CHAPTER - III

HAMILTONS PRINCIPLE AND HAMILTONS

FORMULATION
Unit 1: Hamiltons Principles:

Introduction :
In the Chapter II we have used the techniques of variational principles of

Calculus of Variation to find the stationary path between two points. Hamiltons
principle is one of the variational principles in mechanics. All the laws of mechanics
can be derived by using the Hamiltons principle. Hence it is one of the most
fundamental and important principles of mechanics and mathematical physics.
In this unit we define Hamiltons principle for conservative and nonconservative systems and derive Hamiltons canonical equations of motion. We also
derive Lagranges equations of motion.

Hamiltons Principle (for non-conservative system) :

Hamiltons principle for non-conservative systems states that The motion of

a dynamical system between two points at time intervals t0 to t1 is such that the line
integral
t1

I = (T + W )dt
t0

is extremum for the actual path followed by the system , where T is the kinetic
energy and W is the work done by the particle.
It is equivalent to say that variation in the actual path followed by the
system is zero. Mathematically, it means that

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t1

I = (T + W )dt = 0
t0

for actual path.

Hamiltons Principle (for conservative system) :

Of all possible paths between two points along which a dynamical system

may move from one point to another within a given time interval from t0 to t1 , the
actual path followed by the system is the one which minimizes the line integral of
Lagrangian.
This means that the motion of a dynamical system from t0 to t1 is such that
t1

the line integral

Ldt

is extremum for actual path. This implies that small

t0

variation in the actual path followed by the system is zero.

t1

Mathematically, we express this as Ldt = 0 for the actual path.

t0

Note : We will show bellow in the Theorem (2) that the Hamiltons principle
t1

Ldt = 0 also holds good for the non-conservative system.

t0

Action in Mechanics :
Let L = L ( q j , q
j , t ) be the Lagrangian for the conservative system. Then the

integral
t1

I = Ldt
t0

is called the action of the system.

Hence we can also define the Hamiltons principle as Out of all possible
paths of a dynamical system between the time instants t0 and t1 , the actual path
followed by the system is one for which the action has a stationary value
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t1

I = Ldt = 0
t0

for the actual path.

Theorem 1 : Derive Hamiltons principle for non-conservative system from
DAlemberts principle and hence deduce from it the Hamiltons principle for
conservative system.
Proof: We start with DAlemberts principle which states that

( F p
) r = 0 .
i

. . . (1)

Note that in this principle the knowledge of force whether it is conservative or nonconservative and also the requirement of holonomic or non-holonomic constraints
does not arise. We write the principle in the form

F r = p
r .
i

W = p
i ri .

. . . (2)

where W = Fi ri is the virtual work.

i

Now consider

p
r = m

r r ,
i

i i

=
i

Since we have r
i =

d
d
( mi r
i ri ) mi r
i ( ri ) .
dt
dt
i

d
ri , therefore, we write
dt

p
r = dt m r
r 2 m r

i

i i

i i

p
r = dt m r
r T ,
i

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i i

Page No. 159

1
T = mi r
i 2
i 2

where

is the kinetic energy of the system. Substituting this in equation (2) we get

W =

mi r
i ri T

dt i

(W + T ) =

mi r
i ri .

dt i

Integrating the above equation with respect to t between t0 to t1 we get

t1

t1

(W + T )dt = mi r
i ri .

t0

t0

Since, there is no variation in co-ordinates along any paths at the end points. i.e.,
t1

( ri )t

= 0 . Hence from above equation we have

t1

(W + T )dt = 0 .

. . . (3)

t0

This is known as Hamiltons principle for non-conservative systems.

If however, the system is conservative, then the forces are derivable from potential.
In this case the expression for virtual work becomes

W = Fi ri =
i

V
ri = V .
ri

Hence equation (3) becomes

t1

(T V )dt = 0,
t0
t1

Ldt = 0.

. . . (4)

t0

This is the required Hamiltons principle for conservative system.

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t1

Theorem 2 : Show that the Hamiltons principle

Ldt = 0 also holds for the

t0

non- conservative system.

Proof : We know the Hamiltons principle for non-conservative system is given by
t1

(T + W )dt = 0

. . . (1)

t0

for actual path. The expression for the virtual work is given by

W = Fi ri = Fi
i

ri
q j
q j

r
W = Fi i q j
q j
j
i

W = Q j q j ,

. . . (2)

Q j = Fi

where

ri
q j

are the components of generalized forces. In the case of non-conservative system the
potential energy is dependent on velocity called the velocity dependent potential. In
this case the generalized force is given by
Qj =

U d U
+
.
q j dt q
j

Substituting this in equation (2) and integrating it between the limits t0 to t1 we find
t1

t1

t1

Wdt = Q j q j dt =
t0

t0

t0

q
j

d U

q j dt ,
dt q
j

Substituting this in equation (1) we get

t1

t1

t0

t0

Tdt =
j

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t1
U

q j dt
q j
t0

d U
j dt q
q j dt .
j
Page No. 161

Integrating the second integral by parts we obtain

t

1
t1

Tdt
=

q
dt

q
+

j
j
t
q j



j q
j
t0 j
t0 t0
0

t1

t1

U d
( q j ) dt .
j dt

q

j

t1

Since change in co-ordinates at the end point is zero. ( q j )t = 0

0

d
( q j ) = q
j ,
dt

and also
then we have
t1

U

U

q
+

q
j q
j q j dt .
j
t0
j

t1

Tdt =
t0

Since time t is fixed along any path hence, there is no variation in time along any
path therefore change in time along any path is zero. i.e., t = 0
Hence we write above equation as

t0

U
U
U

q
+

j q
j q j + t t dt .
j
t0

t1

t1

t0

t0

t1

t1

Tdt =

Tdt = Udt .
t1

(T U ) dt = 0,
t0
t1

Ldt = 0.
t0

This proves that the Hamilton's principle holds good even for non-conservative
systems.

Theorem 3 : State Hamiltons principle for non-conservative system and hence

derive Lagranges equations of motion for non-conservative holonomic systems.

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Proof: Let us consider a non-conservative holonomic dynamical system whose

configuration at any instant t is specified by n generalized co-ordinates

q1 , q2 , q3 ,..., qn . Hamiltons principle for non-conservative system states that
t1

(T + W )dt = 0

for actual path.

. . . (1)

t0

The virtual work done is given by

W = Fi ri = Fi
i

ri
q j
q j

r
W = Fi i q j
q j
j
i

W = Q j q j ,

. . . (2)

where

Q j = Fi
i

ri
q j

are the components of generalized forces.

t1

t1

t0

t0

Wdt = Q j q j dt .

. . . (3)

The kinetic energy of the particle T = T ( q j , q
j , t ) .

T =
j

T
T
T
q j + q
j + t .

j
q j
t
j q

. . . (4)

As the variation in time along any path is always zero. t = 0 .

This implies that

T =
j

T
T
q j + q
j

j
q j
j q

. . . (5)

Integrating equation (5) between the limits t0 to t1 we get

t1

t1

t0

t0

Tdt =
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1
T
T
q j dt +
q
j dt


q j

q
j
j
t0

Page No. 163

Since we have
d
q j = q
j .
dt

Therefore we write the above integral as

t1

t1

t0

t0

Tdt =
j

1
T
T d
q j dt +
( q j ) dt .
q j
q
j dt
t0 j

Integrating the second integral by parts, we obtain

t1

t1
T

T
d T
=
+

Tdt

q
dt

q j j j q
j j t j dt q
j
t0
t0 j

0
t1

t1

t0

q j dt .

Since in variation there is no change in the co-ordinates at the end points

( q )

t1

j t
0

= 0 . Hence
t1

t1

Tdt =
t0

t0

q j

d T

dt q
j

q j dt .

. . . (6)

Using equations (3) and (5) in equation (1) we get

t1

t0

d T

dt q
j

+ Q j q j dt = 0 .

. . . (7)

If the constraints are holonomic then q j are independent. (Note that if the
constraints are non-holonomic, then q j are not all independent. In this case
vanishing of the integral (7) does not imply the coefficient vanish separately) Hence
the integral (7) vanishes if and only if the coefficient must vanish separately.
d T

dt q
j

T
= Qj .

q j

. . . (8)

These are the Lagranges equations of motion for non-conservative holonomic

system.

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Theorem 4 : Deduce Hamiltons principle for conservative system from

DAlemberts principle.
Proof: We start with DAlemberts principle which states that

( F p
) r = 0 .
i

. . . (1)

We write the principle in the form

F r = p
r ,
i

where

. . . (2)

ri is the virtual displacement and occurs at a particular instant. Hence

change in time t along any path is zero.

Now consider

p
r = m r

r ,
i

i i

=
i

r
i =

Since we have

.
d
d




m
r

m
r

r
( i i i) i i ( i)
dt
dt
i

d
ri ,
dt

therefore we write
d

p
r = dt m r
r 2 m r

i

i i

i i

p
r = dt m r
r T
i

i i

. . . (3)

where
1
T = mi r
i 2
i 2
is the kinetic energy of the system. Substituting equation (3) in equation (2) we get
d

F r = dt m r
r T
i

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i i

. . . (4)

Page No. 165

Since the force is conservative Fi =

V
.
ri

d
V

mi r
i ri = T
ri

.
dt i
i ri

= T V

Integrating the above equation with respect to t between t0 to t1 we get

t1

=
m
r

i i i
Ldt .
i
t0
t0

Since, there is no variation in co-ordinates along any paths at the end points.
t

i.e. ( ri )t1 = 0 . Hence from above equation we have

0

t1

Ldt = 0 .

. . . (5)

t0

This is the required Hamiltons principle for conservative systems.

Derivation of Lagranges equations of motion from Hamiltons Principle :

Theorem 5 : Show that the Lagranges equations are necessary conditions for the

action to have a stationary value.

