
Two separate discharge
systems are used in a CO2
system:
initial discharge
extended discharge
Within a few seconds of actuation,
sufficient CO2 flows from the initial
discharge system into the
compartment to rapidly build up the
CO2 concentration.
( Contd.)
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This concentration is maintained by the gradual addition of more CO2

from the extended discharge system, compensating for compartment
leakage.
CO2 flow rate is controlled by the orifices in the discharge nozzles.
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Discharge Systems:
Extended
The orifices for the initial discharge
system permit a rapid discharge of
CO2 to quickly build up an
extinguishing concentration.
Orifices for the extended discharge
system are smaller for a relatively
slow discharge rate.
By maintaining the extinguishing
concentration, the likelihood of a
fire reigniting is minimized.
( Contd.)
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In addition to their use of similar components, both the Halon and CO2
extinguisher systems operate the same.
The discussion about extinguisher systems continues with a description of
the operation of a typical fire extinguisher system.
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Extinguisher
Systems: Operation
The figure shows the
components found in a typical
fire extinguisher system. In this
system the first line of defense
against fire is provided by the
optical detectors.
Optical detectors usually have a
response time of less than 5
seconds and an 80 degree field
of vision.
( Contd.)
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When more than one optical flame detector is installed in an enclosure, a

voting system is usually programmed into the fire monitor controller.
With a voting system, an alarm signal from one optical detector will initiate
an alarm but no other action.
An alarm signal from one optical detector and a thermal detector or from
two optical detectors is needed to initiate turbine shutdown and
extinguisher release.
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Operation
Thermal detectors are installed in a
gas turbine enclosure as a
redundant detection system to the
optical detectors. Thermal detectors
initiate an alarm when the
temperature in a gas turbine
enclosure reaches 450 degrees F.
The sequence of events that occurs
when a fire is detected is described
next.
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Operation
When a fire is detected, an alarm signal is sent to the
fire monitor/controller and other gas turbine control
systems.
This signal initiates the fire extinguisher agent
discharge, alarms, and shutdowns.
In a typical fire extinguishing system, the following
sequence occurs:
Audible and visual alarms start.

All electrical equipment is de-energized.
All enclosure vent fans stop.
Gas turbine/generator shuts down.
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Operation
After 5 to 10 seconds (time delay), extinguishing
agent is released by actuation of the cylinder
valves.
Extinguishing agent flows through the valve into
the piping.
The high pressure switch signals the control
systems that the extinguishing agent has been
discharged.
Extinguishing agent pressure unlatches the
ventilation dampers in the turbine and generator.
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Operation
Extinguisher agent is discharged into the turbine
and generator compartments.
After the initial discharge, the extended discharge
starts and maintains compartment flooding for
approximately 10 minutes.
After emergency shutdown and the fire is
extinguished, the following should occur
before inspecting the space for fire damage:
Allow the machine to cool down.
Thoroughly ventilate the enclosure.
End Show
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Operation
The fire and heat detectors must be
cleaned and tested.
The fire extinguisher system must be
serviced, refilled and reset.
The ventilation dampers must be
latched to restore the fire protection
system to service.
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Lesson : 27 Principles of Power Gen

Theory of Electrical Power
Generation
Consortium
Electrical current is the flow of electrons (e-)

through a conductor. A conductor is a
substance that transfers an electrical
charge.
The force that causes the electrons to flow
is called electromotive force (emf).
The two basic components of a simple
battery are a cathode and an anode.
(Contd.)
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Theory of Electrical Power

Generation
The solution reacts with the anode and cathode
causing current to flow through the conductor.
The electric current that flows from a battery is
known as direct current (DC).
Direct current flows through the conductor in
only one direction.
DC current is used to supply electricity to
electrical circuits in battery-operated equipment,
such as radios and flashlights, DC motors, lights,
etc.
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Electrical Circuit
Components
A basic electrical circuit consists of:
power supply
load
conductor
The power supply provides emf. Examples of

power supplies are batteries and generators. The
term emf is also called potential or voltage.
The load is the resistance to current flow in the
circuit. Examples of loads include motors, light
bulbs, and heaters.
The conductor is used to carry the electrical
current to the load.
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Electrical Circuit Measurement

The emf is measured in units of volts using
a voltmeter. The symbol for volts is E.
Resistance is measured in units of ohms
using an ohmmeter. The symbol for
resistance is R.
The current is measured in units of amps
using an ammeter. The symbol for current
is I.
If two of the quantities are known, the
other quantity can be found by rearranging
the following equation:
I=E/R
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Electrical Circuit
Measurement
Voltage is always measured across
an element. For example, to
measure the voltage across the load
in the figure, the voltmeter is placed
in parallel with or across the load.
To measure the current flowing in
the circuit, the ammeter is inserted
into the circuit. This is an example of
placing the ammeter in series with
the load.
(Contd.)
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The resistance can be calculated after the voltage and current are measured.
For example, if the voltage is 24 volts and the current is 6 amps, the
resistance of the load is 4 ohms.
Information about the theory of magnetism is presented next.
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Magnetic Fields
Electricity flowing in a circuit
creates a magnetic field.
The figure shows the effect of a
magnetic field on a compass
needle.
The needle aligns itself parallel with
the magnetic field lines created by
the current.
This alignment is caused by the force
of the magnetic field.
(Contd.)
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The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current

flowing through the conductor.
If the current is increased, the strength of the magnetic field increases.
If the current is decreased, the strength of the magnetic field decreases.
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Magnetic Fields
The strength of a magnetic field
can be increased by winding a
conductor around a core, forming
a coil.
The magnetic field strength
increases as the number of
windings increases.
The direction and amount of
current flowing through the coil
determines the magnetic pole and
strength of the magnetic field.
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Electromagnetic
Induction
Just as current flowing through a conductor
creates a magnetic field, a magnetic field can
cause current to flow through a conductor.
This principle is the basis for a simple generator.
The conductor is moved through a magnetic
field, and current flow is induced.
This is known as electromagnetic induction.
The current is produced only when the
conductor is moving in a direction that is
perpendicular (90) to the magnetic field.
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Magnetic Field Flux Lines

The magnetic field consists of flux
lines that always point from the
north pole of a magnet to the
south pole.
The conductor moving through the
flux lines causes current to flow.
A simple generator consists of a
single-loop conductor called a coil.
To create current flow, the coil
must move through the field in a
perpendicular direction. (Contd.)
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When the coil is in a vertical position, no current flows through the

conductor.
The current flow is maximum when the coil is in the horizontal position.
End Show
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Generation of AC
Current
Electricity is generated as the coil
rotates through the magnetic field.
At position 1, no current is generated.
As the coil rotates to position 2, the
current increases to a maximum
output.
The current output returns to zero as
the coil is rotated to position 3. As the
coil is rotated to position 4, the
current reverses direction to a
maximum negative value. ( Contd.)
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As the coil continues rotating and returns to position 1, the current output
returns to zero.
This is how alternating current (AC) is generated.
The current and voltage alternates between a positive and negative value.
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AC Frequency
The AC frequency is the number of
complete cycles generated per second.
The unit of measurement for frequency
is hertz, abbreviated Hz.
A complete cycle occurs when the
current moves from zero to a
maximum positive to zero to a
maximum negative and back to zero. A
complete cycle in one second equals
one (1) Hz.
Common frequencies generated are 50
Hz and 60 Hz.
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Calculating Frequency
The generators discussed so far are two-pole
generators. A two-pole generator has one magnetic
field with one north pole and one south pole.
Remember that each cycle completed in one second is 1
Hz. A generator with four poles completes two electrical
cycles for each mechanical revolution.
The output frequency of any generator can be
determined using the following equation:
f=p(rpm)/120
Where f is the output frequency, P is the number of
poles, rpm is rotational speed of the generator shaft.
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Frequency & Shaft RPM

