3 1 Informal Fallacies

INFORMAL FALLACIES
CHAPTER 3
FALLACIES IN GENERAL
3.1
FALLACIES IN GENERAL
A fallacy is a defect in an argument that consists in

something other than false premises alone. The fallacies
introduced in this chapter involve defective patterns of
arguing that occur so often they have been given specific
names.
SUCH DEFECTS COMPRISE EITHER MISTAKES IN

REASONING OR THE CREATION OF AN
ILLUSION THAT MAKES A BAD ARGUMENT
APPEAR GOOD.
IN REASONING & ILLUSION
NON SEQUITUR
The term non sequitur (it does not follow) is
another name for fallacy. Both deductive and
inductive arguments may contain fallacies;
Both deductive and inductive arguments may contain

fallacies; if they do, they are either unsound or uncogent,
depending on the kind of argument. Conversely, if an
argument is unsound or uncogent, it has one or more
false premises or it contains a fallacy (or both).
FALLACIES ARE USUALLY DIVIDED INTO TWO

GROUPS: FORMAL AND
INFORMAL
FORMAL FALLACY
A formal fallacy is one that may be identified by merely

examining the form or structure of an argument. Fallacies of this
kind are found only in deductive arguments that have
identifiable forms.
Chapter 1 presented some of these forms: categorical
syllogisms, disjunctive syllogisms, and hypothetical

syllogisms. The following categorical syllogism contains a formal
fallacy:
All bullfights are grotesque rituals.

All executions are grotesque rituals.
Therefore, all bullfights are executions.
This argument has the following form:
All A are B.
All C are B.
All A are C.
By merely examining this form, one can see that it is invalid. The
fact that A, B, and C stand respectively for bullfights, grotesque
rituals, and executions is irrelevant in detecting the fallacy. The
problem may be traced to the second premise. If the letters C
and B are interchanged, the form becomes valid, and the original
argument, with the same change introduced, also becomes valid
(but unsound).
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A FORMAL FALLACY THAT OCCURS IN A

HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM:
If apes are intelligent, then

apes can solve puzzles.
Apes can solve puzzles.
Therefore, apes are
intelligent.
This argument has the following form:
If A then B.
B.
A.
In this case, if A and B are interchanged in the first premise, the

form becomes valid, and the original argument, with the same
change, also becomes valid. This fallacy and the one that precedes
it will be discussed in later chapters.
In distinguishing formal from informal fallacies, remember that

formal fallacies occur only in deductive arguments. Thus, if a
given argument is inductive, it cannot contain a formal fallacy.
Also, keep an eye out for standard deductive argument forms

such as categorical syllogisms and hypothetical syllogisms.
If such an argument is invalid because of an improper
arrangement of terms or statements, it commits a formal fallacy.
INFORMAL
FALLACIES
INFORMAL FALLACIES ARE THOSE THAT CAN BE

DETECTED ONLY BY EXAMINING THE CONTENT
OF THE ARGUMENT.
Content
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE:
The Brooklyn Bridge is made of atoms.

Atoms are invisible.
Therefore, the Brooklyn Bridge is invisible.
To detect this fallacy one must know something about

bridgesnamely, that they are large visible objects, and even
though their atomic components are invisible, this does not mean
that the bridges themselves are invisible.
OR CONSIDER THIS EXAMPLE:
A chess player is a
person.
Therefore, a bad chess
player is a bad person.
BAD
To detect this fallacy one must know that the

meaning of the word bad depends on what it
modifies, and that being a bad chess player is quite
different from being a bad person.
The various informal fallacies accomplish their purpose in so

many different ways that no single umbrella theory covers
them all. Some fallacies work by getting the reader or listener to
feel various emotions, such as fear, pity, or camaraderie, and then
attaching a certain conclusion to those emotions.
Others attempt to discredit an opposing argument by associating