Proof: We know the action of a particle is defined by
t1

I = Ldt

. . . (1)

t0

where L is the Lagrangian of the system. Consider

t1

I = Ldt ,
t0
t1
L

L
qj +
q
j dt
=

j
j q

t0
j q j

As there is no variation in time along any path, hence t = 0 .

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t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt =

Since

dq j

dt

1
L
L
q j dt +
q
j dt.


q j

q
j
j
t0

d
( q j ) ,
dt

therefore, we write
t1

t1

1
L
L d
Ldt =
q j dt +
( q j )dt
q j
q
j dt
t0
t0 j
t0 j

. . . (2)

Integrating the second integral on the r. h. s. of equation (2) we get

t1

t1
L

d L
L
Ldt =
q j dt +
qj

q j
t0
t0 j
j q
j
t0 j dt q
j
t1

t1

t0

q j dt.

Since there is no variation in the co-ordinates along any path at the end points, hence
change in the co-ordinates at the end points is zero. i.e.,

( q )

t1

= 0.

j t
0

Thus we have
t1

t1

Ldt =
t0

t0

q j

d L

dt q
j

q j dt.

. . . (3)

If the system is holonomic, then all the generalized co-ordinates are linearly
independent and hence we have
t1

t1

Ldt = 0
j

q j

d L

dt q
j

t0

t0

t1

L d L

q j dt q
j

Ldt = 0
t0

= 0.

q j dt = 0

. . . (4)

These are the required Lagranges equations of motion derived from the Hamiltons
principle. The equation (4) also shows that the Lagranges equations of motion for
holonomic system are necessary and sufficient conditions for action to have a
stationary value.
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Worked Examples
Example 1 : Use Hamiltons principle to find the equations of motion of a particle of

unit mass moving on a plane in a conservative force field.

Solution: Let the force F be conservative and under the action of which the particle

of unit mass be moving on the xy plane. Let P (x, y) be the position of the particle.
We write the force

F = iFx + jFy .
Since F is conservative, we have therefore,

Fx =

V
V
, Fy =
.
x
y

The kinetic energy of the particle is given by

T=

1 2
x
+ y
2 ) .
(
2

Hence the Lagrangian of the particle becomes

L=

1 2
x
+ y
2 ) V ( x, y ) .
(
2

. . . (1)

The Hamiltons principle states that

t1

Ldt = 0,

. . . (2)

t0
t1

x x + y y + x
x
+ y
y
dt = 0 ,

t0

t1

( x
x
+ y
y
) x x y y dt = 0 .

. . . (3)

t0

Consider
t1

t1

t0

t0

= x

x
xdt

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d
( x )dt
dt
Page No. 168

Integrating by parts we get

t1

t1

= ( x
x )t1


x ( x )dt .
x
xdt
t

t0

t0

Since x = 0 at both the ends t0 and t1 along any path, therefore,

t1

t1

t0

t0

t1

t1

t0

t0

=


x ( x )dt .
x
xdt

. . . (4)

Similarly, we have

=


y ( y )dt .
y
ydt

. . . (5)

Substituting these values in equation (3) we get

V
t

x + x
0
t1

y+
x +


y

y dt = 0 .

Since x and y are independent and arbitrary, then we have

x+

V
= 0,
x

y+

V
= 0.
y

V
= Fx ,
x
V



y=
= Fy .
y

x=

. . . (6)

These are the equations of motion of a particle of unit mass moving under the action
of the conservative force field.
Example 2: Use Hamiltons principle to find the equation of motion of a simple

pendulum.
Solution: In case of a simple pendulum, the only generalized co-ordinate is , and

the Lagrangian is given by (Refer Ex. 26 of Chapter I)

L=

1 2
2
ml mgl (1 cos ) .
2

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. . . (1)

Page No. 169

The Hamiltons Principle states that the path followed by the pendulum is one along
which the line integral of Lagrangian is extremum. i.e.,
t1

Ldt = 0 ,
t0
t1

2 ml

2

t0

mgl (1 cos ) dt = 0 ,

t1

mgl sin dt = 0 .
ml

t0

Since, we have

d
d
= .
dt dt

Therefore
t1

ml
dt ( ) mgl sin dt = 0 .
2

t0

Integrating the first integral by parts we get

ml 2

t1
t0

t1

m l 2

+ gl sin dt = 0 .
t0

Since ( )t1 = 0 , we have therefore,

0

t1

m l

+ gl sin dt = 0 .
2

t0

As is arbitrary, we have

l 2

+ gl sin = 0
g


+ sin = 0 .
l

This is the required equation of motion of the simple pendulum.

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Spherical Pendulum :

Example 3 : A particle of mass m is moving on the surface of the sphere of radius r

in the gravitational field. Use Hamiltons principle to show the equation of motion is
given by

p2 cos
2 4

m r sin

g
sin = 0 ,
r

where p is the constant of angular momentum.

Solution: Let a particle of mass m be moving on the surface of a sphere of radius r.

The particle has two degrees of freedom and hence two generalized co-ordinates

, . The Lagrangian of the motion is (Refer Ex. 28 of Chapter I) given by

L=

1 2
2
mr + sin 2
2 mgr cos .
2

. . . (1)

The Hamiltons Principle states that the path followed by the particle between two
time instants t0 and t1 is one along which the line integral of Lagrangian is
extremum. i.e.,
t1

Ldt = 0 ,
t0
t1

2 mr (

1

t0

+ sin 2
2 mgr cos dt = 0,

t1

+ sin
mr (
2

+ sin cos
2 ) + mgr sin dt = 0.

t0

Since, we have

d d
= .
dt dt

Therefore,
t1

mr

t0

d

2
2

d

2
( ) + sin ( ) + mr sin cos + mgr sin dt = 0.
dt
dt

Integrating the first two integrals by parts we get

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mr
2

t1
t0

+ mr sin
2

t1

) mr

t1

t0

t0

2 g
sin cos sin dt
r

t1

mr 2
t0

Since

t1

( )t

d
sin 2
dt = 0.
dt

= 0 = ( )t1 ,
0

we have therefore,
t1

1
2
g

2
2 d
2
t mr

sin cos
r sin dt + t mr dt sin
dt = 0
0
0

Since and are independent and arbitrary, hence we have

g
r

sin cos
2 sin = 0,

mr 2

d
sin 2
= 0 mr 2 sin 2
= p ( const.)
dt

Eliminating
we obtain

p2 cos
2 4

m r sin

g
sin = 0 .
r

. . . (2)

as the required differential equation of motion for spherical pendulum.

Unit 2:

Hamiltonian Formulation :

Introduction:

We have developed Lagrangian formulation as a description of mechanics in

terms of the generalized co-ordinates and generalized velocities with time t as a
parameter in Chapter I and the equations of motion were used to solve some
problems. We now introduce another powerful formulation in which the independent
variables are the generalized co-ordinates and the generalized momenta known as
Hamiltons formulation. This formulation is an alternative to the Lagrangian
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formulation but proved to be more convenient and useful, particularly in dealing with
problems of modern physics. Hence all the examples solved in the Chapter I can also
be solved by the Hamiltonian procedure. As an illustration few of them are solved in
this Chapter by Hamiltons procedure.

The Hamiltonian Function:

The

quantity

p q

j

when

expressed

in

terms

of

q1 , q2 ,..., qn , p1 , p2 ,... pn , t is called Hamiltonian and it is denoted by H.

H = H ( q j , p j , t ) = p j q
j L .

Thus

Hamiltons Canonical Equations of Motion :

Theorem 6 : Define the Hamiltonian and hence derive the Hamiltons canonical

equations of motion.
Proof : We know the Hamiltonian H is defined as

H = H ( q j , p j , t ) = p j q
j L .

. . . (1)

Consider

H = H (qj , p j ,t ) .

. . . (2)

We find from equation (2) that

dH =
j

H
H
H
dp j +
dq j +
dt .
p j
t
j q j

. . . (3)

Now consider H = p j q
j L .
j

Similarly we find
dH = q
j dp j + dq
j p j dL,
j

dH = q
j dp j + dq
j p j
j

L
L
L
dq j
dq
j dt .

j
q j
t
j q

. . . (4)

We know the generalized momentum is defined as

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pj =

L
.
q
j

Hence equation (4) reduces to

dH = q
j dp j
j

L
L
dq j dt
q j
t

. . . (5)

Now comparing the coefficients of dp j , dq j and dt in equations (3) and (5) we get
q
j =

H
,
p j

L
H
L
H
=
,
=
.
q j
q j
t
t

. . . (6)

However, from Lagranges equations of motion we have

p
j =

L
q j

Hence equations (6) reduce to

q
j =

H
,
p j

p
j =

H
q j

. . . (7)

These are the required Hamiltons canonical equations of motion. These are the set of
2n first order differential equations of motion and replace the n Lagranges second
order equations of motion.

Derivation of Hamiltons equations of motion from Hamiltons Principle :

Theorem 7 : Obtain Hamiltons equations of motion from the Hamiltons principle.

Proof: We know the action of a particle is defined by
t1

I = Ldt

. . . (1)

t0

where L is the Lagrangian of the system. If H ( p j , q j , t ) is the Hamiltonian of the

motion then we have by definition
H = p j q
j L .

. . . (2)

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Replacing L in equation (1) by using (2) we have the action in mechanics as

t1
t1

I = Ldt = p j q
j H dt .
t0
t0 j

. . . (3)

Now by Hamiltons principle, we have

t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt = 0 p j q
j H dt = 0 .

. . . (4)

This is known as the modified Hamiltons principle. Thus we have

t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt = p j q
j H dt ,
t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt = p j q
j + p j q
j
j

H
H
H
qj pj
t dt.
q j
t
j p j

Since time is fixed along any path, hence change in time along any path is zero. i.e.,

t = 0 along any path. Hence above equation becomes

t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt = q
j
j

H
p j

H
q j dt
p j + p j q
j
j
j q j

. . . (5)

Now consider the integral

t1

t1

p q
dt = p
j

t0

t0

d
( q j ) dt .
dt

Integrating the integral on the r. h. s. by parts we get

t1

t1


p

q
dt
=
p

q
t j j j j j j t j p
j q j dt .
t0
0
0
t1

t1

Since ( q j )t = 0 . We have therefore

0

t1

t1

p j q
j dt = p
j q j dt .
t0

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t0

Page No. 175

Substituting this in equation (5) we get

t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt = q
j
j

H
p j

H
p j + p
j +
q j
j

q j dt .