Comparing the required speed for 60
Hz and 50 Hz generators in the figure
shows that the shaft speed can be
reduced by increasing the number of
magnetic poles.
A 60 Hz generator with two poles has
to turn at 3600 rpm. If the number of
poles is increased to eight, the shaft
speed is reduced to 900 rpm.
( Contd.)
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Three-Phase Generator
Three-phase current is generated by
three coils on the same shaft.
A three-phase generator has three
coils, also known as windings. Each
coil carries the current produced as it
passes through the magnetic field.
The coils are located at 120
increments around the shaft.
( Contd.)
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This arrangement produces three waveforms 120 out of phase. The

generator has one terminal for each phase, A, B, and C, and a neutral
terminal, N.
If the neutral terminal is brought outside of the generator, the voltage
across any terminal (A, B, or C) to the neutral terminal is the phase voltage.
The voltage between any two of the three line terminals (A, B, or C) is called
the line voltage.
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Three-Phase Generator
Connections
Three-phase generator outputs are
connected two different ways:
WYE configuration
DELTA configuration
In the WYE connection, one side of A, B,
and C, is connected to the neutral
terminal.
(Contd.)
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In the DELTA connection, one side of A is connected to B, the other side of A

is connected to C, and the other side of B is connected to C.
The power generated by either a wye or delta connected generator is the
same, but the voltage and current relationship varies.
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Generator-Control:
Transformer
The voltage produced by either a wye or
delta connected generator is often
different from that needed by the load. A
transformer is used to regulate the
voltages.
For example, a motor that requires a 480
volt source cannot be driven by a 24,000
volt supply. In this situation, a
transformer steps down the voltage.
A transformer uses electromagnetic
induction to regulate the voltages.
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Generator-Control:
Transformer Coils
A transformer has two coils, a
primary coil and a secondary coil.
The primary coil is the supply
voltage. The secondary coil is the
induced voltage.
The primary coil has current
flowing through it from the
generator.
(Contd.)
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This creates a magnetic field that induces current to flow in the secondary
coil.
Transformers only work with AC because of the current flowing into, then out
of, the primary coil determines the voltage output in the secondary coil.
The fluctuating magnetic field produces the same result as moving a
conductor in a magnetic field.
The ratio of the number of windings in the primary coil to the number of
windings in the secondary coil is the electromagnetically induced voltage.
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Step-Up Transformer
Based on the ratio of windings,
transformers are one of two
types:
step-up
step-down
A step-up transformer has fewer
windings in the primary coil than in
the secondary coil. It increases the
voltage.
(Contd.)
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Step-Down
Transformer
A step-down transformer has a greater
number of windings in the primary coil
than in the secondary coil. It decreases
the voltage.
For example, if the primary coil has 100
turns at 110 volts AC and the secondary
coil has 10 turns, the secondary coil has
11 volts AC across it.
The transformer is a step down
transformer because it steps down the
voltage produced by the generator.
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Generator Control:
Rectifying Diodes
Sometimes it is necessary to
extract DC power from an AC
generator.
In a generator, the main generator
field and the exciter field both
require DC voltage.
This requirement is achieved with
rectifying diodes.
(Contd.)
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Rectification is the process of turning AC voltage into DC voltage.

Diodes are electronic parts that allow current flow in only one direction. This
allows only positive voltage to flow.
The voltage regulator (transformer) and diodes are very important to basic
generator operation, which is described next.
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Generator:
Components &
Operation
The basic industrial generator
consists of three generators in one,
all driven by the same shaft:
permanent magnet generator
exciter generator
main power producing generator
The three generators work together
to produce power for industrial
loads.
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Permanent Magnet
Generator
The permanent magnet generator

produces AC current. The current is
rectified to DC using diodes.
The DC current is then used to
supply power to the exciter
generator.
However, the current first flows
through a voltage regulator that
adjusts the amount of voltage
applied to the exciter.
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Exciter Generator
The exciter generator is connected to the
main generator field.
Current from the exciter generator flows
through the main generator field.
Remember the current flowing from the
exciter generator to the main generator
field is controlled by the voltage
regulator.
Diodes are also used in the exciter
generator to supply the main generator
field with DC current.
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Main Generator
The main generator field induces
current to flow in the main
generator windings, supplying
power to the loads in the area, such
as motors.
The output of the main generator
windings is sensed by the voltage
regulator.
If the voltage sensed is low,
additional voltage is supplied to the
exciter generator.
(Contd.)
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If the voltage sensed is high, less voltage is supplied to the exciter

generator.
In this way, the main generator output is controlled.
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Lesson : 28 Generator Components

Generator Components
Consortium
The components of a typical

generator are shown in the
figure. These components are:
frame
rotor
bearings
stator
Information about the generator

frame is presented first.
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Frame
The generator frame has two
purposes:
house the internal parts of the
generator
support the weight of the rotor and
stator plus any rotational or vibrational
forces
The frame is finished with a coating,
usually paint, that provides protection
against corrosion and the environment.
(Contd.)
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A frame is usually of one piece construction and includes the generator case.
The case is designed with air passages to allow cooling air to circulate into
and out of the generator.
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Case
As shown in the figure, the
case contains:
rotor
bearings and seals
generator field windings
stator
The generator rotor is discussed
next.
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Rotor
The generator rotor is housed
within the generator case and is
supported at each end by
bearings.
One end of the rotor is the drive
end and the other is the exciter
end.
Mounted on the rotor are:
cooling fans
main generator field windings
PMG magnets
exciter windings.
(Contd.)
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The purpose of the rotor is to rotate the field windings to move magnetic
lines of force through the windings of the stator core.
The moving field induces emf in the stator windings. The rotor assembly is
dynamically balanced to minimize vibration.
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Bearings
The purpose of the bearings that
support the rotor ends is to minimize
friction associated with the rotating
shaft.
Damage to bearings usually occurs as
a result of high temperatures.
Temperature sensors are installed in
the bearings to provide an alarm or
automatic shutdown if overheating
occurs.
(Contd.)
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The generator lube oil system, discussed in detail in the next lesson,
provides lubrication of the bearings and removes heat created by friction.
The rotor windings are the main generator field. This field causes
electromagnetic induction to occur in the stator windings.
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Stator
The stator contains the stator
windings, or armature.
The stator is made out of segmented
plates called laminates.
The purpose of the stator is to
generate the AC voltage that is
conducted to the electrical circuit.
(Contd.)
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Recall from the preceding lesson that a three-phase generator has three
separate stator windings.
One end of each phase is connected to a terminal for circuit connection.
The other end of each phase is connected to a common neutral terminal.
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Lesson : 29 Lube Oil System

Lube Oil System:
Purpose
The purpose of a generator lube oil
system is to provide a reliable
supply of clean, cool lubricating oil
to the generator bearings.
These bearings are located on both
ends of the rotor shaft. The
bearings are pressure lubricated,
sleeve-type bearings.
(Contd.)
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A reliable lube oil system is critical for generator operation. If the lube oil
supply to the bearings is stopped during operation, the bearings and rotor
shaft journal will be severely damaged.
Lube oil must be supplied to the generator bearings before and during
start-up, during operation, while the generator is coasting to a stop, and
during the cool-down cycle.
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Lube Oil System:

Components
The main components of the generator lube oil
system are shared with the gas turbine and
gearbox lube oil systems. Information on these
components was presented in the gas turbine
lube oil system lessons. Recall the main
components are:
lube oil reservoir

lube oil pumps
- engine-driven main
- auxiliary or pre/postlube
- emergency
oil cooler
(Contd.)
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. oil filters
instruments and controls
piping
If needed, return to the lessons covering these components and review the
information before continuing on in this lesson.
This lesson continues with information on the generator lube oil system's
instruments and alarms.
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Instruments & Alarms