it with certain pejorative features of its author.
And then there are those that appeal to various dispositions on
the part of the reader or listener, such as superstition or mental
laziness, to get him or her to accept a conclusion.
By studying the typical ways in which arguers apply these

techniques, one is less likely to be fooled by the fallacious
arguments posed by others or to stumble blindly into fallacies
when constructing arguments for ones own use.
By studying the typical ways in which arguers apply these

techniques, one is less likely to be fooled by the fallacious
arguments posed by others or to stumble blindly into fallacies
when constructing arguments for ones own use.
Since the time of Aristotle, logicians have attempted to classify

the various informal fallacies. Aristotle himself identified thirteen
and separated them into two groups. The work of subsequent
logicians has produced dozens more, rendering the task of
classifying them even more difficult.
The presentation that follows divides twenty-two

informal fallacies into five groups: fallacies of relevance, fallacies
of weak induction, fallacies of presumption, fallacies of ambiguity,
and fallacies of grammatical analogy.
The final section of the chapter considers the related topics of
detecting and avoiding fallacies in the context of ordinary
language.
five groups:
1. Fallacies of relevance,
2. Fallacies of weak induction,
3. Fallacies of presumption,
4. Fallacies of ambiguity,
5. Fallacies of grammatical analogy.
EXERCISES
1. If Rasputin was really mad, then he deceived Czar

Nicholas II. Rasputin was not really mad. Therefore, he did
not deceive Czar Nicholas II.
2. Everything that runs has feet.
3. All people who believe we create our own reality are people
who lack social responsibility. All people governed by selfish
motives are people who lack social responsibility. Therefore, all
people who believe we create our own reality are people
governed by selfish motives.
4. The ship of state is like a ship at sea. No sailor is ever

allowed to protest orders from the captain. For the same reason,
no citizen should ever be allowed to protest presidential policies.
5 Renowned violinist Pinchas Zukerman has said, When it comes

to vodka, Smirnoff plays second fiddle to none. We must
therefore conclude that Smirnoff is the best vodka available.
EXERCISES
6. If the Chinese government systematically kills its unwanted

orphans, then the Chinese government is immoral. The Chinese
government is indeed immoral. Therefore, the Chinese
government systematically kills its unwanted orphans.

3 1 Informal Fallacies

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

3 1 Informal Fallacies

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

3 1 Informal Fallacies

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INFORMAL FALLACIES

A fallacy is a defect in an argument that consists in

SUCH DEFECTS COMPRISE EITHER MISTAKES IN

Both deductive and inductive arguments may contain

FALLACIES ARE USUALLY DIVIDED INTO TWO

A formal fallacy is one that may be identified by merely

Chapter 1 presented some of these forms: categorical

syllogisms, disjunctive syllogisms, and hypothetical

All bullfights are grotesque rituals.

Therefore, all bullfights are executions.

This argument has the following form:

HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A FORMAL FALLACY THAT OCCURS IN A

If apes are intelligent, then

This argument has the following form:

In this case, if A and B are interchanged in the first premise, the

In distinguishing formal from informal fallacies, remember that

Also, keep an eye out for standard deductive argument forms

INFORMAL FALLACIES ARE THOSE THAT CAN BE

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE:

The Brooklyn Bridge is made of atoms.

Therefore, the Brooklyn Bridge is invisible.

To detect this fallacy one must know something about

OR CONSIDER THIS EXAMPLE:

To detect this fallacy one must know that the

The various informal fallacies accomplish their purpose in so

Others attempt to discredit an opposing argument by associating

By studying the typical ways in which arguers apply these

when constructing arguments for ones own use.

By studying the typical ways in which arguers apply these

Since the time of Aristotle, logicians have attempted to classify

The presentation that follows divides twenty-two

1. If Rasputin was really mad, then he deceived Czar

2. Everything that runs has feet.

4. The ship of state is like a ship at sea. No sailor is ever

5 Renowned violinist Pinchas Zukerman has said, When it comes

6. If the Chinese government systematically kills its unwanted

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.