Now we see that

t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt = 0 q
j
j

H
p j

H
p j + p
j +
q j
j

q j dt = 0 .

For holonomic system we have q j , p j are independent, hence

t1

Ldt = 0 q
j
t0
t1

Ldt = 0 q
j =
t0

H
= 0,
p j
H
,
p j

p
j +

p
j =

H
= 0.
q j

H
.
q j

. . . (6)

These are the Hamiltons canonical equations of motion.

Remark :

We see from equation (6) that the Hamiltons canonical equations of motion
are the necessary and sufficient conditions for the action to have stationary value.
Example 4 : Show that addition of the total time derivative of any function of the

form f ( q j , t ) to the Lagrangian of a holonomic system, the generalized momentum

and the Jacobi integral are respectively given by
pi +

f
f
and H
.
qi
t

Does the new Lagrangian L unchanged the Hamiltons principle? Justify your
claim.
Solution: Let the new Lagrangian function after addition of the time derivative of

any function of the form f ( q j , t ) to the Lagrangian L be denoted by L . Thus we

have

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 176

L = L +

df
.
dt

. . . (1)

Thus the generalized momentum corresponding to the new Lagrangian L is defined

by

Thus

pj =

L
.
q
j

pj =

+
q
j q
j

pj = p j +
pj = p j +

. . . (2)
df

dt

f
f
q
k +

q
j k qk
t

f
.
q j

. . . (3)

This is the required generalized momentum corresponding to the new Lagrangian L .

Similarly, the Jacobi integral for new function L is given by
H = pj q
j L,
j

H =
j

L
df

q
j L +
q
j
dt

On using equation (3) we get

f
H = pj +

q j
j

df

q
j L +
dt

f
H = ( p j q
j L ) ,
t
j
H = H

f
.
t

. . . (4)

This is a required Jacobi integral for the new Lagrangian L .

Now we show that the new Lagrangian L also satisfies the Hamiltons principle.
Therefore, consider
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Page No. 177

Ldt = Ldt +

df
dt ,
dt

Ldt = Ldt + df ,
Ldt = Ldt + ( f )1 ,
2

1
2

f
f
Ldt = Ldt +
qj + t .
t
1
1
j q j
1
2

But in variation time is held fixed along any path and hence t = 0 along any
path.
Further, co-ordinates at the end points are held fixed.

( q )

j 1

= 0.

Hence we have from the above equation that

2

Ldt = Ldt .
Thus the Hamiltons Principle
2

Ldt = 0 Ldt = 0 .
This shows that the new Lagrangian L satisfies the Hamiltons principle.

Lagrangian from Hamiltonian and conversely :

Example 5: Obtain Lagrangian L from Hamiltonian H and show that it satisfies

Lagranges equations of motion.

Solution: The Hamiltonian H is defined by
H = p j q
j L .

. . . (1)

which satisfies the Hamiltons canonical equations of motion.

q
j =
Classical Mechanics

H
,
p j

p
j =

H
q j

. . . (2)
Page No. 178

Now from equation (1) we find the Lagrangian

L = p j q
j H .

. . . (3)

and show that it satisfies Lagranges equations of motion. Thus from equation (3) we
have
L
H
=
, and
q j
q j

L
= pj .
q
j

Now consider
L d L

q j dt q
j

H d
( pj ),
=
q j dt

L d L

q j dt q
j

= p
j p
j ,

L d L

q j dt q
j

= 0.

This shows that the equation (3) gives the required Lagrangian which satisfies the
Lagranges equations of motion.
Example 6 : Obtain the Hamiltonian H from the Lagrangian and show that it

satisfies the Hamiltons canonical equations of motion.

Solution: The Hamiltonian H in terms of Lagrangian L is defined as
H = p j q
j L .

. . . (1)

where L satisfies the Lagranges equations of motion viz.,

L d L

q j dt q
j

Classical Mechanics

= 0 ,

. . . (2)

L d L
=
,
q j dt q
j
d
= ( p j ).
dt
Page No. 179

L
= p
j .
q j

. . . (3)

Now from equation (1) we find

H
L
=
.
q j
q j

. . . (4)

From equations (3) and (4) we have

H
= p
j .
q j

. . . (5)

Similarly, we find from equation (1)

H
= q
j .
p j

. . . (6)

Equations (5) and (6) are the required Hamiltons equations of motion.

Physical Meaning of the Hamiltonian :

Theorem 8 :

1.

For conservative scleronomic system the Hamiltonian H represents both a

constant of motion and total energy.

2.

For conservative rheonomic system the Hamiltonian H may represent a

constant of motion but does not represent the total energy.

Proof : The Hamiltonian H is defined by

H = p j q
j L .

. . . (1)

where L is the Lagrangian of the system and

pj =

L
q
j

. . . (2)

is the generalized momentum. This implies from Lagranges equation of motion that

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Page No. 180

d L

dt q
j

p
j =

L
=
q j

. . . (3)

Differentiating equation (1) w. r. t. time t, we get

dH
L
L
L
= p
j q
j + p j q

j
q
j
q

j

j
dt
t
j
j
j q j
j q

. . . (4)

On using equations (2) and (3) in equation (4) we readily obtain

dH
L
=
dt
t

. . . (5)

Now if L does not contain time t explicitly, then from equation (5), we have
dH
=0
dt

This shows that H represents a constant of motion.

However, the condition L does not contain time t explicitly will be satisfied by
neither the kinetic energy nor the potential energy involves time t explicitly.
Now there are two cases that the kinetic energy T does not involve time t explicitly.
1.

For the conservative and scleronomic system :

In the case of conservative system when the constraints are scleronomic, the
kinetic energy T is independent of time t and the potential energy V is only function
of co-ordinates. Consequently, the Lagrangian L does not involve time t explicitly
and hence from equation (5) the Hamiltonian H represents a constant of motion.
Further, for scleronomic system, we know the kinetic energy is a homogeneous
quadratic function of generalized velocities.
T = a jk q
j q
k .

. . . (6)

j ,k

Hence by using Eulers theorem for the homogeneous quadratic function of

generalized velocities we have

q

j

Classical Mechanics

T
= 2T .
q
j

. . . (7)

Page No. 181

For conservative system we have

pj =

L T
=
.
q
j q
j

. . . (8)

Using (7) and (8) in the Hamiltonian H we get

H = 2T (T V ) ,
H = T +V = E .

. . . (9)

where E is the total energy of the system. Equation (9) shows that for conservative
scleronomic system the Hamiltonian H represents the total energy of the system.

2.

For conservative and rheonomic system :

In the case of conservative rheonomic system, the transformation equations

do involve time t explicitly, though some times the kinetic energy may not involve
time t explicitly. Consequently, neither T nor V involves t, and hence L does not
involve t. Hence in such cases the Hamiltonian may represent the constant of motion.
However, in general if the system is conservative and rheonomic, the kinetic energy
is a quadratic function of generalized velocities and is given by
T = a jk q
j q
k + a j q
j + a
j ,k

. . . (10)

where
r r
1
a jk = mi i i ,
q j qk
i 2
r r
a j = mi i i ,
q j t
i

. . . (11)

1 r
a = mi i .
t
i 2

We see from equation (10) that each term is a homogeneous function of generalized
velocities of degree two, one and zero respectively. On applying Eulers theorem for
the homogeneous function to each term on the right hand side, we readily get
Classical Mechanics

Page No. 182

 q

j

T
= 2T2 + T1 .
q
j

. . . (12)

where
T2 = a jk q
j q
k ,
j ,k

T1 = a j q
j ,
j

T0 = a

are homogeneous function of generalized velocities of degree two, one and zero
respectively. Substituting equation (12) in the Hamiltonian (1) we obtain
H = T2 T0 + V
showing that the Hamiltonian H does not represent total energy. Thus for the
conservative rheonomic systems H may represent the constant of motion but does not
represent total energy.

Cyclic Co-ordinates In Hamiltonian :

Theorem 9 : Prove that a co-ordinate which is cyclic in the Lagrangian is also cyclic

in the Hamiltonian.
Solution: We know the co-ordinate which is absent in the Lagrangian is called cyclic

co-ordinate. Thus if q j is cyclic in L

L
=0.
q j

Hence the Lagranges equation of motion reduces to

d L

dt q
j

where p j =

L
q
j

= 0

p
j = 0 ,

. . . (1)

is the generalized momentum. However, from Hamiltons

canonical equations of motion we have

p
j =

Classical Mechanics

H
.
q j

. . . (2)

Page No. 183

Equations (1) and (2) gives

H
=0.
q j

. . . (3)

This shows that the co-ordinate q j is also absent in the Hamiltonian, and
consequently, it is also cyclic in H. Thus a co-ordinate which is cyclic in the
Lagrangian is also cyclic in the Hamiltonian.

Worked Examples
Example 7 : Describe the motion of a particle of mass m moving near the surface of

the Earth under the Earths constant gravitational field by Hamiltons procedure.
Solution: Consider a particle of mass m moving near the surface of the Earth under

the Earths constant gravitational field. Let (x, y, z) be the Cartesian co-ordinates of
the projectile, z being vertical. Then the Lagrangian of the projectile is given by
L=

1
m ( x
2 + y
2 + z
2 ) mgz .
2

. . . (1)

We see that the generalized co-ordinates x and y are absent in the Lagrangian,
hence they are the cyclic co-ordinates. This implies that any change in these coordinates can not affect the Lagrangian. This implies that the corresponding
generalized momentum is conserved. In this case the generalized momentum is the
linear momentum and is conserved.
i.e.,

px = mx
= const.
p y = my
= const.