The figure shows typical instruments and
alarms associated with a generator lube
oil system.
A well-monitored and protected
generator lube oil system incorporates a
relief valve, pressure switches and
indicators, temperature instruments, and
oil flow sight glasses.
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Pressure Relief Valve

The first protective device in the
generator lube oil system is the
relief valve (PSV).
The relief valve is generally set at
35 psig or lower. If lube oil pressure
exceeds this value, the relief valve
opens to return the excess oil to the
lube oil reservoir.
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Switches, Transmitter,
& Indicator
The next protective devices are the low
pressure switch (PSL), the low-low
pressure switch (PSLL), and the pressure
transmitter (PT). These devices initiate
signals to the gas turbine generator
control system.
If lube oil pressure decreases to 20 psig,
the PSL transmits an alarm signal to the
control system. If lube oil pressure
continues to decrease, the PSLL initiates
an alarm and a shutdown signal at 12
psig.
( Contd. )
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The PT signals lube oil pressure to the control system for operator readout.
Lube oil system pressure may be observed at the local pressure indicator (PI).
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Temperature Instruments
A temperature element (TE) monitors
lube oil temperature in the oil header to
the generator. This device initiates an
alarm if lube oil temperature reaches or
exceeds 160F.
If lube oil temperature reaches 190F, a
shutdown signal is transmitted to the
control system. Lube oil from the
generator oil header is separated into
two equal flows to the bearings. Oil flow
into each bearing is controlled by an
orifice in the supply line. ( Contd. )
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In the figure, each bearing has two temperature detector elements. These
detectors are imbedded in the bearings to measure the temperature of the
bearing metal.
The TEs initiate an alarm at 197F and shut down at 203F. These TEs may
also signal the fire monitor/controller to discharge the fire extinguisher
agent.
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Lesson : 30 Generator Cooling

Generator
Cooling System:
Purpose
Consortium
The purpose of a
generator cooling system
is to cool the generator
internally.
It accomplishes this
cooling through an open
or a closed cooling air
circuit.
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Generator Cooling
System: Components
The main components of a generator cooling
system are similar in purpose and function to
those of an enclosure cooling system.
These components are:
inlet filter
inlet duct
heavy duty axial flow fan(s)
internal air passages
exhaust ducts
heat exchangers (generators with closed air
circuits)
temperature measuring devices
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Inlet Filters & Duct

Inlet filters are housed in the
inlet duct. Their purpose is to
prevent foreign particles from
entering the generator.
During generator operation,
an increase in both cooling air
and stator temperatures could
indicate generator
overheating. The overheating
may be caused by fire,
clogged air filters, ventilation
fan failure, dirty air inlet
screens, or blocked air
passages in the generator.
End Show
High temperature accompanied by vibration indicates the

possibility of plugged rotor cooling air holes or broken shaft
cooling fan.
If vibration is not indicated, dirty air inlet filters is probable.
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Heavy Duty Axial Flow

Fans
The figure shows the location of the
heavy duty axial flow fans. The fans
are mounted on the rotor shaft and
provide cooling air to the stator core.
Internal air passages and the
exhaust duct are discussed next.
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Internal Air Passages

& Exhaust Ducts
The figure shows the air flow
through the internal passages and
ducts. Note in the figure that the
space behind the stator core is
divided into six compartments. The
first, third, fourth, and sixth
compartments are open to the
generator air exhaust ducts.
(Contd. )
End Show
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Internal Air Passages &

Exhaust Ducts
Internal generator cooling involves cooling
the stators and the rotors. The stator core
has radial cooling ducts at intervals along
the core. The radial inward flow of air over
sections of the stator provides cooling
airflow over the stator core.
The rotor is cooled by airflow under the
rotor endcap, past the endwinding, and
through axial cooling passages between
the main winding slots.
(Contd.)
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Heat Exchanger
Some site conditions such as severe
desert conditions, salty atmosphere,
contaminated environment or
hazardous area classification require a
closed cooling air circuit.
In a closed cooling air circuit, the hot
exhaust air from the generator is
cooled in an exchanger loop and then
returned to the generator.
(Contd.)
End Show
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Make-up cooling air for the generator's closed air circuit is provided by the
pressurized generator enclosure.
Air cooling is accomplished by a water-to-air or air-to-air heat exchanger.
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Heat Exchanger
The heat exchanger is usually
mounted in a steel housing on top of
the generator, but it can be designed
and positioned as needed.
A common arrangement places the
heat exchanger on the roof of the
generator enclosure with ducting to
and from the heat exchanger.
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Resistance
Temperature Detectors
Generators include resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs). These devices measure the
following generator component temperatures:
stator winding
enclosure
exhaust duct
bearings
RTDs in smaller generators only measure winding temperatures.

An RTD is similar to a thermocouple. Both devices measure temperature and are similar
in appearance.
The main difference between an RTD and a thermocouple is that dissimilar metals in a
thermocouple generate an electrical signal and an RTD requires an external source of
DC power.
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Resistance
An RTD consists of a resistance probe in
a DC circuit. The probe contains a
temperature-sensitive nickel wire that is
wound around a mica core contained in a
metal outer casing.
The probe is installed in a strategic
location to monitor stator core
temperature.
RTD temperature readouts are displayed
at the gas turbine generator control Video
Display Unit (VDU).
End Show
The control system initiates an alarm when

the level of the signal from the RTD reaches
the calibrated setpoint.
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Resistance Temperature
Detectors
Large generators usually have nine RTDs to

monitor the stator core temperature. Three
RTDs are installed at strategic locations in
each of the three stator windings. Two of
these RTDs are active, and one is a spare.
The small to medium size generators
usually have three active RTDs and three
spare RTDs. Temperature readout and
protection are provided by the control
system in the turbine control room.
(Contd. )
End Show
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In the system shown, the circuit provides an alarm when one of the stator
RTDs senses stator temperature in excess of 270F. The system initiates a
shutdown when the stator RTD level of temperature increases to 290F.
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Resistance
The generator air inlet and air outlet
plenums contain separate RTDs to
monitor generator air temperature.
The inlet air circuit initiates an alarm
when the temperature reaches
115F and a shutdown at 150F.
The air outlet circuit activates an
alarm at 200F and shuts down at
220F.
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Cooling System
Operation
Generator cooling system operation
is through either an open or a closed
cooling air circuit.
Open cooling air circuits are usually
used on small 750 KW generators up
to 30,000 KW G.E. generators.
Cooling air is drawn into both ends
of the generator.
(Contd.)
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Air enters the generator through two screens:

one screen is located on the bottom of the exciter cover
the other screen is located below the bearing on the drive end of the
generator
The air is circulated by heavy-duty axial flow fans mounted on the
generator shaft.
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Cooling System
Operation
The exciter and PMG are cooled by
air flowing through the exciter cover.
In the generator, air flows along the
rotor, through rotor cooling slots, and
through the stator core via ducts and
air passages.
The airflow absorbs some of the heat
that is produced by generator
operation.
During generator operation, rotor and stator temperatures are designed for even
distribution.
After flowing through the generator the heated air is discharged to the atmosphere through
the generator air exhaust duct.
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Cooling System
Operation
Large generators have cylindrical rotors with
limited heat dissipation surface. Forced air
ventilation through the generator must be used
to remove the heat.
Generator heat must be constantly removed to
prevent winding damage. Airflow through the
generator picks up heat from the generator
windings and gives up the heat to circulating
water or air in the heat exchanger.
Cooling air is forced through the generator by
two axial flow fans mounted on the rotor shaft.
Aluminum alloy fan blades are set in slots in a
steel ring.
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Cooling System
Operation
Some of the cool incoming air is
ducted to the generator exciter,
which is also equipped with an axial
flow cooling fan.
A generator ventilation system is
discussed next.
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Generator Ventilation
System: Purpose
The purpose of a generator ventilation
system is to pressurize the generator
enclosure to prevent entry of any
leaking fuel gas and to provide cooling
airflow through the enclosure.
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Ventilation System:
Components
The main components of a generator
ventilation system are similar in
purpose and function to those of a
turbine enclosure ventilation system.
These components are:
inlet air filter
air inlet duct or exhaust fans
air inlet duct with fire damper
air exhaust duct with fire damper
L.E.L. gas detectors and fire
detectors
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Ventilation System:
Operation
In the operation of a typical gas
turbine/generator enclosure
ventilation system, two generator
enclosure vent fans draw air from the
atmosphere through an inlet air filter.
Vent fan operation pressurizes the
enclosure.
The figure shows a typical gas
turbine/generator enclosure. (Contd.)
End Show
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Ventilating air circulates through both sides of the enclosure and exits to
the atmosphere via exhaust ducts.
During normal gas turbine/generator operation only one of the
ventilation fans is operating. The other one serves as a standby unit.
End Show
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Ventilation System: Operation

Each fan is provided with a back flow damper
and a flow switch to verify airflow to the
enclosure.
If flow is lower than the setpoint, the control
system will energize the standby ventilation fan
and initiate an alarm.
The generator is equipped with air exhaust ducts
with fire dampers. These dampers close if a fire
occurs in the enclosure.
The fire extinguishing agent is introduced when
the generator and gas turbine are tripped by a
fire or gas detection.
The release of the extinguishing agent closes the
dampers.
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Ventilation System:
Operation
Gas and fire detectors are mounted on the
walls of the generator compartment.
Gas detectors are used to detect the
presence of combustible gas at a preset
L.E.L. (Lower Explosive Limit). When the
preset limit is reached an alarm is initiated.
Fire detectors are used to detect a fire or
overheating condition in the generator
compartment. An alarm is initiated
immediately when a fire or overheating
condition is detected.
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Lesson : 31 Generator Control

Voltage Regulator:
Purpose & Function
Consortium
As discussed in a previous lesson,

generator output voltage is
determined by the voltage applied to
the generator field.
Generator output voltage is controlled
by the exciter, which is controlled by
the voltage regulator.
( Contd.)
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The purpose of the voltage regulator is to match the output voltage of the
main generator with the voltage of the distribution system.
The voltage regulator senses the output voltage of the generator and
adjusts the voltage applied to the field of windings.
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Synchronization System:
Purpose/Types
Another protection system of the main
generator is the synchronization system.
The purpose of the synchronization
system is to ensure that the generator
output is in phase with that of the
distribution system.
Synchronization is one of two types:
manual or automatic.
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Synchronization
System: Manual
Manual synchronization is done through
monitoring the synch lamps and the synch
scope. These devices allow the operator to
match the frequency and the phase of the
generator and the distribution system.
The operator matches the generator
frequency and phase with that of the
distribution system by adjusting the fuel
flow (speed) of the turbine.
End Show
After matching the frequency and the phase,

the operator ensures that the generator
voltage is the same as the distribution
system voltage. The main circuit breaker is
then engaged.
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Synchronization System:
Automatic
Automatic synchronization first
compares the two frequencies. It then
signals the fuel system to adjust the
turbine speed to match distribution
system frequency and phase.
After the generator and the distribution
system are synchronized, automatic
synchronization matches the voltage
and initiates an automatic close signal
to the main circuit breaker.
End Show
The generator voltage must match the

system voltage to minimize electrical
arcing across the circuit breaker.
Electrical protective relays are discussed
next.
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Electrical Protective
Relays: Synch Check
Electrical protective relays protect
generator circuits against high and low
voltage and current. The protective
relays discussed in this lesson are as
follows:
synch check
generator differential
reverse power
loss of excitation
generator time overcurrent (Contd.)
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. over/under frequency
overvoltage
undervoltage
overvoltage ground relay
Protective relays follow a standard numbering system that is used for all
generators.
The synch check relay, number 25, confirms that the generator is
synchronized with the distribution system. It prevents circuit breaker
operation when the generator is not synchronized with the distribution
system.
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Generator Differential Relay

The generator differential relay, number 86
or 87, protects the generator stator windings,
conductors, and switchgear.
Relay 86 or 87 confirms that all of the current
flowing into one end of the stator windings
flows out of the other end. If not, a fault
exists that allows current to flow to ground.
If a fault occurs, the 86 or 87 relay initiates a
signal to trip the generator.
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Reverse Power Relay

Another protective relay is the reverse
power relay, number 32.
The purpose of this relay is to prevent
the generator from becoming a motor
powered by the distribution system if the
turbine shuts down and the generator is
not disconnected from the distribution
system.
Relay 32 senses the flow of current
relative to the voltage. If the generator
is motored, this relay trips the main
circuit breaker and the gas turbine fuel
shutoff valves.
End Show
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Loss of Excitation &

Time Overcurrent
The next relay discussed is the loss of
excitation relay, number 40. The purpose
of this relay is to detect the loss of
excitation to the generator and
disconnect the generator from the
system.
The generator time overcurrent relay,
number 51V, protects against excessive
current in the circuit. If an overcurrent
condition occurs, the 51V relay delays
for several seconds based on the level of
overcurrent to allow external circuit
breakers time to operate.
(Contd.)
End Show
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Without this relay, a faulty motor could shut down the distribution
system.
This relay allows time for the motor's circuit breaker to trip first, allowing
the generator to continue operation. If the overcurrent condition
continues after the time delay, the 51V relay will trip the generator
breaker.
End Show
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Over/Under Frequency
& Voltage Relay
The over/under frequency relay, number 81,
detects both over and underfrequency operation.
These conditions indicate generator overspeed or
underspeed.
Relay 81 is a backup for turbine underspeed and
overspeed.
The overvoltage relay, number 59 and the
undervoltage relay, number 27, protect the
generator if the automatic voltage regulator fails.
Over/undervoltage conditions may occur routinely
during normal operation. Therefore, these relays
have a built-in time delay.
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Over Voltage Ground

Relay
The overvoltage ground relay, number
59G, senses an overvoltage condition
from the neutral leg to ground.
This condition can occur only if one or
more of the three generator windings is
leaking current to ground.
Vibration is a problem with all rotating
equipment and can cause damage or
equipment malfunction. Monitoring
systems are used to detect vibrations,
which is our next topic.
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Vibration Monitoring:
Purpose
Vibration monitoring is important to
preventing damage to the gas
turbine generator.
The purpose of the vibration
monitoring system is to detect
vibration and shut down the
generator if excessive vibration
occurs. Protection against excessive
vibration increases the life of the
generator and reduces maintenance
costs.
(Contd.)
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The vibration monitoring system consists of vibration sensors and a vibration

monitor.
The vibration sensors detect the vibration and relay this information to the
vibration monitor.
The monitor initiates an alarm and a shutdown if the vibration exceeds preset
levels.
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Lesson : 32 Principle of Compression
Consortium
Gas Compression:
Purposes
The purposes of gas
compression are:
store energy
reservoir maintenance
gas transmission
increase storage capabilities
liquid production
gas lift
We begin with storing energy.
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Store Energy
Air tools such as jackhammers and impact
ratchets are operated by compressed air.
These tools work by changing potential
energy into kinetic energy.
When a gas is compressed and put in a
"receiver tank", the potential energy is
stored.
The figure shows potential energy and
kinetic energy. The balloon is full of air
under pressure and is not moving. This is an
example of potential energy or energy at
rest and stored energy.
End Show
Once the balloon is released, potential