. . . (2)

pz = mz
.

This shows that the horizontal components of momentum are conserved.

The Hamiltonian of the particle is defined by
H = p j q
j L,
j

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Page No. 184

1
H = px x
+ p y y
+ pz z
m ( x
2 + y
2 + z
2 ) + mgz .
2

. . . (3)

Eliminating x
, y
, z
between equations (2) and (3) we get

1
px2 + p y2 + pz2 ) + mgz .
(
2m

H=

. . . (4)

The Hamiltons equations of motion give

p
x =

and

x
=

H
H
H
= 0, p
y =
= 0, p
z =
= mg .
x
y
z

H px
H p y
H pz
=
=
=
, y
=
, z
=
.
px m
p y m
pz m

. . . (5)

. . . (6)

From these set of equations we obtain

x = 0,


y = 0,


z = g

. . . (7)

These are the required equations of motion of the projectile near the surface of the
Earth.
Example 8 : Obtain the Hamiltonian H and the Hamiltons equations of motion of a

simple pendulum. Prove or disprove that H represents the constant of motion and
total energy.
Solution: The Example is solved earlier by various methods. The Lagrangian of the

pendulum is given by
L=

1 2
2
ml mgl (1 cos ) ,
2

. . . (1)

where the generalized momentum is given by

p =

p
L
= ml 2

= 2 .
ml

. . . (2)

The Hamiltonian of the system is given by

H = p
L,
1
H = p
ml 2
2 + mgl (1 cos ) .
2

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 185

Eliminating
we obtain
H=

p2
+ mgl (1 cos ) .
2ml 2

. . . (3)

Hamiltons canonical equations of motion are

q
j =

H
,
p j

p
j =

H
.
q j

These equations give

=

p
,
ml 2

p
= mgl sin .

. . . (4)

Now eliminating p from these equations we get

+

g
sin = 0.
l

. . . (5)

Now we claim that H represents the constant of motion.

Thus differentiating equation (3) with respect to t we get
dH p p

=
+ mgl sin
,
dt
ml 2

+ mgl sin
,

= ml 2
g

= ml 2


+ sin ,
l

dH
=0.
dt

This proves that H is a constant of motion. Now to see whether H represents total
energy or not, we consider
T +V =

Classical Mechanics

1 2
2
ml + mgl (1 cos ) .
2

Page No. 186

Using equation (4) we eliminate
from the above equation, we obtain

T +V =

p2
+ mgl (1 cos ) .
2ml 2

. . . (6)

This is as same as the Hamiltonian H from equation (3). Thus Hamiltonian H

represents the total energy of the pendulum.
Example 9: The Lagrangian for a particle moving on a surface of a sphere of radius r

is given by
L=

1 2
2
mr + sin 2
2 mgr cos .
2

Find the Hamiltonian H and show that it is constant of motion. Prove or disprove that
H represents the total energy. Is the energy of the particle constant? Justify your
claim.
Solution: We are given the Lagrangian of a particle moving on the surface of a

sphere (Spherical Pendulum) in the form

L=

1 2
2
mr + sin 2
2 mgr cos .
2

. . . (1)

We see that is a cyclic co-ordinate. This implies the corresponding generalized

momentum is conserved. i.e.

Similarly,

p =

L
= mr 2 sin 2
= const.

. . . (2)

p =

L
= mr 2
.

. . . (3)

The Hamiltonian of the particle is defined as

1
H =
p +
p mr 2
2 + sin 2
2 + mgr cos .
2

. . . (4)

Using equations (2) and (3) we obtain the Hamiltonian function

p2
1 p2
H= 2+ 2 2
2 mr
mr sin

Classical Mechanics

+ mgr cos .

. . . (5)

Page No. 187

The Hamiltons canonical equations of motion give

p
=

cos p2

mr 2 sin 3
p
= 0,

=

=

p
,
mr 2
p
mr 2 sin 2

+ mgr sin ,

. . . (6)

Eliminating p from equation (6) we get the equation of motion of spherical

pendulum as
cos p2



mr 2 3 mgr sin = 0 .
mr sin
2

(i)

. . . (7)

Now we claim that H is a constant of motion, differentiate equation (5) with

respect to t, we get
p p

p2 cos

dH p p

=
+

mgr sin
,
2
2
2
2
3
dt
mr
mr sin mr sin

Putting the values of p
, p
from equation (6) we get

2
p cos p 2
p cos p
p
dH
= 2 2 3 + mgr sin 2 4 3 2 mgr sin
m r sin mr
dt mr mr sin

dH
= 0,
dt

showing that H is a constant of motion.

(ii)

Now consider the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the spherical
pendulum, where
1 2
2
mr + sin 2
2 ,
2
V = mgr cos
T=

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 188

Thus
T +V =

1 2
2
mr + sin 2
2 + mgr cos .
2

. . . (8)

We eliminate
,
from equation (8) by using equation (6) to get

p2
1 p2
T + V = 2 + 2 2
2 mr
mr sin

+ mgr cos .

. . . (9)

We see from equations (5) and (9) that the total energy of the spherical pendulum is
the Hamiltonian of motion. Now to see it is constant or not, multiply equation (7) by

we get




mr 2

p2 cos

mgr sin
= 0
mr 2 sin 3
d
p2
d 1 2
2 d
mr
+

+ ( mgr cos ) = 0.

2
2
dt 2
dt 2mr sin dt

Integrating we get
p2
1 2
2
mr

2
2
2
2mr sin

+ ( mgr cos ) = const.

Eliminating
on using equation (6) we get

p2
1 p2
+

2 mr 2 mr 2 sin 2

+ mgr cos = const. .

. . . (10)

We see from equations (5), (9) and (10) that the Hamiltonian H represents the total
energy and the energy of the particle is conserved.
Example 10: Two mass points of mass m1 and m2 are connected by a string passing

through a hole in a smooth table so that m1 rests on the table surface and m2 hangs
suspended. Assuming m2 moves only in a vertical line, write down the Hamiltonian
for the system and hence the equations of motion. Prove or disprove that
i)

Hamiltonian H represents the constant of motion.

ii)
H represents total energy of the system.
Classical Mechanics

Page No. 189

Solution: The example is solved in Chapter I. (please refer to Example 24). The

Lagrangian of the system is given by

L=

1
1
m1 r
2 + r 2
2 + m2 r
2 + m2 g ( l r )
2
2

. . . (1)

We see that the co-ordinate is cyclic in the Lagrangian L and hence the
corresponding generalized momentum is conserved.

L
= m1r 2
= const.

. . . (2)

L
= ( m1 + m2 ) r
= const.
r

. . . (3)

p =

Similarly, we find
pr =

Now the Hamiltonian function is defined as

H = r

H=

L
L
+
L,
r

1
1
( m1 + m2 ) r
2 + m1r 2
2 m2 g ( l r ) .
2
2

Eliminating r
and
we obtain

H=

p2
pr2
+ 2 m2 g ( l r ) .
2 ( m1 + m2 ) 2m1r

. . . (4)

The Hamilton canonical equations of motion viz.,

p
j =

H
H
, q
j =
q j
p j

p
r =

p2
H
= 3 m2 g ,
r m1r

give

r
=

p
=

H
= 0.

p
H
pr
H
=
,
=
= 2 .
pr ( m1 + m2 )
p m1r

. . . (5)

. . . (6)

From equations (5) and (6) we have

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Page No. 190

( m1 + m2 )

r

p2
+ m2 g = 0 .
m1r 3

. . . (7)

This is the required equation of motion.

i)

To prove H represents a constant of motion, we differentiate equation (4)

with respect to t. Thus we have
p p

p 2 r

dH
pr p
r
=
+ 2 3 + m2 gr

dt ( m1 + m2 ) m1r
m1r

Using equations (5) and (6), we have

pr p2
p2 pr
dH
pr m2 g
m2 gpr
=

+
,
3
3
dt ( m1 + m2 ) m1r m1 + m2 ( m1 + m2 ) m1r ( m1 + m2 ) r
dH
= 0.
dt

This shows that The Hamiltonian H represents a constant of motion.

ii)

We have the kinetic and potential energies of the system are respectively
given by
1
1
m1 r
2 + r 2
2 + m2 r
2 ,
2
2
V = m2 g ( l r ) .
T=

Now consider
T +V =

1
1
m1 r
2 + r 2
2 + m2 r
2 m2 g ( l r ) .
2
2

. . . (8)

Eliminating r
and
from equation (8) on using equations (6) we obtain

T +V =

p2
pr2
+ 2 m2 g ( l r )
2 ( m1 + m2 ) 2m1r

. . . (9)

From equations (4) and (9) we see that the total energy is equal to the
Hamiltonian function. Thus Hamiltonian H represents total energy of the system. To
prove that the total energy is conserved, multiply the equation of motion (7) by r
,
we get
Classical Mechanics

Page No. 191

rr
( m1 + m2 )

p2 r

+ m2 gr
= 0 .
m1r 3

This we write as
d
r
2 d p2 d
m
m
+
+
(
)
+ ( m2 gr ) = 0 .
1
2
dt
2 dt 2m1r 2 dt

Integrating and then eliminating r
we get

p2
pr2
+ 2 + m2 gr = const. .
2 ( m1 + m2 ) 2m1r

. . . (10)

Equations (9) and (10) show that the total energy of the system is conserved.
Note : Equation (10) is the first integral of equation of motion. Its physical

significance is that the Hamiltonian H represents the constant of total energy.

Example 11: A particle of mass m is moving on a xy plane which is rotating about z

axis with angular velocity . The Lagrangian is given by

L=

1
2
2
m ( x
y ) + ( y
+ x ) V ( x, y ) .

Show that the Hamiltonian H is given by

1
( px2 + p 2y ) + px y p y x + V .
2m

H=

Find the equations of motion and hence prove or disprove that

i)

H represents a constant of motion and

ii)

H represents the total energy.

Solution: The Lagrangian of the particle is given by

L=

1
2
2
m ( x
y ) + ( y
+ x ) V ( x, y ) .

. . . (1)

where the generalized momentum px and p y are given by

px =

p
L
= m ( x
y ) x
= x + y ,
m
x

Classical Mechanics

. . . (2)

Page No. 192

py =

L
= m ( y
x )
y

The Hamiltonian H is defined by

y
=

py
m

x .

. . . (3)

x + yp

y L
H = xp

1
2
2
H = px x
+ p y y
m ( x
y ) + ( y
+ x ) + V ( x, y ) .

Using equations (2) and (3) we eliminate x
and y
from the above equation to get
the Hamiltonian of the system
H=

1
( px2 + p 2y ) + ( px y p y x ) + V .
2m

. . . (4)

The Hamiltons canonical equations of motions give

p
x =

H
V
= p y
,
x
x

H px
x
=
=
+ y,
px m

H
V
= p x
,
y
y
H p y
y
=
=
x.
px m

p
y =

. . . (5)

Solving these equations we obtain the equations which describe the motion
V
,
x
V
m (


y + 2 x
2 y ) =
y
m (


x 2 y
2 x ) =

Now to prove whether H is a constant of motion or not,

. . . (6)

differentiate equation (4)

w. r. t. t to get
dH 1
V
V
= ( px p
x + p y p
y ) + ( p
x y + px y
p
y x p y yx
) + x

+ y

.
dt m
x
y

Using (5) we have

dH
=0.
dt

This shows that H represents the constant of motion. Now to show whether H
represents total energy or not, we have the total energy of the system
E = T +V ,

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 193

E=

1
px2 + p y2 ) + V ( x, y ) .
(
2m

. . . (7)

We see from equations (4) and (7) that the Hamiltonian H does not represent total
energy.
Example 12 : A bead slides on a wire in the shape of a cycloid described by

equations
x = a ( sin ) ,

y = a (1 + cos ) , 0 2 .

Find the Hamiltonian H, hence the equations of motion. Also prove or disprove that
i)

H represents a constant of motion

ii)

H represents a total energy.

Solution: A particle describes a cycloid whose equations are

x = a ( sin ) ,

y = a (1 + cos ) , 0 2 .

. . . (1)

The kinetic energy of the particle is given by

T=

1
m ( x
2 + y
2 ) ,
2

where
x
= a
(1 cos ) ,
y
= a sin
.

Hence the kinetic energy of the particle becomes

T = ma 2
2 (1 cos ) ,

The potential energy of the particle is given by

V = mga (1 + cos ) .

Hence the Lagrangian of the particle becomes

L = ma 2
2 (1 cos ) mga (1 + cos ) .

. . . (2)

The Hamiltonian H of the particle is

L
H =

L,

Classical Mechanics

. . . (3)
Page No. 194

where from equation (2) we have

L
= p = 2ma 2
(1 cos ) .

. . . (4)

Using equations (2) and (4) in (3) we obtain the expression for Hamiltonian as
H = ma 2
2 (1 cos ) + mga (1 + cos ) .

. . . (5)

Using equation (4) we eliminate
from equation (5) to get the required Hamiltonian
H as
p2
H=
+ mga (1 + cos ) .
4ma 2 (1 cos )

. . . (6)

The Hamiltons canonical equations of motion are

p2
sin
H
p
=
=
+ mga sin ,
2
4ma (1 cos ) 2

=

p
H
=
.
2
p 2ma (1 cos )

. . . (7)

. . . (8)

From equations (7) and (8) we obtain the equation of motion of the particle

(1 cos ) +

p2
sin
g
sin = 0
3
2 4
8m a (1 cos ) 2a

. . . (9)

Eliminating p from equation (9) we obtain the equation which describes the motion
of the particle in the form
2ma 2 (1 cos )

+ ma 2 sin
2 mga sin = 0 .

. . . (10)

Now to prove
i)

H is a constant of motion, differentiate equation (6) with respect to time t we

get
2 p p

p2
dH
sin

=

mga sin
.
dt 4ma 2 (1 cos ) 4ma 2 (1 cos )2

Using equations (7) and (8) we readily get

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 195

dH
=0.
dt

This shows that the Hamiltonian H is a constant of motion.

ii)

H represents the total energy

We find from the expressions for kinetic energy and potential energy that
T + V = ma 2
2 (1 cos ) + mga (1 + cos ) .

. . . (11)

Eliminating
from equation (11) we get equation (6) that gives the required
expression for the Hamiltonian. Now multiply equation (10) by
we get



+ ma 2 sin
3 mga sin
= 0 .
2ma 2 (1 cos )
This can be written as
d
ma 2 (1 cos )
2 + mga (1 + cos ) = 0 .
dt

Integrating we get
H = T + V = ma 2
2 (1 cos ) + mga (1 + cos ) = const.

This shows that the Hamiltonian H represents the constant of total energy.
Example 13 : Obtain the Hamiltons equation of motion for a one dimensional

harmonic oscillator.
Solution: The one dimensional harmonic oscillator consists of

a mass attached to one end of a spring and other end of the

spring is fixed. If the spring is pressed and released then on
account of the elastic property of the spring, the spring exerts a
force F on the body in the opposite direction. This is called
restoring force. It is found that this force is proportional

M
x

to the displacement of the body from its equilibrium position.

Fx
F = kx

where k is the spring constant and negative sign indicates the force is opposite to the
displacement. Hence the potential energy of the particle is given by
Classical Mechanics

Page No. 196

V = Fdx,
V = kxdx + c,
V=

kx 2
+ c,
2

where c is the constant of integration. By choosing the horizontal plane passing

through the position of equilibrium as the reference level, then V=0 at x=0. This
gives c=0. Hence potential energy of the particle is
V=

1 2
kx .
2

. . . (1)

The kinetic energy of the one dimensional harmonic oscillator is

T=

1 2
mx
.
2

. . . (2)

Hence the Lagrangian of the system is

L=

1 2 1 2
mx
kx .
2
2

. . . (3)

The Lagranges equation motion gives

x + 2 x = 0, 2 =

k
.
m

. . . (4)

This is the equation of motion. is the frequency of oscillation.

The Hamiltonian H of the oscillator is defined as

x L,
H = xp

1
1

x mx
2 + kx 2 ,
H = xp
2
2

where
px =

p
L
= mx
x
= x .
x

m

Substituting this in the above equation we get the Hamiltonian

H=
Classical Mechanics

px2 1 2
+ kx .
2m 2

. . . (5)
Page No. 197

Solving the Hamiltons canonical equations of motion we readily get the equation (4)
as the equation of motion.
Example 14: For a particle the kinetic energy and potential energy is given by

respectively,
T=

1 2
1 r
2
mr
, U = 1 + 2 .
2
r c

Find the Hamiltonian H and determine

1.

whether H = T + V

2.

whether

dH
=0.
dt

Solution: The kinetic and potential energies of a particle are given by

T=

1 2
1 r
2
mr
, U = 1 + 2
r c
2

respectively. The Lagrangian function is therefore given by

L=

1 2 1 r
2
mr
1 + 2 .
2
r c

. . . (1)

We see that the particle has only one degree of freedom and hence it has only one
generalized co-ordinate. The generalized momentum is defined by
pr =

r
=

L
2r

= mr
2 ,
r

rc

pr r c 2
.
( mrc2 2 )

. . . (2)

Thus the corresponding Hamiltonian function is defined by

H = pr r
L,
1
1 r
2
H = pr r
mr
2 + 1 + 2 .
2
r c

. . . (3)

Eliminating r
between (2) and (3) we obtain the Hamiltonian H as

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 198

H=
1.

1 pr2 r c 2
1
+ .
2
2 ( mrc 2 ) r

. . . (4)

Now the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is given by

T +U =

1 2 1 r
2
mr
+ 1 + 2 .
2
r c

. . . (5)

Eliminating r
between (2) and (5) we get

2
2
2
1 pr r c ( mrc + 2 ) 1
T +U =
+ .
2 ( mrc 2 2 )2
r

. . . (6)

We see from equations (4) and (6) that the Hamiltonian H does not represent the total
energy.
T +U H .

2.

Now differentiating equation (4) w. r. t. time t we get

2
dH
p p
rc 2
pr2 rc
= r 2r

dt ( mrc 2 ) ( mrc 2 2 )2

r

,
r2

. . . (7)

where
2 2r
2

p
r =


r m 2 + 2 2 .
rc r c

Substituting this in equation (7) and simplifying we get

dH
r
3
r

= pr r

+ 2 2 2 .
dt
r c r

dH
0.
dt

This shows that the Hamiltonian H is not a constant of motion.

Example 15 : A particle is thrown horizontally from the top of a building of height h

with an initial velocity u. Write down the Hamiltonian of the problem. Show that H
represents both a constant of motion and the total energy.

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 199

Solution:

Let the particle be thrown horizontally from the top of a building of

height h with an initial velocity u. The motion

of the particle is in a plane. If P (x, y) are the
position co-ordinates of the particle at any
instant, then its kinetic energy and the potential

P(x, y)

energy are respectively given by

h
y

T=

1
m ( x
2 + y
2 ) ,
2

V = mg ( h y ) .

. . . (1)
. . . (2)

Hence the Lagrangian of the particle becomes

L=

1
m ( x
2 + y
2 ) + mg ( h y ) .
2

. . . (3)

The particle has two degrees of freedom and hence two generalized co-ordinates. We
see that the generalized co-ordinate x is cyclic in L, hence the corresponding
generalized momentum is conserved.