energy is changed to kinetic energy or
energy in motion. The pressure and volume
start decreasing, as the mass of the balloon
and remaining air moves away.
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Reservoir Maintenance
Compressed gas is used in reservoir
maintenance to keep sufficient gas
pressure in the reservoir to maintain
production levels.
A reduction in gas pressure occurs
naturally in reservoirs. As oil is
produced, gas in the reservoir has a
larger space to occupy. This
decreases the reservoir pressure and
reduces oil flow to the surface.
(Contd. )
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Another way reservoir pressure is reduced is, as oil is extracted from the
reservoir, gas molecules become entrained in the oil. When the oil and gas
mixture is produced from the wellhead, the amount of gas in the reservoir is
reduced and reservoir gas pressure begins to decline.
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Gas Transmission
Compressing a gas allows its transmission
through a pipeline. The gas will always move
from a higher pressure to the lower pressure.
The balloon mentioned previously contains air
that is at a higher pressure than the outside
air.
When the stem of the balloon is released, the
higher pressure air inside moves to the lower
pressure air outside.
If the stem of the balloon were attached to a
tube with the opposite end opened to
atmosphere, the air would move down the
tube.
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Increased Storage
Capacity
Compressing gases increases storage
capabilities. When gases are
compressed, their volume is decreased.
This decrease in volume allows more scf
(standard cubic feet) of gas to be stored
in the same size storage tank.
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Production of Liquids
Compressing gases can also produce liquids.
Normally, oxygen is a gas. The molecules
are relatively far apart.
Compressing the oxygen forces the
molecules closer together. The oxygen will
become a liquid if compressed to a high
enough pressure. Many gases will liquify if
they are compressed to a high enough
pressure.
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Gas Lift
Compressed gas is also used in gas lift.
Compressed gas is sent down into the
earth to force oil to the surface.
The gas carries the crude to the surface
where it is then separated.
Gas injection increases the gas specific
density which allows it to move to the
surface at the same downhole pressure.
The next section of this lesson explains
the operating principle of centrifugal gas
compressors.
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Operating Principle
Centrifugal compressors operate on the principle
of centrifugal force. This principle is illustrated in
the figure.
When a ball on a string is swung around in a
circle, a centrifugal force requires that the string
be held or the ball will fly off.
If a long string is used and is slowly let out, the
circle gets bigger and bigger.
When gas in a compressor is forced to move in a
circle, centrifugal force causes it to move away
from the center of the circle at high speed.
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Centrifugal Compressor:
Components
The centrifugal compressor changes the
kinetic energy of the moving gas into
potential energy by forcing the gas to
slow down, which increases the
pressure.
Centrifugal compressors are generally
used in applications that involve large
volumes of gas with compression ratios
up to 3.5.
(Contd.)
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The figure shows the gas flow in a basic single-stage centrifugal

compressor. The components of a gas compressor include:
eye
impeller
volute
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Eye, Impeller, & Volute

Gas enters the eye of the impeller and travels
outward as a result of centrifugal force developed
by the spinning impeller.
The gas is forced into the volute, which collects the
gas and directs the flow to the compressor
discharge nozzle.
The gas begins to slow as it moves from the
impeller to the volute.
An important factor in the operation of a centrifugal
compressor is compression ratio, which is discussed
next.
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Compression Ratio
The figure shows the pressure rise
across the compressor.
The discharge pressure is equal to the
suction pressure plus the pressure rise
across the compressor stage. If the
suction pressure is increased, the
discharge pressure also increases.
The ratio of the discharge pressure to
the suction pressure is the compression
ratio.
(The discharge pressure divided by the
suction pressure).
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Compressor Drivers
The compressor requires a driver to
spin the impeller.
The driver can be a gas turbine,
steam turbine, gas or diesel engine,
or an electric motor. The figure
shows a typical gas turbine-driven
compressor set.
The next section of this lesson
explains multistage centrifugal
compressor operation.
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Compressor Operation
As mentioned previously, the discharge
pressure is equal to the suction
pressure plus the pressure increase
across the compressor stage.
The pressure can be increased
significantly if the discharge from one
compressor is fed to the inlet of another
compressor.
The discharge pressure of the second
stage equals the suction pressure of the
first stage plus the pressure rise across
both stages. This is an example of
tandem compressors.
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Compressor
Operation
Multistage compressors use multiple
impellers to achieve a greater pressure
increase than is possible using a single
impeller.
A four-stage centrifugal compressor is
shown in the figure. This compressor has
four impellers. Each impeller in the
compressor is known as a compression
stage.
The impellers are separated by
diaphragms. Diaphragms direct the flow
from the outlet of the impeller to the eye
of the next impeller.
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Lesson : 33 Compressor Components

Compressor Components
& Operation
Consortium
The components described in this

lesson are:
casing
impeller
shaft
bearings
seals
guide vanes
diffusers
couplings
The compressor casing is discussed
first.
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Compressor Casing
The purpose of a compressor casing is
to house the internal parts, hold the
pressure created by the impeller, and
direct the flow toward the discharge.
The figure shows a single-stage
compressor.
The rotating impeller accelerates the
gas, which is then directed to the gas
outlet nozzle.
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Vertically Split Casing

To allow access for maintenance, the
compressor casing is split either
vertically or horizontally.
In a vertically split casing, the bolts
holding the end cover to the casing
are in a vertical line.
The vertically split casing is called the
barrel and the internal components
are called the bundle.
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One advantage of a vertically split casing is that the seal formed by the end
cover and casing is not subject to high pressure. Therefore, vertically split
casings are used for high pressure applications.
Another advantage of a vertically split casing is that it can withstand higher
temperatures. The casing expands uniformly when it is exposed to the heat
of compression, which reduces the stress on the case.
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Horizontally Split
Casing
A casing can also be split
horizontally. An advantage of this
design is easier maintenance. The
internal components are easily
accessible when the top half of the
casing is removed.
Because the seal on the
horizontally split casing is subject to
high pressure, it is not as suitable
for high pressure applications.
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Impellers
The purpose of impellers is to increase
the velocity of the incoming gas,
which is then converted into an
increase in pressure and temperature.
This increase in velocity occurs as the
impeller rotates.
The gas enters the center of the
impeller, known as the eye. It is
accelerated outward and collected in
the volute. The pressure increase
results from decreasing the volume of
the gas.
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Impeller Designs
Impellers are classified by their design
and manufacturing method.
Impellers are open, semi-closed, or
closed.
Some types of impellers are shown in
the figure.
Impellers are dynamically spin balanced
to reduce vibration.
Balancing RPM varies with the size of
the impeller.
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Compressor Shaft
& Rotor Assembly
The compressor shaft is machined to
tight tolerances and then
dynamically balanced. Various
components are added to the shaft,
and the complete unit is called the
rotor assembly.
The illustration shows a typical
seven-stage rotor assembly. The
rotor must be balanced at each
stage of completion to prevent
vibration. Vibration during operation
can cause severe damage to the
compressor.
End Show
Rotor shaft components include:

sleeves
impellers
balancing drum or piston
Sleeves are fitted onto the shaft. Impellers are attached to