L
= mx
= const.
x

L
py =
= my
.
y

px =

. . . (4)

The Hamiltonian function H is defined as

H = p j q
j L
j

1
H = px x
+ p y y
m ( x
2 + y
2 ) mh ( h y )
2

. . . (5)

Eliminating the velocities from equations (4) and (5) we obtain the Hamiltonian of
motion as
Classical Mechanics

Page No. 200

H=

1
px2 + p 2y ) mg ( h y ) .
(
2m

. . . (6)

The corresponding Hamiltons canonical equations of motion are

x
=

H px
H p y
=
, y
=
=
,
px m
p y m
p
x =

and

H
= 0,
x

p
y =

H
= mg.
y

Solving these equations we get the equations of motion as

x = 0,


y = g .

. . . (7)

Now differentiating equation (6) with respect to t we get

dH 1
= ( px p
x + p y p
y ) + mgy

dt m

dH
= 0,
dt

This proves that H is a constant of motion.

Now to see whether H represents total energy or not, we consider
T +V =

1
m ( x
2 + y
2 ) mg ( h y )
2

Putting the values of x
and y
we obtain the expression for the Hamiltonian as
T +V =

1
px2 + p y2 ) mg ( h y ) .
(
2m

. . . (8)

This represents the Hamiltonian H, proving that H represents the total energy of the
particle.

Example 16: A particle is constrained to move on the arc of a parabola x 2 = 4ay

under the action of gravity. Show that the Hamiltonian of the system is
2a 2 px2
mg 2
H=
+
x .
2
2
m ( 4a + x ) 4 a
Classical Mechanics

Page No. 201

Is the Hamiltonian of the particle representing total energy? Is it a constant of

motion?
Solution: Given that a particle is constrained to move on the arc of the parabola

x 2 = 4ay

. . . (1)

where y is vertical axis, under the action of gravity. The kinetic energy of the particle
is given by
T=

1
m ( x
2 + y
2 )
2

. . . (2)

and the potential energy is given by

V = mgy .

. . . (3)

However, x and y are not the generalized co-ordinates, because they are related by
the constraint equation (1). Eliminating y from equations (2) and (3) on using (1) we
obtain
T=

1 2
x2
x2
mx
1 + 2 , V =
mg .
2
4a
4a

Hence the Lagrangian function is

L=

1 2
x2 x2
mx
1 + 2 mg .
2
4a 4a

. . . (4)

Now we see that the system has one degree of freedom and only one generalized coordinate x.

px =

x
=

L
x2
= mx
1 + 2 ,
x

4a

4a 2 px
.
m ( 4a 2 + x 2 )

. . . (5)

Now the Hamiltonian H becomes

x L
H = xp

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Page No. 202


x H = xp

1 2
x2 x2
mx
1 + 2 +
mg .
2
4a 4a

. . . (6)

On using (5) we write equation (6) as

2a 2 px2
mgx 2
+
.
H=
4a
m ( 4a 2 + x 2 )

. . . (7)

This is the required Hamiltonian function. Now to see whether this H represents total
energy or not, we consider
1 2
x2 x2


T+V = mx 1 + 2 +
mg .
2
4 a 4a

. . . (8)

Using equation (5) we obtain

2a 2 px2
mgx 2
T +V =
+
.
4a
m ( 4a 2 + x 2 )

. . . (9)

Which is the Hamiltonian of the motion, showing that it represent the total energy of
the particle. Now to show that the Hamiltonian H represents constant of motion, we
first find the equation of motion. From equation (4) we have
L
m
mgx
= 2 xx
2
,
x 4a
2a
L
x2
= 1 + 2 mx
.
x
4a

Hence the equation of motion becomes

d L L
=0

dt x
x

( 4a

d
x2 m
mgx
2
= 0,
1 + 2 mx
2 xx
+
dt 4a 4a
2a

+ x 2 )


x + xx
2 + 2agx = 0 .

. . . (10)

Now differentiating equation (7) with respect to t we get

x2
xxp
dH 4a 2 px p
x
+ mg xx
.
=

2
2
2
dt
m ( 4 a + x ) ( 4a 2 + x 2 ) 2 a

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Page No. 203

Eliminating px , p
x we obtain
dH
m
= 2 ( 4a 2 + x 2 )


x + xx
2 + 2agx x
.
dt 4a

This implies from equation (10) that

dH
=0.
dt

This shows that the Hamiltonian H is a constant of motion.

Example 17 : Set up the Hamiltonian for the Lagrangian
L ( q, q
, t ) =

m 2 2
q
sin t + qq
sin 2t + q 2 2 .
2

Derive the Hamiltons equations of motion. Reduce the equations in to a single

second order differential equation.
Solution: The Lagrangian of the system is given by
L ( q, q
, t ) =

m 2 2
q
sin t + qq
sin 2t + q 2 2
2

. . . (1)

The system has only one degree of freedom and hence only one generalized coordinate q. The generalized momentum is given by
p=
q
=

L m
= ( 2q
sin 2 t + q sin 2t )
q
2

1 p q

sin 2t .
2

sin t m 2

. . . (2)

. . . (3)

Now the Hamiltonian function H is defined as

H = pq

m 2 2
q
sin t + qq
sin 2t + q 2 2 ) .
(
2

. . . (4)

Substituting the value of q
from equation (3) in (4) and simplifying we get
H=

p2
q 2 m 2
m

pq

cot

t
+
cos 2 t q 2 2 .
2
2m sin t
2
2

. . . (5)

This is the Hamiltonian of the system. The Hamiltons canonical equations of motion
give

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 204

q
=
and

H
p
=
q cot t .
p m sin 2 t

. . . (6)

p
= p cot t q 2 m cos 2 t + mq 2 .

. . . (7)

From equation (6) we find

p=

m
2q
sin 2 t + q sin 2t
2

. . . (8)

Differentiating equation (8) w. r. t. t we get

p
=

m
2q

sin 2 t + 4q
sin t cos t + q
sin 2t + 2q 2 cos 2t . . . (9)
2

Equating equations (7) and (9) we get

q

+ 2 q
cot t 2q 2 = 0 .

. . . (10)

This equation determines the motion of the particle.

Example 18 : A Lagrangian of a system is given by
L ( x, y, x
, y
) =

where

m
k


+ cy
2 ) ( ax 2 + 2bxy + cy 2 ) ,
ax
2 + 2bxy
(
2
2

a, b, c, k , m are constants and b 2 ac 0 . Find the Hamiltonian and

equations of motion. Examine the particular cases a = 0, c = 0 and b = 0, c = a .

Solution: Given that
L ( x, y, x
, y
) =

where

m
k


+ cy
2 ) ( ax 2 + 2bxy + cy 2 ) ,
ax
2 + 2bxy
(
2
2

. . . (1)

a, b, c, k , m are constants and b 2 ac 0 . We see that the system has two

generalized co-ordinates x and y. Hence the corresponding generalized momenta are

and

px =

L
= m ( ax
+ by
) ,
x

. . . (2)

py =

L
= m ( bx
+ cy
) .
y

. . . (3)

Solving these equations for x
and y
we get

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 205

x
=

cpx bp y
m ( b ac )
2

y
=

bpx ap y
m ( b 2 ac )

. . . (4)

The Hamiltonian H is defined by

H = p j q
j L,
j

H = px x
+ p y y

m
k


+ cy
2 ) + ( ax 2 + 2bxy + cy 2 ) . ...(5)
ax
2 + 2bxy
(
2
2

Using equations (4) in (5) we obtain after simplifying

H=

1
a
c k

bpx p y p y2 px2 + ( ax + 2bxy + cy 2 ) .. . . (6)

2
2 2
m ( b ac )
2

This is the required Hamiltonian of the system. The Hamiltons equations of motion
corresponding to two generalized co-ordinates x, y are
H
= k ( ax + by ) ,
x
H
p
y =
= k ( bx + cy ) .
y
p
x =

. . . (7)

and
x
=

1
H
=
( bp y cpx )
2
px m ( b ac )

H
1
=
y
=
( bpx cp y )
2
p y m ( b ac )

. . . (8)

From equations (2), (3) and (7) we have

m ( ax

+ by

) + k ( ax + by ) = 0,
m ( bx

+ cy

) + k ( bx + cy ) = 0.

. . . (9)

These are the required equations of motion. Solving these equations for
x
and
y
we
obtain respectively

Classical Mechanics

mx

+ kx = 0.

. . . (10)

my

+ ky = 0.

. . . (11)
Page No. 206

The solutions of these equations are

and

k
k
x = c1 cos t + c2 sin t ,
m
m

. . . (12)

k
k
y = d1 cos t + d 2 sin t.
m
m

. . . (13)

Now the cases a = 0, c = 0 and b = 0, c = a yield from equations (9) the same set
of equations (10) and (11).
Example 19 : The Lagrangian for a system can be written as
L = ax
2 + b

y



+ gy
k x 2 + y 2 ,


+ fy 2 xz
+ czy
x

where a, b, c, f, g and k are constants. What is Hamiltonian? What quantities are

conserved ?
Solution: The Lagrangian of the system is
L = ax
2 + b

y



+ gy
k x 2 + y 2 ,


+ fy 2 xz
+ czy
x

. . . (1)

where a, b, c, f, g and k are constants. The system has three degrees of freedom and
has three generalized co-ordinates (x, y, z), of which z is cyclic. This implies the
corresponding generalized momentum pz is conserved.

pz =

L
= cy
+ fy 2 x
= const.
z

. . . (2)

Similarly, we find

and

px =

L
= 2ax
+ fy 2 z
,
x

. . . (3)

py =

L b
= + cz
+ g .
y
x

. . . (4)

Solving these equations for x
, y
, z
we get

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 207

x
=

1
fy 2
b

x
py g ,

2a
c
x

1
fy 2
fy 2
b

y
= pz
p

x
py g ,
c
2a
c
x

1
b

z
= p y g .
c
x

. . . (5)

The Hamiltonian of the system is defined as

H = px x
+ p y y
+ pz z
L

p y y+p

z z
ax
2 b
H = px x+

y



fy 2 xz


gy
+ k x 2 + y 2 .
cxy
x

. . . (6)

The required Hamiltonian is obtained by eliminating x
, y
, z
from equation (6).

Unit 3: Rouths Procedure :

Introduction:

The presence of cyclic co-ordinates in the Lagrangian L is not much

profitable because even if the co-ordinate q j does not appear in L, the corresponding
generalized momentum q
j generally does, so that one has to deal the problem with all
variables and the system has n degrees of freedom. However, if q j is cyclic in the
Hamiltonian then p j is constant and then one has to deal with the problem involving
only 2n-2 variables, i.e., only n-1 degrees of freedom. Hence Hamiltonian procedure
is especially adapted to the problems involving cyclic co-ordinates. The advantage of
Hamiltonian formulation in handling with cyclic co-ordinates is utilized by Routh
and devised a method by combining with the Lagrangian procedure and the method
is known as Rouths Procedure. The Method is described in the following theorem.

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 208

Theorem 10: Describe the Rouths procedure to solve the problem involving cyclic

and non-cyclic co-ordinates.

Proof: Consider a system of particles involving both cyclic and non-cyclic co-

ordinates. Let q1 , q2 , q3 ,..., qs of q1 , q2 , q3 ,..., qn are cyclic co-ordinates, then a new

function R, known as the Routhian is defined as
s

R ( q1 , q2 ,..., qn ; p1 , p2 ,..., ps ; q
s +1 , q
s + 2 ,..., q
n , t ) = p j q
j L ( q j , q
j , t ) . . . (1)

j =1

The Routhian R is obtained by modifying the Lagrangian L so that it is no longer a

function of the generalized velocities corresponding to the cyclic co-ordinates, but
instead involves only its conjugate momentum. The advantage in doing so is that p j
can then be considered one of the constants of integration and the remaining
integrations involve only the non-cyclic co-ordinates.
Now we take R = R ( q1 , q2 ,..., qn ; p1 , p2 ,..., ps ; q
s +1 , q
s + 2 ,..., q
n , t ) , and find the total
differential dR as
n

s
R
R
dq j +
dp j +
j =1 q j
j =1 p j

dR =

q
dq

j = s +1

R
dt .
t

. . . (2)

Now we consider
s

R = p j q
j L ( q j , q
j , t )
j =1

and find the total differential as

s

j =1

j =1

j =1

j =1

dR = p j dq
j + q
j dp j dL,
n

n
L
L
L
dq j
dq
j dt.

j
t
j =1 q j
j =1 q

dR = p j dq
j + q
j dp j

Classical Mechanics

Page No. 209

s
s
s L
dR = p j dq
j + q
j dp j
dq j +
j =1 q
j =1
j =1
j

s L

dq
j +
j =1 q

j

q dq

j = s +1
n

q
dq

j = s +1

L
dt.

n
L
L
dq j
dq j
j =1 q j
j = s +1 q j

dR = q
j dp j
j =1

q
dq

j = s +1

L
dt.
t

. . . (3)

Now equating the corresponding coefficients on both the sides of equations (2) and
(3) we obtain
R
= q
j ,
p j

and

j = 1, 2,..., s

. . . (4)

R
L
=
= p
j ,
q j
q j

j = 1, 2,..., s

. . . (5)

R
L
=
= p
j ,
q j
q j

j = s + 1, s + 2,..., n

. . . (6)

R
L
=
= pj,
q
j
q
j

j = s + 1, s + 2,..., n

. . . (7)

We see that for cyclic co-ordinates q1 , q2 ,..., qs equations (4) and (5) represent
Hamiltons equations of motion with R as the Hamiltonian, while equations (6) and
(7) for the non-cyclic co-ordinates q j

( j = s + 1, s + 2,..., n )

represent Lagranges

equations of motion with R as the Lagrangian function. i.e., from equations (6) and
(7) we obtain
d R

dt q
j

R
= 0,

q j

j = s + 1, s + 2,..., n

. . . (8)

Thus by Routhian procedure a problem involving cyclic and non-cyclic co-ordinates

can be solved by solving Lagranges equations for non-cyclic co-ordinates with
Classical Mechanics

Page No. 210

Routhian R as the Lagrangian function and solving Hamiltonian equations for the
given cyclic co-ordinates with R as the Hamiltonian function. In this way The
Routhian has a dual character Hamiltonian H and the Lagrangian L.

Worked Examples
Example 20 : Find Lagrangian L, Hamiltonian H and the Routhian R in spherical

polar co-ordinates for a particle moving in space under the action of conservative
force.
Solution: Let a particle be moving in a space. If (x, y, z) are the Cartesian co-

ordinates and ( r , , ) are the spherical co-ordinates of the particle, then we have the
relation between them as
x = r sin cos ,
y = r sin sin ,

. . . (1)

z = r cos .

The kinetic energy T =

1
m ( x
2 + y
2 + z
2 )
2

of the particle, in spherical polar co-

ordinates becomes
T=

1
m r
2 + r 2
2 + r 2 sin 2
2 .
2

. . . (2)

Since the force is conservative, hence the potential energy of the particle is the
function of position only.

V = V ( r , , ) .

. . . (3)

Hence the Lagrangian function of the particle becomes

L=

1
m r
2 + r 2
2 + r 2 sin 2
2 V ( r , , ) .
2

. . . (4)

We see that is cyclic in L, hence the corresponding generalized momentum is

conserved. i.e.,
Classical Mechanics

Page No. 211

p =

L
= mr 2 sin 2
= const.

. . . (5)

Similarly we find
L
= mr
,
r

L
p =
= mr 2
.

pr =

. . . (6)

Now the Hamiltonian function is defined as

H = p j q
j L,
j

1
H = pr r
+ p
+ p
m r
2 + r 2
2 + r 2 sin 2
2 + V .
2

. . . (7)

Eliminating the generalized velocities r
,
,
between equations (5), (6) and (7) we
get
H=

1 2 1 2
1
2
pr + 2 p + 2 2 p + V .
2m
r
r sin

. . . (8)

Now the Routhian R is defined by

R = p
L,

. . . (9)

This becomes after eliminating r
,
,
between (5), (6) and (9) we get

R r , , , r
,
, t =

p2

1
m r
2 + r 2
2 + V .
2mr sin 2
2

. . . (10)

Example 21 : A planet moves under the inverse square law of attractive force, Find

Lagrangian L, Hamiltonian H, and the Routhian R for the planet.

Solution: A motion of a planet is a motion in the plane. If ( r , ) are the generalized

co-ordinates of the planet then its kinetic and potential energies are respectively
given by
T=

Classical Mechanics

1
K
m r
2 + r 2
2 , V = .
2
r

Page No. 212

Hence the Lagrangian function is defined by

L=

1
K
m r
2 + r 2
2 + .
2
r

. . . (1)

We see that is the cyclic co-ordinate in L. This implies that the corresponding
angular momentum of the planet is conserved.

Also

p =

p
L
= mr 2
= const.
= 2 .

mr

. . . (2)

pr =

L
p
= mr
r
= r
r

m

. . . (3)

Now the Hamiltonian function is defined as

H = p j q
j L,
j

1
K
H = pr r
+ p
m r
2 + r 2
2
2
r

On using equations (2) and (3) we obtain

H=

1 2 p2 K
pr + 2 .
r r
2m

. . . (4)

This is the required Hamiltonian.

Now the Routhian is defined as
R ( r , , p , r
, t ) = p
L
1
K
R ( r , , p , r
, t ) = p
m r
2 + r 2
2 .
2
r

Eliminating
we get
R ( r , , p , r
, t ) =

p2
1
K
mr
2 .
2
2mr
2
r

. . . (5)

p2
pr2 K

.
2mr 2 2m r

. . . (6)

This can also be written as

R ( r , , p , r
, t ) =

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Page No. 213

Principle of Least Action :

Action in Mechanics :

In Mechanics the time integral of twice the kinetic energy is called the action.
Thus
t1

A = 2Tdt
t0

is called the action.

t1

A = p j q
j dt

i.e.

t0

is called action in Mechanics.

Principle of Least Action :

There is another variational principle associated with the Hamiltonian

formulation and is known as the principle of least action. It involves a new type of
variation which we call the - variation.
In - variation the co-ordinates of the end points remain fixed while the time is
allowed to vary. The varied paths may terminate at different points, but still position
co-ordinates are held fixed.
Mathematically, we have

I =

I
d ,

I =

dI
d .
d

Thus for the family of paths represented by the equation

q j = q j ( , t ) , t = t ( )
We have
q j =

Classical Mechanics

q
dt
d = j + q
j
d .
d
d

dq j

Page No. 214

 q j

dt
q j =
d + q
j
d
d

.
q j = q j + q
j t

This shows that the total variation is the sum of two variations.

Worked Examples
Example 22 : If f = f ( q j , q
j , t ) then show that
f = f + t

df
.
dt

Solution: Consider a system of particles moving from one point to another. Let the

family of paths between these two points be given by

q j = q j ( t , ) .

. . . (1)

In variation time is not held fixed, it depends on the path. This implies that

Since

t = t ( )

. . . (2)

f = f ( q j , q
j , t )

. . . (3)

then we find variation in f as

However, we have

f
f
f
f =
q j +
q
j + t .

t
q
j
j q j

. . . (4)

q j = q j + q
j t

. . . (5)

Similarly we find
q
j = q
j + q

j t ,

. . . (6)

Using equations (5) and (6) in equation (4) we get

f
f
f
f =
q j + q
j t ) +
q
j + q

j t ) + t .
(
(

t
q
j
j q j

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Page No. 215

 f
f
f
f
f
f
f =
qj +
q
j + t +
q
j +
q

j + t

q
j
t j q j
q
j
t
j q j

Note here that the term t added because it is zero, since in variation time t is
held fixed and consequently change in time t is zero. This can be written as
f = f + t

df
.
dt

. . . (7)

Since f is arbitrary, we can write it as

= + t

d
.
dt

. . . (8)

Theorem 11 : For a conservative system for which the Hamiltonian H is conserved,

the principle of least action states that

t1

p j q
j dt = 0 .
j

t0

Proof: Consider a conservative system for which the Hamiltonian H is conserved.