the sleeves to prevent wear to the shaft. This arrangement
also allows removal of the impeller without damaging the
shaft.
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Mounting Methods
Various methods are used to attach impellers to
the sleeves. One method uses a key that prevents
the impeller from turning independently of the
shaft.
Another method is called shrink fitting. With this
method, the impeller is gradually heated and
allowed to expand. The impeller is then slipped
over the sleeve on the shaft and allowed to cool.
Once cool, it contracts and forms a tight friction fit
onto the sleeve. This same procedure is used for
fitting the sleeves to the shaft.
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Rotor Thrust
Compressors increase the
pressure of the gas. As a
result, the outlet pressure of
each stage is higher than the
inlet pressure. These forces
produce a thrust on the
rotor. The resulting force
tends to move the rotor
toward the lower suction.
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Balancing Drum
A balancing drum is used to
compensate for the thrust. A
balancing drum is a solid metal
cylinder with a labyrinth seal that is
attached to the rotor shaft behind
the last impeller.
High pressure discharge gas exists
on a very small area on one side of
the drum. Suction pressure is piped
to the full face area on the other
side. This arrangement produces a
counteracting force that reduces the
total thrust.
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Load Bearings
Two types of bearings are used in
compressors: load and thrust bearings.
Load bearings, also called main or
journal bearings, support the weight of
the rotor and prevent radial movement.
The load bearings have no rotating
elements. The lubrication system
provides a film of oil between the
bearing and the shaft. This oil film
prevents metal-to-metal contact and
reduces wear.
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Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings prevent axial movement
of the shaft caused by thrust forces.
A thrust collar is fitted to the shaft and
rotates with the shaft. The thrust bearing
is stationary with the casing.
Pads tilt on the leveling plates. The
leveling plates tilt-a result of lube oil
hydraulic forces caused by aligning the
pads with the thrust collar pad. The plates
ensure that every shoe carries an equal
load.
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Seals
Seals prevent most of the gas from
leaking into the atmosphere and
leaking between stages. The types
of seals discussed in this module
include the following:
labyrinth
segmented ring
mechanical
liquid film
(Contd.)
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The simplest type of seal is the labyrinth seal. The basic labyrinth seal has
teeth machined into a metal ring attached to the casing. The labyrinth
seal can also be an interlocking seal with teeth machined into the shaft
and into the ring as shown in the figure.
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Labyrinth Seal: Buffer

Gas System
Because all labyrinth seals leak, a buffer
gas system is installed to direct the
leak. The figure shows this system.
Buffer gas is injected at a higher
pressure than the gas on the other side
of the seal.
The buffer gas system directs the
leaking process gas to a collection point
instead of letting it leak into the
atmosphere.
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Segmented Ring Seal

The segmented ring seal uses
several segments of carbon held
against the shaft by a compressive
spring band. Carbon is used because
it does not readily wear the shaft.
Several rings are combined to
provide the seal.
Because different gases have
different properties, the number of
rings required varies.
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Mechanical Seals
Mechanical seals rely on contact to
provide sealing.
One element of the seal is
stationary, (stationary face) and the
other moves with the rotor (rotating
face).
To reduce wear, a carbon ring is
placed between the two metal
surfaces.
Lubrication is provided to reduce the
friction.
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Liquid Film Seal

The liquid film seal is common in large
compressors.
The liquid film seal is similar to the
mechanical seal except that space is
purposely left between the seal faces.
Oil at a slightly higher pressure than the
gas is forced between the seal faces to
prevent gas from escaping to the
atmosphere.
Guide vanes and diaphragms are
discussed next.
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Guide Vanes
The purpose of guide vanes is to re-direct
the flow of gas entering the compressor and
through the compressor.
An example of an adjustable inlet guide
vane is shown in the figure.
Inlet guide vanes direct the incoming gas in
the desired direction of flow.
The guide vanes for interstage impellers are
not adjustable and are built into the
diaphragm.
Interstage guide vanes direct the flow of gas
into the next impeller eye.
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Multi-Stage
Compressor
A multi-stage compressor has two or more
impellers on a single shaft. The shaft includes
sleeves, impellers, balance drum, etc., and is
called a rotor. These are the parts that rotate
inside the casing.
The figure shows a four-stage and a two-stage
compressor. The stage components permit easy
changing of parts. Stages can be removed or
changed to meet changing operating
requirements.
Impeller rotation and centrifugal forces
maintain the gas flow through the compressor.
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Compressor Surge
A condition called surge occurs when
the flow of gas being discharged is
less than the gas flowing into the
suction.
This condition causes areas of high
pressure in the compressor where the
gas flow stops.
Severe damage can occur if this
condition is allowed to continue.
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Diaphragms
The impellers on the rotor shaft are
separated by diaphragms.
Diaphragms divide the individual stages in
a multistage compressor.
Diaphragms convert velocity to pressure
and are sometimes referred to as
diffusers. Additionally, diaphragms
redirect the gas flow evenly into the
following impeller suction eye.
Couplings are the last of the compressor
components to be discussed.
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Couplings: Purpose
The purpose of couplings is to
connect the driver to the
compressor. Couplings are also
used to connect gearboxes to
the driver and to the
compressor.
Couplings provide a flexible
connection to reduce
compressor and driver vibration
and wear.
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Couplings: Types
Three types of couplings are
discussed in this section:
spring grid coupling
gear coupling
flexible disc coupling
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Spring Grid Coupling

The figure shows a spring grid
coupling.
The inner hubs are connected by
a spring that fits in slots on each
inner hub.
The outer hub contains
lubrication to reduce friction and
to keep the internal components
clean.
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Gear & Flexible Disc

Coupling
Like the spring grid coupling, the gear
coupling has two inner hubs and two outer
hubs.
The coupling is usually connected to the
driver and compressor by a keyway
connection.
The flexible disc coupling has two hubs. One
hub attaches to the driver, and the other hub
attaches to the compressor.
The flexible discs are situated between the
hub and the coupling torque tube.
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Lesson : 34 Compressor Lube Oil

Lube Oil System:
Purposes
Consortium
The purposes of compressor

lubrication are to:
reduce friction between moving parts
remove heat generated by friction
maintain cleanliness by removing
contaminants
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Primary Purpose
The primary purpose of the compressor
lube oil system is to reduce friction between
moving parts. It does this by providing a
film of oil between the moving parts.
As long as the oil film is unbroken, any
friction in the compressor is fluid friction
instead of metal-to-metal friction.
For example, oil pressure lifts the journal of
a shaft off the bearing on which it is resting.
As the shaft rotates, a layer of oil prevents
the journal from touching the bearing.
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Lube Oil System:

Components
There are five main components
of the lubrication system:
reservoir
pumps
coolers
filters
control system
The first component discussed is the

reservoir.
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Reservoir
The purpose of the lube oil
reservoir is to store lube oil
and provide a reliable supply
of lube oil to the lube oil
pumps.
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Main & Auxiliary Pumps

The purpose of pumps is to provide pressure to
force the oil through the coolers and filters and
onto the moving surfaces. The lubrication system
may include three pumps:
auxiliary
main
emergency DC
Before operating the compressor, the moving
surfaces must be oiled to prevent damage and
wear during start-up.
An auxiliary pump provides the oil pressure
before start-up. It helps the main pump maintain
the oil pressure until the compressor is at
operating speed.
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Auxiliary & Emergency

Pumps
The auxiliary pump also supplies lube
oil to remove heat and to provide
lubrication during and after shutdown.
The emergency pump starts if the main
and auxilary pumps fail. It provides the
minimum amount of lube oil to the
bearings as the turbine shuts down
and cools.
Emergency pumps are driven by an
alternate power source, separate from
the main and auxiliary pumps.
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Oil Coolers
The purpose of oil coolers is to remove heat
passed to the lube oil from the compressor.
The oil carries heat away from the
compressor. The heat is removed from the oil
when the oil is routed to the oil cooler.
Because heat can cause decomposition of the
oil, oil temperatures must be carefully
controlled by automatic temperature
regulators.
Two coolers are generally provided so that
maintenance can be done on one while the
other is in service.
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Oil Filters
The purpose of oil filters is to
remove particles that are
suspended in the oil.
As the oil circulates through the
compressor, it collects foreign
matter and carries it away with
the oil that is returned to the
lube oil reservoir.
Any foreign matter in the oil is
removed by the filtration systems
so only clean oil is circulated to
the compressor.
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Filters & Coolers

Backup lube oil filters and coolers are
provided as redundancy. These are
duplex systems.
The filters are equipped with either
pressure gauges or differential pressure
gauges to determine the pressure drop
across them.
An excessive pressure drop indicates
fouling. The fouled filter must be taken
out of service and lube oil routed through
the standby filter. Proper venting of the
standby filter is required prior to placing it
in service.
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Control System
The last area of the lube oil system is the
control system. This system is discussed in
greater detail in the next lesson.
The lube oil control system has various
sensors that provide shutdown or alarms if
the system is operating outside
predetermined parameters.
The figure shows some of these sensors,
including a low pressure switch,
differential pressure across the filters, lube
oil temperature, pressure switches, and
lube oil reservoir level.
The seal oil system is discussed next.
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Seal Oil System:

Purpose
The purpose of the compressor seal
oil system is to provide lubrication
for seal surfaces and to prevent gas
leakage.
Gas enters the suction end of the
compressor at a required suction
pressure and leaves the discharge
end of the compressor at higher
pressure.
(Contd.)
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Seals prevent gas from leaking in two places:

into the lube oil system that lubricates the bearings
out of the casing
In the first case, seals are located between the bearings and the
impellers.
In the second case, seals are located between the bearings and the
casing.
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Seal Oil System:

Components
Like the lube oil system, the seal oil
system also contains pumps, coolers,
filters, and a control system.
These components perform the same
functions in the seal oil system that they
do in the lube oil system.
A typical seal oil system is shown in the
figure.
A seal oil system provides seal oil at a
pressure slightly higher than the gas
pressure that is being sealed.
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Seal Oil System:

Labyrinth Seal
A special labyrinth seal is used at the
discharge end of the shaft. This seal allows
some gas, called buffer gas, to leak. Leakage
of buffer gas reduces the seal pressure.
Gas pressure outside the labyrinth seal is only
slightly greater than the suction pressure.
Leaked gas is piped to the seal area on the
suction side of the compressor.
The same oil pressure is applied at the
suction and discharge seals. This is called
reference pressure.
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Seal Oil System: Head

Tank
The compressor shaft is supported
by bearings on each end. These
bearings must be lubricated with
clean lube oil.
Compressed gas must not be
allowed to leak into the bearing lube
oil. Therefore, the seal oil pressure
must always be higher than the
reference pressure.
( Contd.)
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A method used to ensure a higher seal oil pressure during an emergency

shutdown is the head tank.
The head tank is pressurized by reference pressure during normal
operation. The head tank also contains seal oil at a certain level. This
provides a liquid head and reference gas pressure.
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Seal Oil System:

Degassing Tank
The seal oil system allows mixing of
seal oil and gas. The figure shows
that some seal oil flows toward the
gas and some flows away.
The uncontaminated oil flows back to
the reservoir. The oil that leaks
through the inner seal is mixed with
the gas and drains to the drain pots.
The contaminated seal oil must be
separated from the gas in drain pots
and degassing tank.
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Seal Oil System:

Degassing Tank
A slight amount of oil leaks through the
inner and the outer seals. The oil that
leaks through the outer seal is eventually
returned to the reservoir.
Some recovered seal oil is contaminated
with gas making it unsuitable for reuse.
This contaminated seal oil must first go to
the degassing tank before returning to
the reservoir.
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Lesson: 35 Compressor Cooling

Control System: Purpose
Consortium
The purpose of a compressor control

system is to provide protection against
malfunctions and control the following
functions during compressor operation:
equipment operation, such as oil
temperatures, vibration levels, and oil
pressures
compressor performance, such as
discharge pressure and flow rate
( Contd. )
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Control System: Level of

Control
Compressor control systems vary from
the simple to the complex. The levels of
control in this lesson include:
manual control
sequence control
process variable measurement and
regulation
decision-making control
optimizing control
Information about manual control is
presented first
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Manual Control
Manual control is the simplest level of
control. Manual control depends on the
actions of the operator.
In this level of control the operator:
sets valve positions
starts and stops pumps
makes all adjustments to the process
The next level of control is sequence control.
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Sequence Control
Sequence control uses an
automated system and operating
instructions. The instructions are
listed in the order required to
perform a certain task to reach a
desired result.
The sequence may begin with the
operator pushing a button in a
remotely located control room.
( Contd.)
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Measurement & Regulation

Control
A more complex level of control is process variable
measurement and regulation.
At this level of control, process variables are measured and
the system regulates the process based on these
measurements.
Warning lights and audible alarms inform the operator
when process variables have exceeded set limits.
This level of control has little operator interface for
adjustments to optimize the process.
Information about the decision making level of control is
covered next.
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Decision-Making
Control
Decision-making control (PLC)
adjusts the process and makes
decisions based on compressor
performance feedback.
Examples of this level of control
are automatic start-up and
shutdown of compressors based
on header pressure.
( Contd. )
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Optimizing Control
Optimizing control is the most
complex control. This control
system measures the process
performance and makes
adjustments to reach an optimal
level.
Optimizing control measures
changes in process variables,
predicts the resulting changes to
the process, and adjusts the
process to reach a predetermined
level of performance.
(Contd.)
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Control System:
Components
Control system components and
instruments include the following
devices:
sensing
monitoring
protective
sequencing
regulating
optimizing
Information about each component follows.
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Sensoring & Monitoring

Devices
Sensing devices are the most basic control system
elements. The figure shows a partial list of
common sensing devices.
These devices only provide information to the
control systems. They do not make adjustments.
Sensing devices provide information to the
monitoring devices.
Monitoring devices include gauges, lights, and
distributed control systems. Monitoring devices
provide detailed information about operating
conditions
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Sensoring & Monitoring

Devices
Protective devices include shutdown and
alarm devices. If operating conditions are
sensed to be at, or in excess of, an
emergency shutdown setpoint, the
equipment is automatically shut down.
Start-up and shutdowns must be done in
a particular order to ensure safety of
personnel and prevent equipment
damage. Sequencing devices perform the
necessary steps to accomplish start-up
and shutdown.
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Protective &
Sequencing Devices
Regulating devices receive
information from sensing devices
and adjust the process to achieve a
certain setpoint.
Regulating devices such as the
anti-surge controller make
adjustments based only on the
current measurement and do not
predict trends, as does an
optimizing system, which is
discussed next.
(Contd.)
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Optimizing devices are the most complex devices in a control system.