Let AB be the actual path and CD be the varied path. In - variation the end points
of the two paths are not terminated at the same point. The end points A and B after
t take the positions C and D such that the position co-ordinates of A, C and B, D

are held fixed. Now we know the action is given by

t1

A = p j q
j dt
B

t0

t1

A = ( L + H )dt
t0
t1

A = Ldt + H ( t )t1 ,
t

t0

t0 t0 + t0

Classical Mechanics

t1 t1 + t1

Page No. 216

t1

A = Ldt + H ( t1 t0 ) .

. . . (1)

t0

Thus
t1

A = Ldt + H ( t )t1 .
t

. . . (2)

t0

Since time limits are also subject to change in -variation, therefore cant be
taken inside the integral. Let
t1

Ldt = I

I
= L .

t0

Therefore
I = I + I
t .

Thus we have
t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt = Ldt + L ( t )t1 .

t

t1
t1
L
L
L
t
qj +
q
j + t dt + L ( t )t1 .
Ldt =
0

q
j
t0
t0
t
j q j

Since in variation, time is held fixed along any path, hence there is no variation in
time, therefore change in time is zero. Thus we have
L

L
t
Ldt =
qj +
q
j dt + L ( t )t1 .

0
q j
q
j
t0
t0 j

t1

t1

Using Lagranges equations of motion we write this equation as

t1

t1

t0

t0

Ldt = ( p
j q j + p j q
j )dt + L ( t )t1 .

t

Since

Classical Mechanics

dq j
dt

d
qj .
dt
Page No. 217

Hence we have
t

t1

t1

t0

t0

1
1
d
t

Ldt = p
j q j + p j q j dt + L ( t )t1 .
0
dt

t0
t0 j

Ldt =

d
t1
( p j q j ) dt + L ( t )t0 .
dt j

Since
= + t

d
dt

Hence above integral becomes

t1
t1

d
t

Ldt = d p j t q j dt + L ( t )t1 .
0
dt

j
t0
t0
t1

t1

t
Ldt = p j q j p j q
j t + L ( t )t1
0
j
t0 j
t0
t0
t1

Since in variation, position co-ordinates at the end points are fixed.

( q )

t1

j t
0

= 0.

Consequently above equation reduces to

t1

Ldt = ( p j q
j L ) t
t0
j
t0
t1

t1

Ldt = ( H t )t1
t

t0

Substituting this in equation (2) we get

A = 0,
t1

i.e., p j q
j dt = 0
t0

Thus the system moves in space such that -variation of the line integral of twice
the kinetic energy is zero. This proves the principle of least action.
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Page No. 218

Example 23 : A system of two degrees of freedom is described by the Hamiltonian

H = q1 p1 q2 p2 aq12 + bq22 , a, b are const.

Show that i)

p1 aq1
,
q2

ii )

p2 bq2
,
q1

iii ) q1q2

iv) H are constant of motion.

Solution: The Hamiltonian of a dynamical system is given by

H = q1 p1 q2 p2 aq12 + bq22 , a, b are const.

. . . (1)

where we see that q1 , q2 are the generalized co-ordinates. The Hamiltons canonical
equations of motion are
p
j =

q j

p
1 = 2aq1 p1 ,

. . . (2)

p
2 = p2 2bq2 ,
and
q
j =

H
q
1 = q1
p j

. . . (3)

q
2 = q2 .
Now to show
1)

p1 aq1
is a constant of motion, consider
q2

d p1 aq1 q2 ( p
1 aq
1 ) ( p1 aq1 ) q
2

.

=
dt q2
q22
Using equations (2) and (3) we obtain
d p1 aq1

=0
dt q2

p1 aq1
= const.
q2

Similarly we prove that

p1 aq1
= const.,
q2

Classical Mechanics

p2 bq2
= const.,
q1

q1q2 = const.

Page No. 219

Now to prove the Hamiltonian H is also constant, we differentiate equation (1) with
respect to t to get
dH
= q
1 p1 + q1 p
1 q
2 p2 q2 p
2 2aq1q
1 + 2bq2 q
2 .
dt

Using equations (2) and (3) we see that

dH
= 0 H = const. .
dt

This shows that H is a constant of motion.

Example 24 : A Lagrangian for a particle of charge q moving in the electromagnetic

field of force is given by

L=

1 2
mv + q ( v A ) q .
2

Find the Hamiltonian H, the generalized momenta.

Solution: The Lagrangian of a particle moving in the electromagnetic field is given

by
L=

1 2
mv + q ( v A ) q .
2

. . . (1)

We write this expression as

L=

1

x + yA

y + zA

z ) q .
m ( x
2 + y
2 + z
2 ) + q ( xA
2

. . . (2)

where is a scalar potential function of co-ordinates only. We see that x, y, z are

the generalized co-ordinates. Hence the corresponding generalized momenta become
pj =

L
q
j

px = mx
+ qAx ,
p y = my
+ qAy ,
pz = mz
+ qAz .

Solving these equations for velocity components we get

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Page No. 220

1
( px qAx ) ,
m
1
y
= ( p y qAy ) ,
m
1
z
= ( pz qAz ) .
m
x
=

. . . (3)

The Hamiltonian of the particle is given by

H = p j q
j L,
j

1

x + yp

y + zp

x + yA

y + zA

z m ( x
2 + y
2 + z
2 ) q ( xA

z ) + q . . . (4)
H = xp
2

Eliminating x
, y
, z
from equation (4) by using equation (3) we get

H=

1
q
1 2 2
px2 + p y2 + pz2 ) ( px Ax + p y Ay + pz Az ) +
q ( Ax + Ay2 + Az2 ) + q . . (5)
(
2m
m
2m

This can be written in vector notions as

H=

2
1
p qA ) + q .
(
2m

. . . (6)

This is the required Hamiltonian of the particle moving in the electromagnetic field.
The Hamiltons equation of motion q
j =
while the equation p
j =

p
x =

H
gives the same set of equations (3),
p j

H
gives
q j

H q
q2

=
p
A
+
p
A
+
p
A

Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 ) q

.
(
(
x x
y y
z z)
x m x
2m x
x

This can be written as

p
x = q

v A) q
.
(
x
x

Similarly, other two components are given by

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Page No. 221

v A) q ,
(
y
y

p
z = q ( v A ) q .
z
z

p
y = q

All these three equations can be put in to the single equation as

p
= q + q ( v A ) .

. . . (7)

Exercise:

1.

The Lagrangian of an anharmonic oscillator of unit mass is

1 2 1 2 2
x
x x3 + xx
, , are constants.
2
2

L=

Find the Hamiltonian and the equation of motion. Show also that
(i)

H is a constant of motion

(ii)

H T +V .

Ans : H =

and

1
1
2
( px x ) + 2 x 2 + x 3 .
2
2

Equation of motion


x + 2 x + 3 x 2 = 0 .
2.

Find the Hamiltonian and the equations of motion for a particle constrained to
move on the surface obtained by revolving the line x = z about z axis. Does
it represent the constant of motion and the constant of total energy?
Hint: Surface of revolution is a cone x 2 + y 2 = z 2
p2
pr2
Ans.: H =
+
+ mgr .
4m 2mr 2

r

p2
2 3

2m r

Classical Mechanics

g
= 0,
2

p = mr 2
a const. of motion .

Page No. 222

3.

Let a particle be moving in a field of force given by

1 r
2 2rr


F = 2 1
.
r
c2
Find the Hamiltonian H and show that it represents the constant of motion
and also total energy.
Ans. : Refer Example (25) of Chapter I; the potential energy of the particle is

given by
1 r
2
V = 1 + 2 .
r c
The Hamiltonian becomes H =

4.

pr2
2

2 m 2
rc

1
.
r

A sphere of radius a and mass m rests on the top of a fixed trough sphere of
radius b. The first sphere is slightly displaced so that it rolls without
slipping. Obtain the Hamiltonian of the system and hence the equation of
motion. Also prove that H represents a constant of motion and also total
energy.
Ans. : H =

5.

7
2
m ( a + b )
2 + mg ( a + b ) cos .
10

A particle is constrained to move on the plane curve xy = c , c is a constant,

under gravity. Obtain the Hamiltonian H and the equations of motion. Prove
that the Hamiltonian H represents the constant of motion and total energy.
Ans. : Refer Example (20) of Chapter I for the Lagrangian L and is given by

L=

1 2 c 2 mgc
mx
1 + 4
.
2
x
x

The Hamiltonian H becomes H =

Classical Mechanics

px2
c
2m 1 + 4
x
2

mgc
.
x

Page No. 223

6.

A body of mass m is thrown up an inclined plane which is moving

horizontally with constant velocity v. Use Hamiltons procedure to find the
equations of motion. Prove that the Hamiltonian H represents the constant of
motion but does not represent the total energy.
Ans. : For the Lagrangian function, refer Example (28) of Chapter I. The

Hamiltonian of motion is

H=
7.

pr2
1

pr v cos + mgr sin mv 2 sin 2 .

2m
2

A particle moves on the surface characterized by

x = r cos ,

y = r sin , z = r cot .

Find the Hamiltonian H and prove that it represents the constant of motion
and also the constant of total energy.
2

p
p 2 sin 2
+ 2 + mgr cot .
Ans. : H = r
2m
2mr

The equation of motion is

r r sin 2
2 + g cos sin = 0 .
8.

Find the Hamiltonian and the Hamiltons canonical equations of motion for
the Lagrangian given by
1
1
2
L r , r
, ,
= m r
2 + r 2
2 + mgr cos k ( r r0 ) ,
2
2

where k , m, g , r0 are constants.

Ans : H =

p2
pr2
1
2
+ 2 mgr cos + k ( r r0 )
2m 2mr
2

Equations of motion:
mr

mr
2 mg cos + k ( r r0 ) = 0,

2
r

+ r

+

g
sin = 0.
r

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Page No. 224