Optimizing systems can look at one variable or can be connected to a
computer-based system that controls the entire process.
The programmable logic computer (PLC) is an optimizing device.
Compressor capacity control is discussed next.
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Regulating & Optimizing

Devices
Compressor capacity control
depends on variables such as the
following:
compression ratio
operating speed
percent of design flow
inlet guide vane adjustment
The figure shows a set of operating

curves.
( Contd. )
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The left side of the graph shows the surge line. Compressor surge
occurs when there is an insufficient flow of gas through the compressor
for a given differential pressure or compression ratio.
The compressor will be damaged if it continuously operates in the surge
region.
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Compressor Capacity Control

The right-hand side of the graph shows
stonewall. Stonewall occurs when the speed
of the gas is equal to the speed of sound.
At stonewall, the gas within the compressor is
moving as fast as physically possible (critical
flow).
Most centrifugal compressors have an
operating curve similar to the figure.
( Contd.)
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The operating curves show compressor capacity and compression ratio at

different compressor speeds.
Capacity varies with compressor discharge pressure at a constant suction
pressure.
Compression ratio is used to control compressor capacity because it is
related to both suction pressure and discharge pressure.
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Compressor Capacity
Control
Safe compressor operating limits are between the surge
region on the left and a maximum capacity limitation
(stonewall) on the right.
For the compressor operating point shown in the graph,
only 80% of the design gas flow rate is available.
To use the graph, determine the percentage (%) speed
and compression ratio, then move down to find the
capacity. At this speed and ratio this is the expected
throughput (80%).
The compressor will not operate at 100% speed, 100%
compression ratio, and 80% capacity.
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Compressor
Capacity Control
As you recall, the compression
ratio is the discharge pressure
in psia divided by the suction
pressure in psia.
When compression ratio
increases, the discharge
pressure increases for a set
suction pressure and/or the
suction pressure decreases for a
set discharge pressure.
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Compressor Capacity
Control
The only way to operate the compressor at 100%
compression ratio and 80% capacity is to slow
the compressor to a speed between 95% and
100%.
Speed control is needed to hold a constant
compression ratio at different gas flow rates, or
differential pressure control is needed to hold a
constant compression ratio at different speeds
and flows.
At any given operating speed, the compression
ratio depends on the amount of flow through the
compressor.
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Compressor Capacity
Control
Centrifugal compressors are either constant
speed or variable speed.
The figure shows various methods of
adjusting capacity for both types of
compressor.
The capacity of a constant speed compressor
can be adjusted by throttling either the
suction or the discharge. Throttling a valve
creates a pressure drop.
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Compressor Capacity
Control Methods
As seen in the graph, a reduction of
flow causes an increase in the
compression ratio.
To prevent this increase in
compression ratio, the discharge
pressure can be reduced or suction
pressure can be increased to provide
the desired condition using the
throttling valve.
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Compressor Capacity
Control Methods
Compressor capacity control can also be
maintained through recycle. Recycle controls the
capacity by providing enough recycled gas to
achieve 100% of design flow.
For example, if the flow is only 68% of design, the
recycle valve may open to allow the remaining
32% of design flow to recycle from discharge to
the suction side of the compressor.
Note that the driver energy required is 100% of
design, but the gas flow rate is 68%. As a result,
the system efficiency is sufficiently decreased.
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Compressor Capacity
Control Methods
Another method of controlling capacity is
adjusting the inlet guide vanes. Inlet
guide vanes direct gas flow to the first
impeller.
The vanes can be moved manually or
automatically to change gas flow.
Compressor capacity is reduced by
moving the vanes to restrict the flow of
gas into the first stage impeller.
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Compressor Capacity Control

Methods
Variable speed compressors change the speed
to control capacity.
Throttling is used in variable speed
compressors when speed adjustment cannot
accomplish the desired capacity.
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Compressor Capacity
Control Methods
Control systems provide for either local or remote
starting and stopping, automatically monitored
operation, and automatic malfunction shutdown.
Sequence control uses an automated system to
follow a set of instructions.
Control system elements include sensing devices,
monitoring devices, protection devices,
sequencing devices, regulating devices, and
optimizing devices.
End Show
Compressor surge occurs when

there is an insufficient flow of
gas through the compressor for
a given compression ratio.
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Lesson 36 : Compressor control
Consortium
Fuel Gas Control System:

Purpose
The purpose of a fuel gas control
system is to provide required fuel
flow and pressure to the engine. It
uses specially designed
components to accomplish this
function.
A simplified view of the fuel gas
control system is shown in the
figure.
(Contd. )
End Show
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The diagram on the following page shows a complete fuel gas control
system with the main components highlighted. Each of the highlighted
components and its operation are discussed in the following pages.
End Show
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Fuel Gas Control

System: Components
The main components of the fuel
gas control system are:
strainer
gas supply pressure switch
stop/speed ratio valve assembly (stop/ratio
valve and gas control valve)
fuel gas pressure transducer
fuel vent solenoid valve
four linear variable differential transformers
(LVDT) position sensors
two electrohydraulic servo valves
three gas pressure gauges
Speedtronic controls
The strainer is discussed first.
End Show
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Strainer
The purpose of the strainer is to remove
foreign particles from the fuel gas before it
enters the stop/speed ratio valve assembly.
A blowdown connection on the bottom of the
strainer body is used for periodic cleaning of
the strainer screen.
The next fuel gas control system component
discussed is the supply pressure switch.
End Show
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Gas Supply Pressure Switch

The gas supply pressure switch is installed in
the gas piping upstream of the stop/speed
ratio valve.
This switch initiates an alarm when fuel gas
pressure decreases below the setpoint.
Downstream of the gas supply pressure switch
is the stop/speed ratio valve and gas control
valve assembly. This assembly is discussed
next.
End Show
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Stop/Speed Ratio & Gas

Control Valve
The combination stop/speed ratio and
gas control valve assembly contains the
following independent valves:
gas control valve
Both of these valves are actuated by hydraulic pressure
through servos which receive the signal from the
Speedtronic control system (discussed later in this lesson).
End Show
The stop/speed ratio valve has

two functions:
a stop valve
gas pressure regulation
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As a stop valve, the stop/speed ratio
valve shuts off fuel gas flow during
normal and emergency shutdowns.
The hydraulic dump valve, control oil,
and servo valves control the action of
the stop/speed ratio valve as a stop
valve.
The hydraulic dump valve is located
between the electrohydraulic servo valve
and the actuating cylinder.
( Contd. )
End Show
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When control oil pressure is low, a spring moves an internal spool to the
"dump" position.
When hydraulic pressure is removed, a closing spring on the stop/speed
ratio valve plug closes the valve.
Fuel gas flow to the gas control valve and gas turbine is stopped.
End Show
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UCUF

UNION FENOSA gas

TRAINING PROGRAM - PHASE IIA

UNION FENOSA gas

Lesson 1 : Engine Design

Lesson 11 : Lube Oil Filters & Coolers

Lesson 2 : Operating Principles

Lesson 12 : Lube Oil Instrumentation

Lesson 3 : Engine Case Air Inlet

Lesson 13 : Hydraulic Oil System

Lesson 4 : Compressor Section

Lesson 14 : Trip Oil System

Lesson 5 : Diffuser & Combustion

Lesson 15 : Fuel Systems

Lesson 6 : Turbine & Exhaust

Lesson 16 : Fuel Gas Supply System

Lesson 7 : Ignition System

Lesson 17 : Fuel Gas Control System

Lesson 8 : Bearings & Seals

Lesson 18 : Liquid Fuel System

Lesson 9 : Lubrication & Lube Oil

Lesson 19 : Liquid Fuel System

Lesson 10 : Lube Oil Pumps

Lesson 20 : Pneumatic Starting

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Lesson 21 : Hydraulic Starting

Lesson 29 : Lube Oil System

Lesson 22 : Diesel Starting

Lesson 30 : Generator Components

Lesson 31 : Generator Control

Lesson 24 : Fire Detection

Lesson 32 : Principle of Components

Lesson 25 : Gas Detection l

Lesson 26 : Extinguisher System

Lesson 34 : Compressor Lube Oil

Lesson 27 : Principles of Power Gen

Lesson 35 : Compressor Cooling l

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Lesson 1: Gas Turbine Engine Design

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Engine Design : Sections

A gas turbine engine is divided into five

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UNION FENOSA gas

Engine Design: Turbine &

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Air Entry and Compression :

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UNION FENOSA gas

Air Entry and Compression

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The main parts of a turbine are :

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UNION FENOSA gas

UNION FENOSA gas